_; 



THE 



USEFUL COMPANION 



ARTIFICER'S ASSISTANT. 



CONTAIXING 



EVERYTHING FOR EVERYBODY, 



INCLUDING 



NEARLY SIX THOUSAND VALUABLE RECIPES 



AND A GKEAT VARIETY OF 

GENERAL IXFORMATTOX AND IXSTRUCTION IN 

ALMOST EVERY BRANCH OF SCIENCE AND 

INDUSTRY KNOWN THROUGHOUT 

THE CIVILIZED 

WORLD. 






b 







^mw ?i?.3>..y 



/c*^^ 



NEW YORK : 

THE EMPIRE STATE PUBLISHING CO. 

r 



- ( 



TT 






Copyright. 

C. H. SMITH. 

1876. 



BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY REPRESENTED IN THIS WORK. 



This book will be found valuable to persons pursuing any of the follow- 
ing named Trades, Occupations, or Professions. More than Two Hun- 
dred different Branches of Business are herein represented. It should be 
in every Machine Shop, Manufactory, Counting House, and Family. 
No Farmer, Mechanic, or Apprentice sliould be without a copy : — 



Apprentices. 

Architects. 

Artists. 

Accountants. 

Artificial Flower Manufacturers. 

Boiler Makers. 

Blacksmiths. 

Brass Founders. 

Bell Founders. 

Button Manufacturers. 

Boot and Shoe Makers. 

Book Binders. 

Bronzers. 

Barbers. 

Brewers. 

Bakers. 

Brass Tube Manufacturers. 

Bleachers. 

Burnisliers. 

Bricklayers. 

Billiard & Bowling Saloon Keepers. 

Bookkeepers. 

Blind, Door, and Sash Makers. 

Bone Workers. 

Brick and Tile Makers. 

Bridge Builders and Contractors. 

Britannia & Japanned Ware Workers. 

Broom and Brush Makers. 

Builders and Contractors. 

Cotton Factors. 

Confectioners. 

Carriage Makers. 

Cutlers. 

Carpenters. 

Cabinet Makers. 

Contractors. 

China Decorators. 

Copper Smelters. 

Candle Manufacturers. 

Chemists. 

Cliiropodists. 

Clergymen. 

Commercial Travellers. 

Clothiers. 

Cloth Renovaters. 

Coal Dealers. 

Car Makers. 

Cigar Makers. 



Clock Makers. 

Coopers. 

Copper Workers. 

Druggists. 

Dyers. 

Doctors. 

Die Sinkers. 

Diamond Cutters. 

Dentists. 

Designers and Draughtsmen. 

Draymen. 

Daguerreotypists. 

Engineers. 

Engine Builders, (Steam.) 

Engravers. 

Electrotypers. 

Florists. 

Farriers. 

File Manufacturers. 

Farmers. 

Furriers. 

Firemen. 

File Makers, Cutters, and Grinders. 

Gun Smiths. 

Gas Fitters. 

Gilders. 

Glass Workers. 

Grocers. 

Goldsmiths. 

Gardeners. 

Gas Workers. 

Glove Makers. 

Glue Makers. 

Hardware Dealers. 

Hostlers. 

Hatters. 

Harness Makers. 

Hair Dressers. 

Hotel Keepers. 

Hunters and Trappers. 

Hose Makers. 

Iron Manufacturers. 

Iron Smelters. 

Iron Tube Manufacturers. 

Iron Founders. 

Ivory Workers. 

Inventors. 

Jewellers. 



6 



BRANCHES OF INDUSTRY REPRESENTED. 



Japaiiiiers. 
Jouriiej'inen. 
Jewelry Euamellers. 
Joiners. 

Locomotive Builders. 
Locksniitlis.' 
Lapidaries. . 
Laundries. 
Liquor Dealers. 
Livery Keepers. 
Latlie Dressers. 
Lead Pipe Manufacturers. 
Lead Smelters. 
Lumber Dealers. 
Machinists. • 

Metal Workers. 
Miners. 
Millwrights. 
Milliners- 
Moulders. 
Master Mechanics. 
Masons. 
Model Makers. 
Marble Workers. 
Metallurgists. 
Midwives. 
Musicians. 
Milkmen. 

Mast, Spar, Oar, and Block Makers. 
Mattrass Makers. 
Millers. 

Keedle Manufacturers. 
Navigators. 
Nurserymen. 
Nurses. 

Oil Cloth Makers. 
Organ Manufacturers. 
Oil Manufacturers. 
Plumbers. 
Powder Makers. 
Pattern Makers. 
Painters. 

Piano Forte Makers. 

Piano Forte and Organ Tuners. 

Porcelain Decorators. 

Polishers. 

Pliotographers. 

Printers. 

Potters. 

Perfumers. 

Plasterers. 

Planters. 

Physicians and Surgeons. 

Paper Hangers. 

Pattern Makers. 

Plaster Moulders. 

Plate Printers. 

Publisliers. 

Pump Makers. 

Quarrymen. 



Rubber Workers. 

Restaurant Keepers. 

Roofers and Slaters. 

Rope and Cordage Makers. 

Safe Manufacturers. 

Steam Fitters. 

Sugar Refiners. 

Saw and Si)ring Manufacturers. 

Stock Owners. 

Saloon Keepers. 

Silver Smiths. 

Steel Pen Manufacturers. 

Steel Manufacturers. 

Silver Smelters. 

Soap Manufacturers. 

Stencil Cutters. 

Stereotypers. 

Sweep Smelters. 

Stucco Workers. 

Sportsmen. 

Stock Drivers. 

Stock Herders. 

Stock Raisers. 

Sailors. 

Sea Captains. 

Sculptors. 

Sextons. 

Showmen. 

Soldiers. 

Shippers of Freight. 

Stewards and Stewardesses. 

Stamp Makers. 

Sail and Awning Makers. 

Sawyers. 

Screw Makers. 

Sewing Machine Operators. 

Ship Smiths, Caulkers, and Riggers. 

Spring and Axle Makers. 

Starch Makers. 

Straw Workers. 

Tanners. 

Taxidermists. 

Tinsmiths. 

Tobacconists. 

Taih'jrs. 

Tin Smelters. 

Teachers of Music. 

Tinners. 

Telegrapliers. 

Teamsters. 

Undertakers. 

Upholsterers. 

Varnisliers. 

Veterinary Surgeons. 

Watcli Makers. 

White Wasliers. 

Weighers, Gaugers, and Measurers. 

Wheelwriglits. 

Wire Workers. 

Zinc Smelters. 




FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 



Cattle, Poultry, Buildings, Produce, Implements, &c. 

Experiments in Feeding Cows, — have been made recently witli a 
medium cow as to age, flow of milk and condition, medium as to calving 
time, &c., were made under the right circumstances, so far as they could 
be. 

We give the results, which are worth knowing. 

FIRST experiment. 

8 lbs. Straw, worth 4 cents. 

10 " Oat fodder, 9 " 

10 " good hay, 9 " 

3 " corn meal, 5 " 

27 

Seven days' feed cost $1.89. Number of quarts of milk in seven 
days 56^. 

SECOND EXPERIMENT. 

18 lbs. oat fodder 23 1-7 cents. 

3 " meal 6 

28 1-7 
Seven days' feed cost $1.97. Number of quarts of milk m seven 
days 60^. 

THIRD EXPERIMENT. 

20 lbs. good hay 18 cents. 

3 " meal 6 

^ it 

23 " 
Cost of seven days' feed $1.61. Seven days milk 59>^ quarts. 

FOURTH EXPERIMENT. 

20 lbs. hay 18 cents. 

7 



» FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 

3 lbs. meal 6 cents. 

3 4-7 lbs. shorts 6 " 

28 " 
Cost of seven da3's' feed $ 1.96. Quarts of milk in seven days, 68. 
It will be seen by this experiment that the shorts did not increase tho 
milk enough to pay for them. 

FIFTH EXPERIMENT. 

20 lbs. hay 18 cents. 

3 " meal 6 " 

10 " cabbage 6 " 

28 " 
Cost of seven days* feed $1.96. Milk in seven days, 74 J^. 
It will be seen by this experiment tliat the cabbage increased the pro- 
duct over the tliird experiment between 14 and 15 quarts, at an expense of 
35 cents. 

SIXTH EXPERIMENT. 

10 lbs. hay 18 cents. 

3 " meal 5 " 

10 " small potatoes 6 " 

28 " 
Seven days' feed cost $1.96. Milk in seven days 76J^ quarts. 
It will be seen by this experiment that 35 cents worth of potatoes made 
16^ quarts. 

SEVENTH EXPERIMENT. 

15 lbs. hay , 13^ cents. 

2 " cotton seed meal 4 " 

3 " cob and oat meal 6 " 

9 " small potatoes 4^ " 

27 " 
Seven days' feed cost $1.89. Milk in seven days, 77^ quarts. 

EIGHTH EXPERIMENT. 

15 lbs. second crop hay 13^ cents. 

" cotton seed meal 4 " 

cob and oat meal 6 " 

9 " potatoes 4>^ " 

27 " 

20 lbs. second crop hay 18 " 

10 " potatoes 6 " 

meal 4 " 

27 
Seven days' feed cost $1.89. Milk in seven daj-s, 88^ quarts. 
Measles in Hogs, How to Treat. — Remove the animal from his 
companions to a warm place, and keep it on gruel ; give a teaspoonful 
of sulpliur daily together with a drink of tlie bittersweet tea, the object 
being to invite action to the surface and keep it tiiere ; if the eruption does 
not reappear on the surface, rub it witli tlie following liniment, one ounce 
oil cedar, in sufficient alcohol to dissolve it, tlien add half a pint of whisky, 
and a teaspoonful of sulpliur. Almost all diseases of tlie skin in swine may 
be treated in the same manner. 

Cellar. — In the construction of a cellar the first point is to provide such 



FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 9 

8 drainage as will draw off the water at least one foot lower than the surface 
cf the cellar floor. If the soil be naturally wet, tlie flooring should be of 
flag-stones or tiles, and laid hollow. Tlie walls should also be built hollow, 
and if convenient, witii a powerful cement, ratlier than with common 
mortar; or at least tliey ought to be coated over with cement on the inside. 
In very cold or e.xtremely hot situations, cellars should be fitted with 
double doors and double windows, and tlie windows in all such cases ougiit 
to fit tightly. Tlie space between the double windows need not be more 
than from six inches to a foot ; but the space between the double doors ought 
to be at least three feet, so that one door may always be shut before the other 
is opened. Cellars should not exceed seven feet in height. In general 
they are better under ground and arched over with masonry' ; but the same 
results may be obtained above ground by double walls, very small and 
double windows, double or thickly thatched roofs, and double doors. 
Articles that are not frequently wanted are better kept in a dry cellar than 
in any other place, because they are there less subject to atmospheric 
changes. If cellars, however, are damp, they are unfit for storing anytliing 
except liquors in glass or in earthen vessels. 

Cellar Floors ; Eat Proof. — The cheapest, best, and most durable 
cellar floor, which is also impervious to rats, may be made in the following 
manner : Supposing the cellar wall already laid, dig a trench all around the 
wall on the inner side, a foot wide and deep, connecting with the cellar 
drain. In the centre of this trench make a drain by standing two stones 
bracing against each other at an angle of about forty-five degrees; then fill 
up the trench with small stones to within two or three inches of tlie top ; 
cover these stones w'ith a layer of pine sliavings, then with the earth, 
leveling off the same with the floor of the cellar ; let the ground of the 
cellar be gravel. 

Cure for Swelled Bags in Cows. — An excellent remedy for swelled 
bags in cows, caused by cold, &c., is gum camphor ^ 02., to sweet oil 2 ozs., 
pulverize the ginn, and dissolve over a slow fire. 

To Keep Milk Sweet, and Sweeten Sour Milk. — Put into the milk 
a small quantity of carbonate of magnesia. 

Effect of Cold on Milk. — The following extract is from the London 
Lancet, which is considered very high authority on all subjects admitted to 
its columns : 

The effects of a low temperature on milk have been carefully examined 
by M. Eug. Tisserand, who recently communicated his observations to the 
Academic des Sciences. He found that if cows' milk is, immediately or 
soon after being drawn, placed in vessels at various temperatures between 
freezing point and 90" F., and the initial temperature is maintained for 
twenty-four or thirt_v-six hours, it will be found that tliC nearer the temper- 
ature of the milk is to freezing point the more rapid is the collection of 
cream, the more considerable is the quantity of cream, the amount of butter 
is greater, and the skimmed milk, the butter and the cheese are of better 
quality. These facts, he believes, maj' be explained by Pasteur's observa- 
tions on ferments and their effects on the media in which they live. It is 
probable that the refrigeration arrests the evolution of the living organisms 
which ^et up fermentation, and hinders the changes which are due to their 
growth* The facts stated indicate room for great improvement in the 
methods of storage and preservation of milk. To keep milk at its original 
quality, extreme cleanliness and a low temperature are absolutely neccss-ary. 
In the North of Europe, Denmark, etc., the value of cold is already recog- 
nized, and in warmer climates the need for its assistance is greater. There 
is nothing impracticable in the suggestion, since running streams can be 
\ised to aid refrigeration. Where the quality of the milk is of greater 
importance, ice may be employed. 

Cream, To Preserve. — Boil the cream for two or three minutes, add half 
its weight of powdered loaf sugar; stir the whole well together, and put by 
in bottles closely corked. It will thus continue good for many weeks. 

1* 



10 FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 

Rules for Farmers. — A correspondent suggests as something " that 
would interest and profit many youiig farmer readers," tliat we should pre- 
pare and publish 100 rules for the attainment of success and wealth in 
farming. A mucli smaller number, if faithfully adhered to, will contribute 
materially to success, and ensure, with economy and good habits, sufficient 
wealth to satisfy the reasonable desires of any one. Among them, the fol- 
lowing may be mentioned. 

1. Select good land, and reject sterile, no matter how cheap. 

2. Raise no weeds, but only profitable crops. 

3. Underdrain, wherever needed. 

4. Adopt a good rotation of crops and adhere to it. 
6. Provide sufficient shelter for domestic animals. 

6. Keep everything coiniectcd with domestic animals neat and clean. 

7. Plough well, cultivate well, do all work well and not slipshod. 

8. Accumulate and save manure, and apply it properlj'. 

9. Procure good implements, and take care of them. 
10. Raise good animals and take care of tliem. 

The preceding ten rules will be of much use if carried out, and we add 
two more, to cover them all, viz. : 

11. By weighing and measuring, and with careful accounts, ascertain 
just what every crop or every animal costs you, and find out»just what is 
the market value of each. 

12. Employ then those crops and animals which you find give you a 
good profit, and drop all else. 

You can thus have the satisfaction of knowing that you are carrying 
out Ricardo's two famous rules for acquiring wealth, namely: 

1. Cut short your losses. 

2. Let your jjrofits run on. 

Quantity of Seed required for a Given Number of Hills, or Length 
Drill. — Asparagus 1 oz. to 60 feet drill ; beet 1 oz. to 50 ft. drill ; carrot 
1 oz. to 180 ft. drill ; endive 1 oz. to 150 ft. drill; onion 1 oz. to 100 ft. drill; 
parsley 1 oz. to 150 ft. drill ; parsnip 1 oz. to 200 ft. drill ; radish 1 oz. to 
100 ft.' drill ; spinach 1 oz. to 100 ft. drill ; turnip 1 oz. to 150 ft. drill; peas 
1 qt. to 100 ft. drill; dwarf beans 1 qt. to 150 hills; corn 1 qt. to 200 
hills; cucumber 1 oz. to 50 hills; watermelon 1 oz. to 30 hills; muskmelon 
1 oz. to 60 hills ; pumpkin 1 oz. to 40 hills ; early squash 1 oz. to 50 hills; 
marrow squash 1 oz. to 16 hills ; cabbage 1 oz. to 3000 plants ; cauliflower 1 
oz. to 3000 plants ; celery, 1 oz. to 4000 plants ; eggplant, 1 oz. to 2000 
plants; lettuce 1 oz. to 4000 plants ; pepper 1 oz. to 2000 plants, tomato 
1 oz. to 2000 plants. 

Quantity of Seed required per Acre and Actual Weight of each 
TO THE Bushel — Wheat (broadcast) l){ to 2 bushels ; ditto, in drills, 
l^bushels ; weight per bushel, 60 lbs. ; rye, broadcast, 1^ bushels, weight 
56 lbs. ; oats, broadcast, 2 bushels, weight 33 lbs. ; timothy, broadcast, 2 gals. 
45 lbs. per bushel ; red clover, l>roadcast, 3 to 4 gals., 60 lbs. per bushel; 
white clover, broadcast, 8 lbs., 50 lbs. per bushel ; lucrene broadcast, 10 lbs., 
54 lbs. per bushel ; herd or red top, broadcast, 1 to 1^ bushels, 14 lbs. per 
bushel ; bluegrass, broadcast, 1 to 1^ bushels, 14 lbs. per bushel ; millet, 
broadcast, |i( to 1 bushel, 45 lbs. per bushel ; Hungarian, broadcast,-^ to 1 
bushel, 51) ll)s. per bushel; corn in hills, 1 to 1)4 gals., 56 lbs per bushel; 
turnips and ruta baga, 1 lb., 50 lbs. per bushel ; onion sets, 28 lbs. per 
bushel. 

To Determine Weight of Live Cattle. — Measure in inches the girth 
around the breast, just behind the shoulder blade, and the length of the 
back from the tail to the fore j>art of the shoulder blade. Multiply the 
girth by^the length, and divide by 144. If the girth is less than 3 feet, 
multiply the quotient by 11. If between 3 and 5 feet, multiply by 16. If 
between 5 and 7 feet, multiply by 23. If between 7 and 9 feet, multiiily by 
31. If the animal is lean, deiluct 1-20 from the residt, or take girth and 
length in feet, multiply the square of the girth by the length, and nmltiply 



FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 11 

the product by 3.36. The result will be the answer in pounds. The live 
weifi;ht multiplied by 6.05, gives a near approximation to tlie net weight. 

Inspection of the Bottom of Wells. — Sufficient liglit to enable any 
one to see the water or eartli at the bottom of tlie well can be directed 
down tlie shaft by means of an ordinary looking-glass. If the well be 
under cover, two glasses will be required, and the ingenious reader will, by 
a little experimenting, soon be able to arrange them in the right posi- 
tions. 

Cabbage, Culture of. — Of this vegetable there are many varieties, but 
some are better adapted for growing in gardens than otliers, the seed of 
wliicii can be obtained at any respectable seed store. To obtain cabbage 
eai'ly in spring, procure iialf an ounce of " Atkins's matchless," and the 
same quantity of tiie early "Nonpareil," both being dwarf and early; or 
buy more or less, in proportion to tlie size of tiie ground you intend plant- 
ing. Between tiie first and the twelfth of August, select an open piece of 
ground, and, liaving dug it well, sow tlie seetl, scattering it regularly over 
the space allotted. Tlien take the spade, and throw a little soil from the 
sides of the bed evenly over the surface ; press the bed down with your 
feet ; then take the rake and smooth gently over, taking care not to 
rake so deep as to draw the seed in masses over the bed. Water plenti- 
fullj' during dry weather, and watch carefully that the birds do not 
molest the shoots when they are breaking through the ground. Sow also 
at the same time an equal quantity of the "Emperor," or "Wheeler's 
Imperial," which are larger and somewhat later, and whicli will give a suc- 
cession during the greater part of the summer, or, at all events, until the 
early spring sowing comes in. If the plants have progressed favorably, 
they will be fit to plant out in the earlV part of September ; and if onions 
have been grown in the same garden, it would be advisable to plant the cab- 
bage in that piece of ground after tlie onions are taken off, the ground selected 
for onions being generally the best in the garden. After properly digging 
the ground, proceed to mark out the plot for the earlj' sorts, eighteen inches 
from row to row ; commence planting, putting the plants one foot apart in 
their respective rows, and fifteen inches from the other. After planting, 
water must be given, unless it be rainy weather. Watch for slugs, 
and fill up any vacancies that may occur from the seed bed of each sort 
respectively. As soon as the ground becomes dry on the surface, loosen 
the earth between the plants to the depth of two inches, which will accel- 
erate vegetation. As the plants advance, draw the earth about them with 
the lioe, in order to steady them against the wind and protect them from 
the frost. If tliese rules are observed, young cabbage fit for cutting, will, 
under ordinary circumstances, appear in May, altliough much of course 
must depend on the season. For a succession, sow early in March, of the 
large sorts, and again from the middle to the end of May ; and should 
there be some plants left in the seed bed of August sowing, plant them out 
in March. 

Asparagus. — The soil best adapted for this delicious and highly prized 
vegetable is a light, rich, sandy loam, well mixed with rotten dung or sea- 
weed ; the soil should not be less than two and a half feet deep, and before 
planting the bed should be trenched over to tliat depth, burying plenty of 
dung at the bottom. The site of the beds should be such as to derive as 
much sun as possible during the whole of the day, and neither trees or 
shrubs should be near. To raise plants from seed, they may be sown from 
the end of February to the beginning of April, the first or second week in 
March being the usual time. The seed should be inserted with a dibble 
six inches apart, and an inch below the surface ; if the weather be dry, 
they should be watered frequently, but moderately. When the plants begin 
to appear, which will be in three or four weeks from the time of sowing, 
the beds should be carefully weeded. If two plants arise from the same 
hole, the weaker of the two should be removed. Sometimes asparagus is 
suffered to remain in the bed where it has been sown, and at other times it 



12 FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 

is transplanted. This operation is performed about the end of March in a 
variety of ways ; but the following is one of tlie most approved metliods ; — • 
Dig tlie space required to the depth of five feet ; sift the mouM tliat is 
talcen from it, and reject all stones, both large and small ; put aside the 
finest portion of the mould for dressing the bed. Then lay in the msiterials 
of the bed in the following order : dunghill manure, eigiit incites ; turf, six 
inches; manure, six incites; sifted earth, six inches; turf, eight inches; 
dung six inches ; finest mould, eight inches; whicii will incorporate with 
the preceding layer of dung. Divide the whole space into beds five feet 
wide, by paths constructed of turf two feet in l)readth nnd one inch in 
thickness. The beds being tlius prepared, remove the plants carefully 
from the seed bed, with a narrow elongated dungforlc, taking the greatest 
care not to injure the roots ; the plants must then be laid evenly together, 
to prevent the roots from becoming entangled ; this process should be per- 
formed expeditiously, as the plants suffer from protracted exposure to the 
air. In planting them, the bud or top of the shoot must be pliiced to a 
depth of an inch and a half in the ground, and at the same time the roots 
must be spread out as widely as possible, somevvliat in tlie shape of an 
open umbrella. As each plant is put in the ground, a small piece of stick 
must be placed near to mark the spot. As soon as the earth is settled and 
dry, a spadeful of fine sand should be heaped on each plant in the form of 
a molehill. The plants ought to be two years old when they are trans- 
planted ; they will even take at three, but at four thej' are apt to fail. 
After the plants have been transplanted three years, they will be fit to cut 
for use. Cut off the buds within the ground with a sharp pointed knife, or 
small saw, thrusting it down straight close to each sjioot, separately ; cut 
it off slantingly and with care not to wound the younger buds shooting 
below. Cutting should be discontinued about the first week in June, the 
common practice being to let asparagus grow when green peas come in. 
Towards the end of October or beginning of November, the stalks which 
have run up to seed having done growing, or begun to decay, cut them 
down close, and carr}' them away ; then hoe off all the weeds from the beds, 
and lay on a coating of good dung, and thus let it remain till spring. About the 
end of March, or the beginning of April, before the buds begin to advance 
below, loosen the surface of the beds with a three-pronged fork, and turn 
up the top earth carefully without injuring the roots ; this process by 
admi-tting air, moisture, and sunshine, enables the shoots to rise in free 
growth. Forcing asparagus takes place in the beds themselves, without 
disturbing the roots ; the trenches are filled with hot dung, and the beds are 
covered with the same material about six inches deep : by these means the 
plants will be fit to cut early in the spring, but at the same time the tender- 
ness and flavor suffer in proportion. When it is desired to have exceedingly 
large heads of forced asparagus, pieces of bamboo, or any other hollow 
tubes, should be put over the shoots when they first malve their ajipearance, 
they will thus acquire a length of as much as eighteen inches. As the suc- 
cessful culture .of asparagus maiidy depends on the preparations that are 
made for it, it would he as well for an inexperienced person to have in the 
first instance the assistance of a practical gardener. 

Home-made Stump Machine. — Take 3 pieces of common joists, put 
them together in form like a common harrow, letting the tapering ends lap 
by each other some six inches, making a place for the chain to rest in. Cut 
off the roots at any distance you please from the stump, jilace the machine 
at one side of the stump, tapering end up ; hitch tlie chain on the opposite 
side and pass it over the machine ; then hitch a good yoke of oxen thereto, 
and you will see the stump rise. Another method is as follows : in the fall 
of the year bore a 1-inch hole 18 inches deep into the centre of the stump, 
and ])ut in 1 oz. of saltpetre, fillir.'g up with water, and plugging the hole 
up. In the spring take out the plug, put in halt a gill of kerosene and set 
fire to it. It will burn out the stump to the farthest root. Here is another 
plan : in the fall, with an inch auger, bore a hole in the centre of the stump 



FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 



13 



10 inches deep, and put into it a ^ lb. of vitriol, and cork the hole up very 
tight. In the spring the whole stump and roots extending all through their 
ramifications will be found so rotten that they can be easily eradicated. 



MINERAL CONSTITUENTS ABSORBED OR REMOVED FROM AN ACRE 
OF SOIL BY THE FOLLOWING CROPS. 





Wheat, 
25 bushels. 


Barley, 
40 bushels. 


Turnips, 
20 tons. 


Hay, 
1% tons. 




Lbs. 
29.6 

3. 

12.9 
10.6 

2.6 
20.6 
10.6 

2. 
118.1 


Lbs. 
17.5 

5.2 
17. 

9.2 

2.1 
25.8 

2.7 
16. 
129.5 

2.4 


Lbs. 
47.1 

8.2 
29.9 
19.7 

7.1 
46.3 
13.3 

3.6 
247.8 


Lbs. 

38.2 


Soda 


12. 




44.5 




7.1 


Oxide of Iron 


.6 


Piiosphoric Acid 


15 1 


Sulpiiuric Acid 


9.2 


CIdorine 


4.1 


Silica 


78.2 










Total 


210. 00 


213.00 


423.00 


209. 00 



Hat. — 270 cubic feet of new meadow hay^ and 216 and 243 from large 
or old stacks, will weigh a ton, 297 to 324 cubic feet of dry clover weigli a 
ton. 

Hens Eating Feathers. — To prevent hens from eating their feathers 
give them twice a day four parts of wheat bran to one of corn meal, by 
measure, a tablespoonful of salt to every eight quarts of this mixture, 
scalded and cooled. Tlie hens are after the salt contained in the minute 
globules of blood at the end of the quill. Hens fed in this way or occasion-, 
ally furnished salt, will never pull feathers. Tiie salt should be dissolved 
in hot water before mixing with the feed. This is a certain antidote. 

Hatching Eggs. — Be particular and set the eggs upon the large end as 
soon as brought in from tiie nest, in some material that will keep them in 
position, (either seasoned saw-dust or kiln-dried bran scattered in the bot- 
tom of a siiallow box or basket) there will be found little difficulty in tlieir 
hatching, providing tlie birds are all right and the eggs are not allowed to 
become chilled. I have known eggs to hatch well wlien three weeks old, 
and make good strong cliicks in early spring, but they must neither be kept 
too warm nor yet too cold. Tliey should, however, be kept as cool as pos- 
sible without being chilled. Tlie cupboard temperature might do well, if it 
is even. I should not like it any higher than 70° ; better lower, and sliould 
range somewhere between 40° and 50° and be steady. If the eggs are kept 
too warm tlie germ is weakened, A little precaution as to temperature is 
necessary. 

Soaking Seeds. — B.v sprouting garden seeds before sowing, there is a 
gain of three or four days in the time of ripening. 

To Preserve Cider.— The following recipe for preserving cider was 
tested last fall by a friend, and found to lie of all that is claimed for it; 
When the cider in the barrel is in a lively fermentation, add as much white 
sugar as will be equal to a ^ or ^ of a pound to each gallon of ciiler (ac- 
cording as the apples are sweet or sour), let tlie fermentation proceed until 
the liqui<l has the taste to suit, then add ]^ of an ounce of sulphite (not 
sulphate) of lime to each gallon of cider, shake well, and let it stand three 
days, and bottle for use. The sulphite should first be dissolved in a quart 
or so of cider before introducing it into the barrel of cider. 

Rot in PoTATOES.--If potatoes are jilanted four inches below the sur- 
face they will not rot. This is the substance of the great prize essay of the 



14 FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 

Royal Agricultural Society on the " cause and cure of the rot in the pota- 
to." Try it ; if so, tiie sooner known and practised tlie better. 

To Preserve Potatoes from Rot.— Dust over the floor of the bin with 
lime, and put in about 6 or 7 inches of potatoes, and dust with lime as be- 
fore, then more potatoes, using about 1 bushel of lime to 40 busliels of po- 
tatoes. Tlie lime improves the flavor of the potatoes, and effectually kUls 
'tlie fungi whicli causes tlie rot. 

An old veteran farmer with 63 years' experience, has successfully fought 
the potato rot in the ground, as follows : He plants tliem in tlie latter part 
of April, or beginning of May, and in the ohl of the moon. When six inches 
high they are plastered and dressed out nicely. Now for the secret. When 
blossoming, take two parts plaster, and 1 part fine salt, mix well together, 
and put one large spoonful of this compound as near the centre of each 
liill as possible. When ripe, take them out of the ground, have them dry 
when put in the cellar, and keep them in a dry, cool place. 

To Prevent the Fly in Turnips.— From experiments lately made, it 
has been ascertained that lime sown by hand, or distributed by a machine, 
is an infallible protection to turnips against the ravages of this destructive 
insect. It should be applied as soon as the turnips come up, and in the 
same daily rotation in which they were sown. The lime should be slacked 
immediately before it is used, if the air be not sufficiently moist to render 
that operation unnecessary. 

Artificial Hatching is a mode by which incubation is effected b.v the 
application of heat, and without the intervention of the lien. An establish- 
ment for this purpose was set on foot in London some years since, witli 
generally successful results, and in which the following process was adopt- 
ed : An oven consisting of eight floors or compartments, was employed to 
contain the eggs, while they were subjected to heat from steam pipes. Each 
compartment held upwards of two hundred eggs, and the whole exhibited 
the hatching process in all its various stages. The regularity with which 
the temperature was maintained as well as accommodated to each pecu- 
liar stage of the process, brought out the chick with much greater certainty 
than when the incubation was performed by the hen. When the chicks 
emerge from the sliell they are immediately removed from the oven, but 
are allowed to remain for a few hours until tliey become dry ; these are then 
removed and put into a glass case at the end of the room. They are here 
for the first time fed, though not for twenty-four liours after being hatch- 
ed ; the material scattered among them consists of small bruised grits, or 
particles little larger than meal ; these they eageii^' pick up without any 
teaching, their instinctive desire for food being a sufficient monitor. After 
the brood has been kept in the glass case, which is partially open, for two 
or three days, and been thus gradually accustomed to the atmosphere, they 
are removed to one of the divisions of a railed enclosure on the floor. At 
six in the evening they are put to rest for the night in coops, twelve to- 
gether in a coop : these coops are small wooden boxes lined with flannel, 
and furnished with a flannel curtain in front, to seclude and keep warm the 
inmates as comfortably and securely as if under the wing of the mother. 
At six or seven in the morning, they are again allowed to come forth 
into their court-yard, which being strewed with sand, and provided 
with food and water, affords them all the advantages of a run in an open 
ground. 

Poultry and Eggs. — One of our subscribers says : I do a small busi- 
ness in raising and putting up garden seeds ; last fall, a year ago, as I was 
clearing out some red pepper seeds in my back j'ard, I threw tlie shucks and 
chaff promiscuously about. I soon observed my hens picking them up and 
swallowing them with great avidity. They soon commenced laying eggs 
though they had laid none for a month before. I have fed them regularly two 
or three times a week since then with red pepper, and tliey have never j'et 
stopped laying, summer or winter, spring or fall, exocpt while they were 
hatching their chickens, and I am confident from more than a year's ex- 



FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 15 

perience, that by this method hens may be made to lay the year round. — 
Southern paper. 

To RJake Hens Lay. — If a teaspoonf ul of cayenne pepper is given to a 
dozen hens witli their food every other day, winter and summer, tlie quan- 
tity of ejjgs tliey will produce will he nearly doubled. So says Dr. Hall. 

U'o Destroy IMoss on Trees. — Faint them with white-wasli made of 
quick lime and wood ashes. 

To Kill Lice on Stock of all Kinds. — Take 1 ounce of cocculus indl- 
cus, which should be bought of any druggist at from twelve to fifteen cents 
per poimd, and steep it in one gallon of water, and apj)ly it as is recom- 
mended for tobacco e.xtract. It will be found quite as effectual, and much 
more pleasant to use. I have used it with unvarying success for killing 
lice on canarj' birds. Dip them in, keeping the head out, and soak well. 
It is perfectly safe. 

Death for Vermin on Plants or Animals. — Pour a gallon of boiling 
water on one ])0und tobacco leaves, strain itjn twenty minutes; for ver- 
min, on anisnals or plants, this decoction is certain death. 

Lice on Cattle — May be destroyed witli a decoction of two ounces of 
lobelia seed in one quart boiling water. Let it stand and keep warm for a 
few hours, until the strengtii is extracted. Apply witli a sponge. 

A decoction of cocculus indicns, made in the same way, will answer 
when the lobelia seed cannot be obtained. 

How TO Make Hens Lay.— Chicken coops should be kept dry and 
wholesome. It is not necessary to clean them often if they are ke{)t well 
littered with dry earth, ashes or dry sawdust. Give the fowls liberty to 
roam at large, if possible; if not, supply them with animal food in some 
shape, also lime, ground bone and green vegetables. A box containing 
pulverized charcojil should always be witliin reach of tlie fowls, as it is a 
great preventative of disease. Do not be afraid of snow water. Fowls 
will always drink it whenever it is convenient, and I have never seen any 
ill effects from it. 

Your supply of eggs will depend very much upon the quantity and 
qnalit}' of food furnished. Never overfeed. More fowls are ruined hy be- 
ing fed too sparingly. I have often lieard people complain after tliis style : 
" My hens do not lay worth a cent, and they liave all the corn they can 
eat." Some fowls that iiave a large range, and exercise much, may lay 
well if they are stuffed day after day with corn ; but it is \ery poor policy 
and economy' to feed that way. Give fowls light food and not all they can 
eat. A variety of hard food (corn, barley, wheat, buckwheat, etc.,) given 
once a day sparinglj- is necessary ; but the principal supply sliould be soft 
food, thoroughly scalded. Corn and oats ground together, such as is com- 
monly used for horse feed, and wheat bran (the coarsest), mixed in equal 
proportions by measure, well scalded, is the best and most economical food 
that can be useil. Give this in the morning and grain sparingly at night. 
Kever feed oftener than twice a day, and if they have fields to roam over, 
feed no more than one-half wliat they would naturally eat. Occasionally 
give tliem a little ground mustard, ginger or pepper in their food, but do not 
always be doctoring them. Follow these rules, and if your fowls do not lay 
you may reasonably expect they never will. The food commended above 
is also suitable for young chicks, young ducks and eld ducks, and, in short, 
all kinds of poidtry. Never feed raw mush ; do not confine your chicks to 
a steady diet of raw meal and cold water. On a farm, where they have un- 
limited range, they may do well ; but cracked corn is far better, and should 
be alternated with soft food. Boiled eggs for chicks can be dispensed with ; 
tliey are too expensive, and tlie scalded food answers every purpose. Re- 
member that much depends upon the proper manner of feeding. 

Chicken Cholera. — The most successful poultry raisers use the fol- 
lowing remedy : Take equal parts of sulphur, alum, resin, Cayenne pepper 
and copperas. Powder all ingredients not purchased in a fine condition ; 
mix thoroughly, and add about two tablespoonfuls of this mixture to six 



16 FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 

quarts of dry meal, incorporating it thoroughly with the meal, and wetting 
it. If they do not eat readily, keep otlier feed awa}' from tliem, and they 
will soon come to terms. If tlie fowls are worth it, give them tea to drink 
instead of water. Persons using tliis remedy need liave no fear of tlie dis- 
ease. Jf tlie fowls are healthy, tlie remedy is usually fed twice a week, 
sometimes once a week, and in some instances once in two weeks, and in 
rare cases once a month; but if omitted entirely, the disease breaks out, 
and the remedy is given once a day, usually curing all the fowls that will 
eat. 

Chicken Cholera. — A handful of copperas to eight quarts of water 
will usually cure poultry, and keep them free from the disease ; give it dady. 

DiARRHCEA IN Chickens. — To avoid this disease chickens should not 
be fed at all until two days old, then give them fine corn meal for a week, 
then mix with a little bran ; put in a very little salt and let the meat, cab- 
bage and boiled eggs alone, the chicks want nothing of the sort. Give 
them sand to pick as they wish. 

Bantam.— There are numerous varieties of tliis species of domestic 
fowl, tlie most valuable of whicli are t^ie Sebright, the nankin, the game, 
spangled partridge, etc. Bantams were formerly prizetl according to the 
amount of feathers on tlieir legs, but this is now considered their greatest 
defect. The characteristics of a well-bred bantam are a beak short and 
curved, the head narrow, with rounded forehead, bright eye, small ear 
lobes, short back, breast prominent, round full body, and carriage erect. 
A rose comb is considered essential in most varieties, and always to lie 
preferred. The male bird should not weigh more than twenty ounces, the 
female not more than fifteen. Tlie mode of rearing and keeping bantams 
does not ditTer in tiny material point from that adojjted for the domestic 
fowl generally. From their size, and the tenderness of theirflesh, they may 
be sometimes substituted for chickens when these are not to be obtained ; 
and. their eggs are at all times considered a delicacy for weak and deranged 
stoinaciis. Bantams are comparatively inexpensive to keep, and in addi- 
tion to being prolific layers, they are particularly useful for sitting upon the 
eggs of partridges or pheasants. 

How TO Fatten Fowls.— Confine your fowls in a large airy enclosure, 
and feed them on broken Indian corn, Indian meal or mush, with raw po- 
tatoes cut into small pieces, not larger tliiin a filbert, placing within their 
reacli a quantity of charcoal broken into small pieces. Boiled rice is also 
good. 

Best Wat to Dry Apples.— The most general method adopted in dry- 
ing ap])les is, after they are pared, to cut them in slices, and spread them 
on cloths, tables, or boards, and dry them out-doors. In clear and dry 
weather tliis is, perhaps, the most expeditious and best way ; but in cloudy 
and stormy weather this way is attended with much inconvenience, and 
sometimes loss, in consequence of the apples rotting before they dry. To 
some extent they may be dried in this way in the house, though this is at- 
tended with much inconvenience. The best method that I iiave ever used 
to dry apples is to use frames. These combine the most advantages with 
the least inconvenience of any way, and can be used with equal advantage 
either in drying in the house or out in the sun. In jileasaiit weather tlie 
frames can be set out-doors against the side of the building, or any other 
sujjport, and nights, or cloud}' and stormy days, the}' can be brought into 
the house, and set against the side of the room near the stove or fire-place. 
My frames are made in the following manner: Two strips of board, 7 feet 
long, 2 or 2i inches wide--two strips 3 feet long, \^ inclies wide, the whole 
^ of an inch thick — nail the short stri|)s across the ends of the long ones 
and it makes a frame 7 by 3 feet, wiiich is a convenient size for all pur- 
pi)ses. On one of the long strii)S nails are driven 3 inches apart, extend- 
ing from the top to the bottom. After tlie a[)ples are pared, they are quart- 
ered and cored, and with a needle and twine, or stout thread strung into 
lengths long enough to reach twice across the frame ; the ends of the twine 



FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 17 

are then tied together, and the strings liung on the nails across the frame. 
The apples will soon dry so that the strings can be doubled on the nails, 
and fresh ones put on or tiie whole of them removed, and others put in 
their place. As fast as the apjiles become sufficiently dry they can be 
taken from the strings, and the same strings used to dry more on. If large 
apples are used to dry, tiiey can be cut in smaller pieces. Pears and quin- 
ces, and other fruits tliatcan be strung, may be dried in this way. 

Growing Oats.— Oats are usually put upon the poorest land and given 
the poorest cultivation. The crop will of course correspond, and the land 
be mucii worse for the crop and treatment. It is therefore no wonder that 
the oat crop is said to impoverish the soil. Now, the oat crop is an im- 
portant one ; if the land is made rich enough and put in order as for other 
crops— say barle}' and wheat— there will be a yield tliat will often surpass 
in value the other crops, and without leaving the land in the usual bad con- 
dition. The soil, well shaded as it is by a good crop, will retain its mel- 
lowness and be in condition for another crop, with or without manure, ac- 
cording to the degree of fertility. The oat is a hardy, thrifty plant ; it will 
bear tlie frost well and may therefore be sown early. This is one of 
the main advantages of the crop. It should be sown as early as possible 
after the ground is dry and mellow enough to receive the seed. If there 
is good drainage it is seldom that the crop, even with very severe weath- 
er, will be hurt. This will secure an early harvest, and insure bright 
straw and a plump berry. On the other hand, late sowing is associated 
with rust. 

Yoking Cattle. — The amount of labor, and the ease with which it 
may be performed, in agricultural practice, are materially influenced by the 
manner in which cattle are yoked to the plough. There are two methods 
in general use: one, yoking in pairs; the other, yoking in a single line. 
There are advantages and disadvantages attending each way; and the only 
method of arriving at a just conclusion is to compare these, and apply the 
deduction to such special circumstances as may exist. A disadvantage of 
yoking in pairs is, that in ploughing the furrows betwixt the ridges, the 
land-cattle go upon the ploughed land, and tread it down with their feet ; 
this, especially if the land is wet, hurts it very much. Another disadvan- 
tage is, that when there is but as much of the ridge unploughed as to allow 
the land-cattle to go upon it with difficulty, they are frequently either going 
into the opposite furrow, and thereby giving the plough too much land ; or, 
which is worse, they are jostling the furrow-cattle upon the ploughed land. 
"When cattle are yoked in a line, they all go in a furrow. This necessitates 
the giving the plough more land than ordinarily. Another disadvantage is, 
that horses and oxen, imder such conditions, are apt to throw the burden on 
their fellows. This tliey have a better opportunity of doing when yoked in 
a line, as each pulls by the traces of the one behind him; and, therefore, 
with the exception of the foremost horse, it is difficult to tell when they 
neglect their work. Another inconvenience attending yoking cattle in a 
line is, that when the fore-cattle are all yoked to the traces of the hindmost, 
it is obvious that, as the beam to which the draught is fixed is much lower 
than the shoulders of the first horse, by which the rest pull, such a weight 
n)ust be laid upon his back or shoulders as must render him incapable of 
giving any assistance. When a body is to be moved forward, the nearer 
the direction of the force applied, approaches to the direction of the body, 
the greater is the influence exercised ; and, therefore, as the plough moves 
horizontally, and as the direction of the united draught of a plough with 
the cattle j'oked two abreast is more horizontally inclined than the direc- 
tion of tlie draught in a plough with the cattle yoked in a line, the same 
force applied will have greater influence. This fact is confirmed when the 
cattle are yoked in pairs ; for each has then a separate draught. The 
goadsman knows by the position of the yokes, whenever one of tiie horses 
does not draw equally well with his fellow ; and the ploughman perceives, 
by the going of the plough, whenever either of the two pairs does not draw 



18 FARMERS AND GARDENERS. . 

equally well with the otlier ; for if the pair that go foremost neglect their 
work, the plough is pulled out of the ground ; and if the pair that go hind- 
most neglect their work, the ])lough enters tiie soil too deeply. Tliese dif- 
ferent modes of yoking are, also, in a great measure dependent on the par- 
ticular soil. When tlie land is stiff and the labor severe, yoking tlie cattle 
in pairs seems preferable, as it affords the strongest draught ; and when the 
land is wet and in danger of being injured by tlie treading of the cattle, the 
yoking tiieni in a line confines tiiem to the bottom of the furrow, and pre- 
vents a great amount of harm. 

Calves, Rearing of. — Calves are either suckled by the mother or 
brought up on milk by hand. When they are suckled, if the byre be roomy 
enough, stalls are erected for them against the wall beiiind the cows, in 
which tiiey are usually tied up : or they are put into large loose boxes at 
the ends of the byre ; and unfastened at stated times to be suckled. When 
brought up by hand, they are put into a separate apartment from their 
mothers, and each confined in a crib, where tlie milk is given them. The 
crib for each calf should be four feet square and four feet in height. Abun- 
dance of liglit should be admitted, either by windows in the walls or sky- 
lights in the roof ; thorough ventilation and a regular supply of fresh air 
should also be attended to. The crib should be fitted up with a manger to 
contain cut turnips or carrots, and a high rack for hay, the top of which 
should be as mucii elevated above the litter as to preclude the possibility of 
the calf getting its feet over it. The first food that the calf receives, con- 
sists of the milk obtained from the cow for the first four days after calving. 
It is then of the consistence of the yolk of an egg, and forms an appropriate 
food for the young calf. On giving it its first feed by the hand, in the crib, 
it may either be raised to its feet, or suffered to lie still. In whichever posi- 
tion the food is taken, it should be administered as follows : — Place the 
food in a small dish or pail ; put the left arm round the neck of tlie calf, 
and support its lower jaw with the palm of the hand, keeping the mouth a 
little elevated and open, by introducing the tliumb of the same hand into 
the side of its mouth. Then fill the hollow of the right hand with milk, and 
pour it into the calf's mouth, introducing a finger or two with it for the 
calf to suck while it is swallowing the liquid. Let it take handful after 
handful, in this manner, until it is satisfied. In this way it should be fed as 
often as the cow is milked, which is at first three times a day at least. 
After the first two or three days, the following metiiod of feeding may be 
substituted: put a finger or two of the right hand into the calf's mouth, and 
holding the dish or pail of milk with the left imder its head, bring the head 
gradually down into the pail, and by aid of the fingers induce it to take a 
few draughts of the milk ; while it is doing this, gently withdraw the fin- 
gers, holding the head down at the same time, taking care, however, not to 
dip its nostrils into tlie milk. In a few days the fingers will not be required, 
and in a few more the calf will drink of its own accord. For the first 
month the calf should have as much sweet milk warm from the cow as it 
can drink. It will be able to take three meals a day, and nearly three 
quarts at each meal. After the first month, to the end of the third, the 
quantity of milk is divided between two meals, morning and evening. In 
some cases half sweet and half-skimmed milk are given to the calves, and 
in others a substitute for milk is provided, by making gelatine of boiled lin- 
seed or sago. The linseed, jelly is easily made by boiling good linseed in 
water, and while it is in a hot state to pour it into a vessel to cool, where 
it soon becomes a firm jelly ; a portion of this is taken for every meal, and 
incorporated with a little warm milk. Sago may be prepared in the same 
manner; but a larger proportion of milk is required to be given with it. A 
third substance is made from pea-meal. For this purpose pour hot water 
upon the meal, and stir until the mixture is smootli ; let it stand to cool, 
and when it becomes a jelly, mix a portion of it with as much new warm 
milk, into a consistence that the calf can easily drink. Suckling is a supe- 
rior mode of rearing calves, provided the calf has free access to the cow 



FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 19 

which is supporting it ; but if it be allowed to suckle at certain intervals 
only, bringing up by hand is preferable. As tlie season advances and the 
air becomes mild, and when tlie calves have attained the age of two months, 
they should have access to tlie open air during the day ; and after some 
days' endurance, may be sheltered at night under the shed instead of being 
again put in tlie crib. At this time sweet hay should be put in tiieir racks, 
and the mangers in the shed provided witli Swedisli turnips. At three or 
four months old, according to tlie supply of milk, and the ready state of tlie 
grass to re(!eive them, the calves should be weaned in the order of seniority, 
due regard being paid to their individual strength. Wiien weaning is de- 
termined upon, tlie supply of milk should not be withdrawn all at once, but 
lessened daily, and given at longer intervals. At the same time tliat the 
supply of milk is diminislied, tlie calf should be enticed to take other food, 
sucli as new bundles of the most cloverly portions of hay, fresh turnips or 
carrots sliced, a little pounded oil cake, and pure water at will. A small 
sheltered paddock, near the steading, is an excellent place for weaning 
calves, before turning them out into a pasture field. When calves are 
reared for Veal, they are suckled three or four times a day for the first three 
or four days, and then twice a day. Tiiey are placed in boarded boxes, 
four feet high, and just large enough inside to admit of the calf turning. 
The calf is fed tlius for about ten weeks, when it will attain about 35 lbs. 
per quarter, and is then considered prime veal. Calves are subject to 
many diseases. The nace.l-ill is a bleeding from the navel string; and in 
this case, a ligature should be passed close round it, a pledget of tow, well 
wet with Friars' balsam, be placed over it, and changed every morning 
and night. Sometimes wiien there has been previous bleeding, inflamma- 
tion suddenly appears about the navel between the third and tenth day. 
Fomentation should be applied, in order to disperse the tumor, and two or 
three doses of castor-oil given, made into an emulsion by mixing it with 
egg. If when the inflammation abates, extreme weakness should ensue, 
gentian and laudanum, with a small quantity of port wine, may be admin- 
istered. For simple costiveness, tiie best remedy is the milk that comes from 
the cow for the first four days after calving. But in confirmed cases, doses 
of warm water, containing a solution of two or three ounces of Epsom 
salts, should be frequently administered. Diarrhoea is a disease to which 
calves are peculiarly liable. They are most subject to it wlien put out to 
grass at too early an age. The first application of a remedy should be a 
mild purgative, to remove, if possible, the irritation of the bowels ; tiiis 
should be followed by anodynes, astringents, and alkalies, with carmina- 
tives, the withdrawal of every sort of green food, and the administration of 
flour or pea-meal gruel. The following mixture is extremely serviceable 
in these cases, and it is one which may advantageously be kept always 
ready at hand : — 

Prepared chalk 1 oz. 

Winter's Bark, powdered . . • 1 oz. 

Laudanum 1 oz. 

Water 1 pint. 

Give two or three tablespoonfuls, according to the age and condition of the 
animal, twice or thrice a day. 

Cow, Management of. — A good cow is a source of constant profit, pro- 
vided it be properly managed. Cows intended for the dairy should be par- 
ticularly well housed and fed ; for this purpose a clean and warm cow-house 
is of the utmost importance, and also a sweet pasture. If cows be kept at 
grass, it is a good plan to allow them constant access to a little hay, which 
prevents scouring, especially at an earl}' season ; or, if they be kept within 
doors and fed on succulent artificial grasses, a little hay may be occasion- 
ally necessary, to prevent the purgative effects of green food. Cows kept 
at pasture will require from one to two acres of land each, to keep them 
during the summer; but if housed, the produce of half or three-quarters of 
an acre will be sufficient. The best mode of feeding is as follows : From the 



20 FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 

first of May to the first of November, cows should be fed upon various suc- 
cessions of green food, and the more varied tlie better. When tlie various 
grasses liave been mown for the last time and consumed, the fresh leaves 
of cattle-beet and cabbage (tlie latter in small quantities, lest they should 
flavor tlie milk) will sujiplj' them with food until the roots of mangold- 
wurzel, &c., are ready for use. Tiiese roots are given with most advantage 
either steamed or boiled, or at least scalded with hot water, and chopped 
up and mixed with chaff, bran, &c., with a sprinkling of salt added to pro- 
mote digestion. The quantity of roots given daily to a cow producing 
milk, from November to May, may be stated at forty-two pounds of man- 
gold-wurzel, sixtj' pounds of Swedish turnips, or twenty-eight pounds of 
potatoes. When roots are given to a cow in their raw state, tiiey should 
be cut into small pieces, to prevent choking. Before clover, lucerne, and 
similar food is given to a cow, it should be cut some hours previously, to 
allow the fixed air to escape ; and it should also be given in small quanti- 
ties at a time, for if these precautions are not observed the animal is likely 
to over-gorge itself, and sometimes even burst. Turnips and carrots form 
excellent articles of food, and cannot be too strongly recommended, espe- 
cially for winter sustenance. Of all vegetable productions, however, the 
cabbage is perhaps the most exuberant, particularly the drum-headed 
species, which will be found to afford a supply of milk superior to any 
otlier vegetable. Any disagreeable flavor which the cabbage is sometimes 
liable to impart, may be removed by dissolving an ounce of saltpetre in a 
quart of spring water, and mixing about a quarter of a pint of it with ten 
or twelve gallons of the milk as it comes from the cow. A cow kept in 
confinement requires much hand-rubbing, to keep her skin in a healthy 
state, and prevent the irritation which is always the consequence of high 
feeding and want of air and exercise ; she should therefore be regularly 
curried and brushed. The labor thus bestowed assists in circulating the 
blood, and to exterminate the old hair in favor of the new. Thehour^of 
milking should be regular, and generally once in twelve hours, this being 
necessary for the due secretion of milk ; some cows, however, have such a 
flow of milk for the first three months after calving, especially in the 
months of May, June, and July, as to require to be milked three times a 
day. When a coio has been milked for several years, and begins to grow old, the 
most advantageous treatment is to make her dry. To effect this, bruise six 
ounces of white rosin, and dissolve it in a quart of water. The cow having 
been housed, should then be bled, and afterwards milked ; the above mix- 
ture should then be administered, and the animal finally turned into good 
grass. She is then no longer to be milked ; but to be fattened on rich 
vegetables. Co'os intended for breeding, should be carefully selected from 
those which give plenty of milk. During three months previously to calv- 
ing, if in the spring, they should be turned into sweet grass ; or if it happen 
in the winter, they ought to be well fed with the best hay. The day and 
night after they have calved, they should be kept in the house, and their 
drink confined to lukewarm water only. They may be turned out the next 
day, if the weather be warm, but regularly taken in for three or four suc- 
cessive nights ; or if the weather be damp and cold, it is better to gird their 
bodies round with, sacking, or to keep them wholly within. Cows thus 
housed, should be kept in every night, till the morning cold is dissipated, 
and a draught of warm water should be given them previously to their 
going to the field. If the udder of a milking cow becomes hard and painful, 
it should be fomented with warm water, and rubbed gently with the hand. 
Or if the teats are sore, they should be soaked in warm water twice a day ; 
and either be dressed with soft ointment, or washed with spirits and water. 
When any such complaints exist, the milk Iiad best be given to the pigs. 
To prevent cows from sucking their own milk, as some of them are apt to 
do, rub the teats frequently with strong rancid cheese, which will prove an 
effectual remedy. 
The Age of Cattle. — There are certain points connected with the den- 



FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 



21 



tition of the ox which ought to be understood by every practical farmer, 
for it is by the characters and changes of the incisor teetii of the lower jaw, 
that tiie age of tiie ox may be tlie most correctly estimated. The regular 
number of these incisors, as we liave stated, is eight ; but the first set are 
deciduous, being gradually shed, and replaced by a new series. The new- 




born calf has generally two central incisors protruding through the gum, and 
more or less developed; these, like the otiiers above to follow, are covered 
with white enamel, and have sharp edges and slender roots. About the 




SECOND WEEK. 



close of the second week, a tooth on each side of this central pair cuts the 
gum, making the number four ; at the end of the third week, the number 




THIRD WEEK. 

will be increased to six ; and at tlie termination of the fourth week the full 
number of the deciduous, or milk incisors, will be complete. At this time 



22 



FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 



the upper line of the sharp eds:es of the two central incisors has hesrun to 
wear, the osseous portion of the tooth appearing where tlie enamel is abrad- 
ed ; this increases, and, in the course of two months, tlie next teeth will 
begin to show signs of wearing, and in about three months tlie next in 
Buceession ; till in the course of four months or a little more, the wliole set 




FOURTH WEEK. 

Bhow tlie effects of use, but the four central teeth by far the most decidedly. 
At this time, independently of their wearing down by attrition, the two 
central teeth begin to diminish in size; at first this is not very perceptible, 
but in the course of a few months, the change will be very palpable. This 
diminution is the result of a process of absori)tion, which goes on with in- 
creased rapidity as the new teeth in their nutrient cells beneath, become 
more and more developed ; the worn surface of the teeth in question assumes 
a triangular form, with an oblique inclination inwards, the osseous portion 
appearing as a distinct central mark. At the age of about eight months the 




EIGHT MONTHS. 



diminution and wearing down of the two central incisors is very decided ; 
and before the close of the twelvemonth, the next incisor on each side will 
eliow the same appearance, and the four, instead of being close together, 




ELEVEN MONTHS. 



FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 



23 



will be separated from each other, especially at their base : at the close of 
fif te»in months, the number of teetli tlius diminished by absorption, worn by 




FIFTEEN MONTHS. 

nse. ind separated from each other, will extend to six ; and at the close of 
eigli'.een months tlie wliole eiglit will appear as little worn rudiments. 




EIGHTEEN MONTHS. 

During these changes the ox experiences more and more difficulty in crop- 
ping his herbage, and from tliis cause, and the action going on connected 
with tlie formative process of the permanent teeth, in their capsules or cells, 
the animal is subject to many disorders, and is liable to become out of con- 
dition, especially in pasture grounds where the herbage is not abundant 
and succulent. 

Still these rudiments of teeth remain for some months, their decrease 
continuing, first more especially in the two central teeth ; till, at the com- 
mencement of the second year, tlie two central permanent teeth shoot up. 




TWO YEARS 



24 



FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 



and push out the mere relics of their predecessors. Durinj ^ i icfss, 

the extremity, or alveolar margin of the jaw itself, is growi j. and w iden- 
ing, so as to afford room for the development of tlie rest of tl)e teeth y\et in 
their capsules ; and the increase of both teeth and jaw goes on in according 
harmony. It is not until towards the close of tlie second ye.ir that the 
next incisor on each side takes the place of its temporary predoce^ sor ; nor 




THIHD TEAR. 

until the close of the third that the next in rotation succeed. Tl 
milk-teeth, however, are now mere rudiments, and they give place 




FOURTH TEAR. 

close of the fourth, or beginning of the fifth year, to their successors ; ii 
all changes some allowance must be made for the vigor or tlie weakness 
of the animal ; but such is the average routine. 

The last teeth obtained are smaller than tlie rest, and can scarcely be said 
to be fully grown until a few months have elapsed. The whole set is com- 
plete, but while the outer teeth have been growing, the two central per- 




FIFTH TEAR. 



nanent teeth first, and then the next, have keen wearing, and show the 
narks of attrition ; which, at the age of six years, will have extended to 
he whole set. The teeth become flnttcned at the top, with a dark central 
nark, bounded by a line of bone, and this by the layer of enamel. As yet 



FARMERS AND GAROENERS. 



25 




SIXTH YEAR. 



tlie four middle teetli are the largest ; but, agiiin, by slow degrees, a 
change takes place, and tlie process of absorption and wearing down goes 
on. First, tlie two central teeth show this, then the next ou each side, till. 




TENTH TEAR. 

at the age of ten the four middle teeth are smaller than the outermost two 
on each side, whicli, nevertheless, are greatly worn. The animal has 
turned the grand climacteric, and the teetii continue more and more to 
show the ravages of age; but, as among other domestic animals, and the 
human species, not invariably to the same extent, the process being slower 
or quicker according to circumstances. At sixteen the ox is old, but there 
are many instances in which the cow will give milk to the age of eighteen 
or twenty; and rare cases are on record in which the cow has given milk, 
and suckled a calf, at the later date, even in her thirty-first or thirty-second 
year. 

With respect to the grinders, or molar teetli, they cannot be convenientlj' 
examined in tlie living animal ; nor, even were they accessible, could a very 
certain conclusion be deduced from them. 

The calf is born with one or two milk grinders on each side, above and 
below; but by the fifteenth or twentietli day, the number is increased to 
three. 

A fourth molar, permanent, appears in the sixth or eighth month after 
birth ; a fifth molar, permanent, in the twentieth or twenty-second month 
after birth ; and a sixth molar, in about the fiftieth or fifty-second month. 
The first milk molar is shed about the time when- the fifth molar appears, 
and the second and third, at intervals of ten or twelve months. 

Cattle. — Under this iiead is included the ox tribe. The first point to be 
ascertained in examining an ox is its purity of breed, and this may be ar- 
rived at from several indications. In a pure breed, the color of the bald 
skin on the nose and round the eyes is always definite, and without spots. 
When horns exist they should be small, tapering, and sharp pointed, longor 
short, according to the breed, and of a white color throughout in some 
breads, and tipped with black in others. The second point to be ascer- 
tained, is the form of the carcass. It is found that the nearer the section of 

2 



26 FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 

the carcass of a fat ox, taken lonjrituclinally, vertical, transversely vertical, 
and horizontally, ap]iroaches to 'tlie figure of a paralieloifram, the greater 
quantity of flesh will it carry within tiie same measurement : to do tiiis, it 
should possess tlie following configuration: — Tlie back sliould be straiglit 
from the top of the slioulder to tlie tail. Tlie tail should fall perpendicu- 
larly from the line of the back. The buttocks and twist should be well 
filled out. The brisket should project to a line dropped from the middle of 
the neck. The belly should be straiglit longitudinally, round laterally, and 
filled at the flanks. The ribs should be round, projecting horizontally, and 
at right angles to the back. The hocks should be wide and flat; and the 
rump from the tail to the hocks should be well filled. The loin bones 
should be long, broad, flat, and well filled ; but the space between the hocks 
and the short ribs should be rather short and well arched over, with a 
thickness of beef between the hocks. A long hollow from the hocks to the 
short ribs indicates a weak constitution, and an indifferent thriver. From 
the loin to the shoulder-blade should be nearly of one breadtli, and from 
thence it should taper a little to the point of the shoulder. The neck-vein 
should be well filled forward, to complete the line from the neck to the 
brisket. The covering on the shoulder-blade should be as full out as the 
buttocks. The middle ribs siioidd be well filled, to complete the line from 
the shoulders to the buttocks along the projection of the outside of the 
ribs ; these constitute the principal points that are essential toa /«^ ox. The 
first of the points in judging of a lean ox, is the nature of the bone. A 
round, thick boi'e indicates both a slow feeder and an inferior description of 
flesii. A flat bone, when seen on a side view, and narrow when viewed 
either from behind or before the animal, indicates the opposite properties of 
a round bone. The whole bones in the carcass should bear a small propor- 
tion in bulk and weight to the flesh, the bones being only required as a sup- 
port to the flesh. The texture of the bone should be small grained and 
hard. The bones of the head should be fine and clean, and only covered 
with skin and muscle, and not with lumps of fat and flesh, which always 
give a heavy-headed, dull appearance to an ox. The fore-arm and hock 
shouhl be clean and full of muscle, to endure travelling. Large joints indi- 
cate bad feeders. The neck should be small from the middle to the lieail. 
A full, clear, and prominent eye, is a nice indication of good breeding, and 
an excellent index of many properties in the ox. A dull heavy eye unmis- 
takeably indicates a slow feeder. A rolling eye, showing much white, is 
expressive of a restless, capricious disposition, which is incompatible with 
quiet feeding. A cheerful clear eye accompanies good health ; a dull one 
indicates the probable existence of some internal lingering disease; the 
dullness of 'eye, however, arising from internal disease is of a totally differ- 
ent character from a natural or constitutional phlegmatic dullness. The 
next jioint to be ascertained is the state of the skiti. A thick firm skin, wliich 
is generally covered with a thick-set, hard, short hair, always feels hard to 
the touch, and indicates a bad feeder. A thin, meagre, papery skin, covered 
with thin silky hair is indicative of weakness of constitution, though of good 
feeding properties. A perfect skin is thick and loose, floating, as it were, 
on a layer of soft fat, yielding to the least pressure, and springing back to 
the finger, like a piece of soft, thick chamois leather ; it is also covered with 
thick glossy soft hair. The other greatest points are, that the head should 
be small and set on the neck, as if easily carried by the animal. The face 
long from the eyes to the-point of the nose. The skull broad across the 
eyes, contracteil a little above them, but tajjering considerably below tliera 
to the nose. The muzzle fine and small ; the nostrils capacious ; the ears 
large, slightly erect, and transparent ; the neck short and light. A droop of 
the neck from the top of the shoulder to the head indicates weakness of 
constitution. The legs below the knees should be rather short 
than long, and clean made. The tail rather thick than otherwise, 
and provided with a large tuft of long hair. The position of the Jlrsh is 
important : that part called the spare rib, or the fore and middle ribs 



FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 27 

should be well covered. The division between the horns called the closing, 
should be characterized by a tliick layer of fat, a thick flank, and a full 
neck bend. The last points are the shoulder joint and shoulder, and if 
these parts are well covered, the animal may be considered matured. When 
the frame of a short horn ox is scrutinized, it will be found to present a 
straight level back from behind the horns to the top of the tail, full but- 
tocks, and a projecting brisket. There is also the level loin across the 
hook-bones, the level top of the shoulder across the ox, and perpendicular 
lines down tlie hind and fore legs on both sides ; these constituting tlie 
square forms when the ox is viewed before and behind. There are also 
parallel lines from the sides of the shoulders, along the outmost points of 
the ribs, to the sides of the hind quarters ; and these lines are connected at 
tiieir ends by others of shorter and equal length, across the end of the 
rump and the top of the shoulder; thus constituting tlie rectangular form 
of the ox when viewed from above down upon the back. It may be pretty 
accurately asserted, that the carcass of a full-fed, symmetrical, short-horn 
ox, inelmled witiiin the rectangle, is in length double its depth, and in depth 
equal to its breadth. 

Cure for Horn Ail or Hollow Horn. — This disorder usually attacks 
cattle in the spring, after a severe winter ; likewise those tliat are in poor 
flesl;, or those that have been overworked and exposed to severe storms, or 
reduced by other diseases, are pre-disposed to take it. Symi)toms — e^'es 
dull, discliarging yellow matter, dizziness, loss of appetite, shaking of the 
liead, bloody urine, coldness of the horns, stupidity, and great debility. 
Cure. — Split the tail up two or three inches, take one quarter pound of 
black pepper, and a handful of fine salt, and bind on the tail. This is a 
sure cure. 

To Extract Rancidity from Butter.^— Take a small quantity, that is 
wanted for immediate use. For a pound of the butter dissolve a couple of 
teasjioonfuls of saleratus in a quart of boiling water, put in the butter, mix 
it well with the saleratus water, and let it remain till cold, then take it off 
carefully, and work a teaspoonful of salt into it. Butter treated in this 
manner answers very well to use in cooking. 

Eye Water for Horses and Cattle. — Alcohol, 1 tablespoonful ; ex- 
tract of lead, 1 teaspoonful ; rain water, \ pint. 

Cure for Foot Rot in Sheep. — Take two pounds of blue vitriol ; three- 
fourths of a pound of verdigris ; one pint of spirits of turpentine ; four 
quarts of chamber lye ; simmer well together, take all the sheep, pare the 
foot so as to be sure to get all the infection out, then stand them in this so 
as to have it cover tlfe feet. Repeat this two or three times, and a cure will 
be effected. 

To Improve the Wool of Sheep, by Smearing. — Immediately after 
tlie sheep are shorn, soak the roots of the wool that remains all over with 
oil, or butter, and brimstone,' and, three orfour days afterwards, wash tliem 
with salt and water. The wool of next season will not be much finer, but 
the quantity will be in greater aljundance. It may be depended upon, that 
the sheep will not be troubled with the scab or vermin that year. Salt 
water is a safe and effectual remedy against maggots. 

To Increase the Flow of Milk in Cows. — Give j'our cows three times 
a day, water slightly warm, slightly salted, in wl:ich bran has been stirred 
at tlie rate of 1 qt. to 2 gals, of water. You will find if you have not tried 
this daily practice, that the cow will give 25 per cent, more milk, and she 
will become so much attached to the diet that she will refuse to drink clear 
water miless very thirsty, but this mess she will drink at almost any time, 
and ask for more. The amount of this drink necessary is an ordinary 
water-pail full each time, morning, noon, and night. Avoid giving cows 
" slops," as they are no more fit for the animal than the human. 

To Keep Eggs Several Months. — It is a good plan to buy eggs for 
family use when clieap, and preserve them in the following manner: Mix 
half a pint of unslaked lime with the same quantity of salt, a couple of gal- 



28 FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 

Ions of water. Tlie water sliould be turned on boiling hot. Wlien cold, 
put in tlie eggs, wliicli should be perfectly fresli, and care should be taken 
not to crack any of tlieni — if cracked, tJiey will spoil directly. The eggs 
sliould be entirely covered with tlie lime-water, and kept in a stone pot, and 
tlie pot set in a cool place. If the above directions are strictly attended to, 
the eggs will keep good five months. The lime water should not be so 
strong as to eat the sliell, and all the eggs should be perfectly fresh when 
put in, as one bad one will spoil the whole. 

Thoeley's Condimental Food. — The following is a formula to make 1 
ton of the food ; Take of Indian meal 900 lbs., locust beans finel}' ground 
600 lbs., best linseed cake 300 lbs., powdered turmeric and sulphur of each 
40 lbs., salti)etre 20 lbs., licorice 27 lbs., ginger 3 lbs., anise-seed 4 lbs., cor- 
iander and gentian.of each 10 lbs., cream of tartar 2 lbs., carbonate of soda 
and levigated antimony each 6 lbs., common salt 30 lbs., Peruvian bark 4 
lbs., fenugreek 22 lbs., mix thorouglily. 

To Preserve Herbs. — All kinds of herbs sliould be gathered on a dry 
day, just before, or while in blossom. Tie them in bundles, and suspend 
them in a dry, airy place, witli tiie blossoms downwards. When perfectly 
dry, wrap the medicinal ones in paper, and keep them from the air. Pick 
off the leaves of those which are to be used in cooking, pound and sift them 
fine, and keep the powder in bottles, corked up tigiit. 

Mdch Butter from Little Milk. — Take 4 ozs. pulverized alum, ^ oz. 
pulverized gum-arabic, 50 grs. of pepsine; place it in a bottle for use as re- 
quired. A teaspoonful of tliis mixture added to 1 pt. of new milk will, upon 
churning, make 1 lb. of butter. Agents are selling this secret for $2.5. 

To Make Salt Butter Fresh. — When butter has too much salt in it, 
put to each pound of it a quart of fresh milk, and cliurn it an hour ; then 
treat it like fresh butter, working in the usual quantity of salt. A little 
white sugar worked in, improves it. Tliis is said to be equal to fresh but- 
ter. Salt may be takeii out of a small quantity of fresh butter, by working 
it over, in clean fresh water, changing the water a number of times. 

Churning. — In churning butter, if small granules of butter appear 
which do not " gather," throw in a lump of butter and it will form a nu- 
cleus and the butter will " come." 

A Mode of Preparing and Preserving Butter. — After the cream is 
placed in the churn, pour by small poriions at a time, agitating the while, 
sufiicient lime-water to destroy the acidity. Churn until tlie butter is sep- 
arated ; it will not collect in lumps ; pour off the butter-milk and churn 
till it is all collected. More butter will be obtained aud it will keep much 
longer. 

To Protect Fruit-trees from Attacks of Mice, etc. — Tar, 1 part ; 
tallow, 3 parts ; mix. Apply hot to tlie bark of the tree with a paint brush. 

Sheep-Dipping Composition. — Water,! gal.; benzine, 8 ounces; cay- 
enne pepper, 2 ounces. Mix ; make what quantity you require, using these 
proportions. Dip your sheep and lambs in the composition, and it will 
make short work of the vermin. 

New Method of Planting Corn. — Corn soaked in tar-water and then 
rolled in plaster will j'ield more, be of a better color, and ripen sooner, and 
will not be disturbed by birds or worms. 

To Preserve Timber. — It is said that if one pound of sulphuric acid is 
mixed with forty pounds of water, timber innnersed therein will not rot, 
and that the underground portion of posts wiiriast for many more years for 
being so treated. 

To Dry Herbs. — Select the shoots just as the flowers form and show 
color, but before they expand ; suspend them in an airy situation, under 
cover, not exposed to the sun. 

To Sprout Onions. — Pour hot water on the seed, let it remain 2 or 3 
seconds, and they will inunediately sprout, and come up much earlier. 

Cultivation of Blackberries. — If any reader is making his first ex- 
periment in the culture of blackberries, let me give him a word of advice, 



FARMERS AND GARDEXERS. 29 

to wit, that he try mulchhig instead of hoeing the plants. If, however, he 
has a large lot of them, set in rows so that a~horse cultivator can be used 
between them, it may be best to cultivate and iioe. But for small patches 
I think mulching is better for keeping down tlie weeds and keeping the soil 
cool and loose round the phints. I used to try hoeing, but the rows were 
very near together so I could not use a cultivator, and I found in a short 
time I had gotten hold of a bad job. Wherever I cut a root with my hoe 
there a shoot would spring up, and very soon I had three plants where there 
was room but for one. Becoming disgusted with tliis method of culture I 
took up my plants and decided to mulch instead of hoeing. Old hay or 
straw costs but little, will keep down weeds and promote the growth of the 
plants. Let those who have been in the habit of hoeing give mulching a 
trial. 

To Burn Lime Without a Kiln. — Make a pyramidal pile of large lime- 
stones, with an arched furnace near the ground for putting in the fuel, leav- 
ing a narrow vent or funnel at the top ; now cover the whole pile with earth 
or turf, in tiie way that charcoal heaps are covered, and put in tlie fire. The 
heat will be more completely diffused through the pile, if the aperture in 
the top is partially closed. Produces a superior article of lime. 

Cure for Scab or Itch in Sheep. — Take sulphur, two ounces ; pow- 
dered sassafras, one ounce; honTy sufficient to make into a paste. Dose, a 
tablespoonf ul every morning. Use, at the same time, a wash made of one 
gill pyroligneous acid, and one quart of water, mixed. Apply with a sponge. 
If a few applications do not remove the difficuFty take half-pint fir balsam, 
and one ounce sulphur, well mi.xed, and anoint the sores daily. A single 
sheep infected is sufficient to infect a whole flock. 

How TO Form Springs. — The finest springs can be made by boring, 
which is performed by forcing an iron rod into the earth by its own weight, 
turning it round, and forcing it up and down by a spring pole contrivance. 
Tiie water will sometimes spout up several feet above tlie surface. Iron 
pipes are put down in the hole after the water is found. Depressed situa- 
tions, having a southern exposure, with rising ground towards the north, 
are tlie best situations in the United States or the Canadas to find water. 

Cure for Mange in Cattle. — Make a wash of four ounces pyrolig- 
neous acid and one pint of water. Apply daily. At the same time, take 
two ounces powdered sassafras, a handful powdered charcoal, and one 
ounce of sulphur. Mix well together, and divide into six parts ; one to be 
given in tiie feed night and morning. As the mange is infectious, the cattle 
troubled with it should be removed from the rest of the herd. 

Food For Singing Birds. — Blanched sweet almonds, pulverized, i lb. ; 
pea meal, 1 lb. ; saffron, 3 grs. ; yolks of two hard boiled eggs. Reduce 
all to a powder by rubbing through a sieve. Place the mixture in a fry- 
ing pan over a fire, and add 2 oz. butter, and 2 oz. honey. Slightly cook for 
a few minutes, stirring well, then set off to cool, and preserve in a closely 
corked bottle. 

When Grain Should be Cut. — A most important question for the far- 
mer. Careful observation and some little experience, during twenty years 
residence in a great wlieat-growing country, have convinced the writer that 
fully ten per cent, is saveil on the crop to the farmer to cut his wheat before 
the grain is fully ripe. Our rule is to commence cutting as soon as the 
earliest part of the crop has passed from the milky into the dough state. 
There is no occasion to let it lay to cure when cut while the straw is still 
partially green. Bind it up as fast as cut, and set the bundles in stocks. 
"Dutch fashion ;" set in this way, the most unripe grain will cure and per- 
fect itself. 

Composition for Driving Out Rats, etc. — Keep on hand a quantity 
of chloride of lime. The whole secret consists in scattering it dry all 
around their haunts and into their holes, and they will leave at once, or a 
liberal decoction of coal tar placed in the entrance of their holes will do aa 
well. 



30 FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 

Cure for Cholic in Cattle. — Take powdered aniseed, half teaspoonful; 
powdered cinnamon, half teaspoonful. Mix, and give iu a quart of spear 
mint tea. Repeat, if necessary. 

Another. — If tlie animal suffers much pain, apply fomentations to the belly, 
and give the following injection : Powdered ginger, half ounce; common 
salt, one tablespoonf td ; hot water, one gallon. 

To Dissolve Large Bones for Manure without Expense. — Take any 
old flour barrel, and put into the bottom a layer of hardwood ashes ; put a 
layer of bones on the top of the ashes, and add anotiier layer of ashes, 
filling the space between the bones with them ; then add bones and aslies 
alternatel}', finishing off with a thick layer of ashes. When your barrel is 
filled, pour on water (urine is better), just sufficient to keep them wet, but 
do not on any account suffer it to leacii one drop ; for that would be like 
leaching 3'our dungheap. In the course of time they will heat, and even- 
tually soften down so that you can crumble them with j'our finger. When 
sufiieiently softened, dump them out of the barrel on a heap of dry loam, 
and pulverize and crumble them up till they are completely' amalgamated 
into one homogeneous mass with the loam, so that it can be easily handled 
and distributed when required. You may rely upon it, this manure will 
leave its mark, and show good results whenever used. 

Substitute for Superphosphate. — If you have inch bone ground in a 
bone-mill, and cannot afford to purchase sulphuric acid to Avork it up into 
superphosphate of lime, yon can reduce your bones into a fine impalpable 
powder by simply using three barrels of loamy soil to ever}' barrel of inch 
bones ; mix them together. The bones will soon begin to heat and ferment, 
and continue so for some time ; they will then cool off. You will then pro- 
ceed to chop down and pulverize and work the mass thorougldy ; it will 
begin to reheat and ferment and cool down again; and you will continue 
working it over till the contents are brought to the proper state of fineness, 
when you will have a fertilizer of astonishing power. It is only a year or 
two since a statement appeared in the " Country Gentleman, " of the exper- 
iments of a Mr. Haskell, with a manure prepared after this method, who 
found it even superior to superphosphate of lime, 

Fish Compost, Substitute for Eone-Dust, Manure from Fish Re- 
fuse, &c. — The fish owes its fertilizing value to the animal matter and bone- 
earth which it contains. The former is precisely similar to flesh or blood, 
consisting of 25 per cent, of fibrin, the rest being water ; and their bones are 
similar in composition to those of terrestrial animals. As fertilizing agents, 
therefore, tlie bodies of the fishes will act nearly in the same way as the 
bodies and blood of animals ; 100 lbs. in decaying, produces 2^ lbs. of am- 
monia. Hence 400 lbs. of fish rotted in compost are enough for an acre. The 
great effect is due to the ammoniacal portion; for it renders the herbage 
dark-green, and starts it very rapidly. One of the best composts is made as 
follows ; Dried bog-earth, loam, or peat, seven barrels ; hardwood ashes, two 
barrels ; fish, one barrel ; slaked lime, one bushel. Place a thick layer of 
bogearth on the bottom ; on the top of this put a layer of the fish, then a 
sprinkling of lime, then a \nyev of ashes ; on the top of the ashes put a thick 
layer of bogearth, loam or peat ; then another thin layer of fish, lime, and 
ashes, and so on till your materials are worked in ; then top off with a thick 
layer of tlie absorbents, to retain the fertilizing gases. The decomposition 
of the fish will proceed very rapidly, and a very rich compost will be the 
result. It should be shovelled over and over and thoroughly intermixed 
and pulverized Put this on so as to have 400 lbs. of fish to the acre. It 
may be applied with the greatest benefit to corn, turnips, potatoes, beans, 
etc., in the drill, and broad cast on the grass. 

Superphosphate can be made from pogy-chum, or the refuse of otherfish, 
after the oil is expressed by dissolving in sulphuric acid, and afterwards mix- 
ing with dry loam, precisely as directed for making superphosphate with 
bones. Whale-oil or the oil of any fish, when made into a compost with 
loam, and a little lime or wood ashes, yields a very powerful manure, merely 



FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 31 

mixed with absorbent eartli, and applied at the end of the month. Impure 
wiiale-oil, at tlie rate of 40 gallons per acre, has produced a crop of 23^ ^ona 
of turnips })er acre ; while on the same soil, and during the same season, it 
took 40 bushels of bone-dust to proiliice only 22 tons per acre. 

Superphosphate in Twenty-four Hours. — Any farmer who has got 
an apj>aratus for steaming food for cattle can make superpiiosphate in quick 
st3de by admitting steam from the boiler into the barrel containing the water, 
acid, and ground bones. The heat thus generated quickens the dissolution 
of the bones in a wonderfid manner; and, if tlie process is properly con- 
ducted, it will not take over/wenty-four hours in any case. It is indispen- 
sable tliat the barrel be tightly covered to retain the steam. 

The Tuberose. — To cultivate the tuberose, that most beautiful of 
all plants, put the bulbs in six-inch pots, three in each, and use a mixture of 
equal parts turfy loam, peat, and leaf mould, and ])lace in the pit. Give very 
little water at first, and as they commence to grow freely increase it and 
keep near the glass. When they begin to push up their flower-spikes they 
will of necessity require to be ])laced wiiere they will have sufficient space 
for the proper development of the tall spikes. Tiiese will come into bloom 
from August to October, when they will require a temperature ranging from 
60° to 70°, the latter being preferable. If wanted to bloom earlier, the 
pots should be placed in a warm pit, and on a hot-bed, the temi)erature of 
which is about 75 degrees, to start them into growth more quickly. 

Arranging Flower Beds. — A few simple rules in the arrangement of 
flower beds may materially enliance the elfect produced. Among these are: 
(1.) Avoid placing rose-colored next to scarlet, orange or violet. (2.) Do 
not place orange next to yellow, or blue next to violet . (3.) White relieves 
any color, but do not place it next to the yellow. (4.) Orange goes well with 
blue, and yellow with violet. (5.) Rose color and purple always go good 
togetiier. 

Coloring for Cheese. — Tlie coloring for t-heese is, or at least should 
be, Spanish annatto ; but, as soon as coloring became general in this country, 
a color of an adulterated kin<l was exposed for sale in almost every sliop. 
The weight of a guinea and a half of real Spanish aimatto is sufficient for 
a cheese of fifty pounds' weight. If a considerable part of the cream of tlie 
nights' milk be taken for butter, more coloring will be requisite. The leaner 
the cheese is, the more coloring it requires. The manner of using annatto 
is to tie up in a linen rag the quantity deemed sufficient, and put it into ^ 
pt. of warm water over night. This infusion is put into the tub of milk in 
the morning with the rennet infusion ; dipping the rag into the milk, and 
rubbing it against the palm of the hand as long as any color runs out. The 
yolk of egg will color butter. 

Oat or Wheat Straw made equal to Hat. — Bring 10 gallons water 
to a boiling heat ; take it off the fire^ and add to it at once 3 gallons of lin- 
seed unground ; let it remain till it gets cold; tlien empty the whole into a 
cnsk containing 44 gallons of cold water, and let it remain for forty-eight 
hours. At the end of that time, it will be reduced into a thin jelly, like 
arrowroot. Spread out j4 ton strjiw, and sprinkle it over regularly with the 
whole of the liquid from the cask. The stock will eat it up as clean, and 
keep as fat on it, quantity for quantity, as they would do on hay. 

To Destroy the Moth or Miller. — Dr. Waterman says : " I took 
two white dishes (because white attracts their attention in the night) or 
plates, and placed them on the top of the hives, and filled them about half- 
full of sweetened vinegar. The next morning I had about 50 millers caught; 
the second night I caught 50 more ; the third night being cold, I did not get 
any, the fourtii night being very warm, I caught about 400 ; the fifth night 
I got about 200." 

How TO double the usual Quantity of Manure on a Farm. — Provide 
a good supply of black swamp mould or loam from the woods, within easy 
reach of your stable, and place a layer of this one foot thick, under 
each horse, with litter as usual, on the top of the loam or mould, Remove 



32 FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 

the droppings of tlie animals every day, but let the loam remain for two 
weeks ; tlieii remove it, mixing it with tlie other manure, and replace with 
fresh mould. By tliis simple means, any farmer can double not only the 
quantity but also tlie quality of his manure, and never feel himself one 
penny tiie poorer by the trouble or expense incurred, while tlie fertilizing 
value of the ingredients absorbed and saved by the loam can scarcely be 
estimared. 

Josiaii Quincy, jun., lias been very successful in keeping cattle in stables 
tjie year through, and feeding tlieni by means of soiling. The amount of 
manure thus made has enabled him to improve the fertility'' of a poor farm 
of 100 acres, so that in twenty years the hay crop had increased from 20 
to 300 tons. The cattle are kept in a well-arranged stable, and are left out 
in the yard an hour or two morning and afternoon ; but they generally ap- 
pear glad to return to tlieir quarters. By this process, one acre enables 
him to support three or four cows. They are fed on grass, green oats, corn 
fodder, barley, etc., which are sown at intervals through the spring and 
summer montlis, to be cut as required ; but he remarks that his most val- 
uable crop is his manure crop. Each cow produces 3J^ cords of solid, and 
3 cords of liquid manure, or 6^ cords in all. Five to eight miles from 
Boston, such manure is worth five to eight dollars a cord. From tiiis 
estimate, he lias come to the conclusion that a cow's manure may be made 
as valuable as her milk. 

Home-made Poudrette. — Few fertilizers are wasted with tlie prodigal- 
ity of extravagance wiiich attends the use of night soil, while the exercise 
of a little care and attention is all that is required to secure one of the most 
powerful fertilizers in existence. Night soil contains phosphate of lime, 
vvhicii is essentiiil to the growth of animals' bones, and which is not sup- 
plied from the atmosphere like carbonic acid, and ammonia. In order to 
receive the droppings in a manageahle«ind inoffensive state, the vault should 
be provided with a large, tight box made of matched plank, placed to slide 
on scantling, so that it can be drawn out by attaching a iiorse, whenever re- 
quired. Provide plenty of dry, black loam from tiie woods or swamps ; 
refuse charcoal, dry peat, or alluvial deposits answer first-rate. Keep tliem 
dry, in barrels or boxes on the spot, under cover; spread a thick layer on 
the bottom of the receiving box, and at intervals of a few days throw in a 
liberal supply of these absorbents on the accumulating deposit. If a few 
handfuls of plaster are thrown in occasionally, it will suppress unpleasant 
odors and increase the value of the manure. Tlie emptying of slops and 
dish water in the box should be strictly prohibited. When the box is filled 
you can remove it, and convert it into poudrette. For this purpose it must 
be worked over with an additional quantity of muck, or other absorbent, 
in such proportions that it will form, with what has been previously added, 
about three-quarters of the entire compound. The working shouhl be done 
under a shed, and the whole be kept perfectly dry. It should be .sihoveled 
over and mixed several times at intervals, and finally screened, and made 
as uniform throughout as possible ; the finer it is pulverized, and the drier it 
is kept, the better. 

Packing Fruits for Long Distances. — Take a box of the proper size, 
soft paper, and sweet bran. Place a la3'er of bran on the bottom, then each 
bnncli of grapes is iield by the hand over a sheet of the jiaper ; the four 
corners of the paper are brought up to tiie stalk and nicely secured ; then 
laid on its side in the box, and so on until the first layer is finished. Then 
dust on a layer of bran, giving the box a gentle shake as you proceed. 
Begin the second layer as the first, and so on until the whole is full. The 
bloom of the fruit is thus preserved as fresli, iit the end of a journey of 
500 miles, as if they were newly taken from the tree. Never fails to pre- 
serve grapes, peaches, ajiricots, and other fruit. 

To Renew Old Orchards. — Early in the spring, plough the entire 
orchard, aiul enrich the whole soil with a good dressing of compost of ma- 
nure, swamp-muck, and lime ; scrape off the old hark with a deck-scraper^ 



FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 33 

or a sharp hoe ; apply half a busliel of lime, and the same of ground chaf- 
coal round eaeli tree. Then apply diluted soft soap, or strong soap suds, on 
the trunks and limbs, as higli as a man can reach. Wlien tlie trees are in 
full bloom, throw over tliem a good proportion of fine slaked lime, and 
you will reap abundant fruits from your labors. 

To Destroy Caterpillars' Eggs.— Caterpillars' eggs in apple orchards, 
wliich during tlie montli of April form small rings on the last year's shoots, 
should be cut otf anil burned, every one of which, if left, will form a large 
nest, and strip all the leaves on the branch wliich holds it. 

Draining Orchards. — Apple orchards, on heavy soils or wet sub- 
soils, are often injured in growth and in crops. Draining by running 
ditches with tile midway between the rows, will do them much good. As 
the operation must cut otf many of the small roots, it should be performed 
in spring before tlie buds open ; if left till the trees are in leaf, it will more 
or less check their growth. 

Early Potatoes.— Potatoes may be planted as soon as the frost is out 
of the ground, and will not be injured if the white frost does come after 
they are up. .We make a gain of at least one week in the early garden 
potatoes, by starting them in tlie end of a hot-bed, setting them out in rows 
in open ground after tiiey are furnished with green leaves. In one case a 
white frost cut tiie tops afterwards, but there were enough left for the plants 
to grow and give a good crop. They might be protected by newspapers 
when frost is thref^tened. The cut pieces were placed in contact in the hot- 
bed, and buried an inch or two in depth. 

Two liorses may be made to draw unequal portions of a load, by divid- 
ing the bar attached to the carriage in such a manner that the weaker 
horse may draw upon the longer end of it. 

Foot Ointment (for all domestic animals).— Equal parts of tar, lard and 
resin, melted together. 

Ashes from Soil by Spontaneous Combustion.— Make your mound 
21 feet long by 1(4 feet wide. To fire, use 72 bushels of lime. First 
a layer of dry sods or parings on which a quantity of lime is spread, 
mixing sods witli it ; then a covering of eiglit inches of sods, on which the 
other half of the lime is spread, and covered a foot thick, the height of tiie 
mound being about a yard. In twenty-four hours it will take fire. Tlie 
lime should be fresh from tiie kiln. It is better to suffer it to ignite itself 
than to etfect it by the operation of water. When the fire is fairlj' kindled, 
fresh sods must be applied ; but get a good body of ashes in the first place. 
I tliink it may be fairly supposed that the lime adds full its worth to the 
qualify of the ashes, and, when limestone can be got, I would advise the 
burning a small quantity in the mounds, which would be a great improve- 
ment to the ashes, and would help to keep the fire in. 

Remedy for Curculio in Fruit Trees. — Sawdust saturated in coal oil 
and placed at the roots of tiie tree, will be a sure preventive ; or, clear a circle 
around the tree from all rubbish ; fill up all little holes and smooth off the 
ground for a distance of at least 3 feet each way from the tree, then place 
chips or small jiieces of wood on the ground within the circle ; the curculio 
will take refuge in large numliers below the chips, and you can pass around 
in the mornings and kill them off. 

Mr. Culley's Red Salve, TO cure the Rot in Sheep. — Mix 4 oz. of 
the best honey, 2 oz. of burnt alum reduced to ]iowder, and ia pound of Ar- 
menian bole, with as much train or fish oil as will convert these ingredients 
into the consistence of a salve. The hoiiej' must first be gradually dis- 
solved, when the Armenian bole must be stirred in ; afterwards the alum 
and train-oil are to be added. 

The Great Secrets for Trapping Foxes and other Game. — Musk- 
rat musk and skunk musk mixed. Can be procured at the druggists, or 
from the animals themselves. To be spread on the bait of any trap. This 
receipt has been sold as high as S75. Another, costing $-J0, for mink, ^-c. — 
Unslaked lime, ^Ib. ; sal-ammoniac, 3 oz., or muriate of ammonia, 3 oz. 

2* 



34 FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 

Mix, and pulverize. Keep in a covered vessel a few days until a thorough 
admixture takes place. Sprinkle on the bait, or on the ground around the 
trap. Keep in a corked bottle. 

To Kekp Vkgetables through the Winter. — Succulent vegetables 
are preserved l)est in a cool, shady place, that is damp. Turnips, Irish po- 
tatoes, and similar vegetables, should be protected from the air and frost by 
being buried up in sand, and in very severe cold weatlier covered over with 
a linen clotii. It is said that the dust of ciiarcoal, sprinkled over potatoes 
will keep them from sprouting. I liave also lieard it said, tliat Carolina 
potatoes may be kept a number of months, if treated in the following man- 
ner: Take tliose tliat are large, and perfectly free from decay — pack tliem 
in boxes of dry sand, and set the boxes in a place exposed to the influence 
of smoke and inaccessible to frost. 

A Cheap Method of Preserving Cucumber Plants from the Small 
Fly or Bug. — Break off the stalks of onions wiiich have been set out in the 
spring, and stick down five or si.x of tliem ineacli liill of cucumbers, and the 
bug will immediately leave them. Il would be well, after a few days, to 
renew them ; but one application has frequently been found to be complete- 
ly effectual. 

Grafting Wax. — Five parts of resin ; one part of beeswax ; one part of 
tallow. Melt tliese in a skillet, tin cup or any metal vessel ; the skillet 
being preferable, as it can be handled better, and the wa.v keeps warm 
longer in it. Melt these over the fire and mix together well. When the 
scions are set — say as many as twenty or thirty, or as few as are wished — 
have tiie mixture ready and apply it warm, witli a small wooden paddle. 
See that every part is covered and the air completely excluded. It requires 
no bandage. 

To Prevent Decay of Farm Implements.— When not in use have 
them sheltered from tlie sun, wind, rain, and snow. By tliis means, sleiglis, 
wagons, carts, ploughs, threshing-macliines, harrows, and the like, would 
last twice as long as they would if left in the open air, swelling from moist- 
ure one week, and shrinking the next from the influence of the sun and 
wind. 

To Cleanse Wool.— Make a hot bath composed of water 4 parts, urine 
1 part, enter the wool, teasing and opening it out to admit the full action 
of tile liquid; after 20 minutes' immersion, remove from the liquid and al- 
low it to drain, then rise it in clean running water, and spread out to dry. 
The liquid is good for subsequent oi)erations, only keep up the proportions, 
and use no soap. 

Live Stock.— Different kinds of stock should be kept separate, both in 
the fields and yards. Heavy losses are always occurring from allowing 
horses, cows, sheep, pigs and fowls to run in one yard. Horses in their play 
will kick or scare cows, and a cow near her time may lose the calf in con- 
sequence ; cows will hook sheep ; pigs will kill and eat lambs and chickens; 
and small stock are trodden on by the heaviest animals. In the arrange- 
ment of the yards for winter this should be thought of, and plenty of room 
given each kind of stock by itself. 

To Mark Sheep without Injury to the Wool. — To 30 spoonfuls of 
linseed oil, add 2 oz. of litharge, 1 oz. of lampblack; boil all together, and 
mark the sheep therewith. 

Underground Draining and Subsoil Plowing prevent ground from 
ever becoming too wet or too dry. The draining and loosening the earth 
admits the air ; the coldness of the earth condenses the air in the same man- 
ner that a pitcher containing ice-water does in warm weather. By this 
method air is also supplied to the roots of plants, which is equally import- 
ant. No farmer shoulii delay a single season to commence this most im- 
portant branch of agriculturaJ economy. 

To Free Barns and Out-houses from Mites and Weevils.— Let the 
walls and rafters, above and below, of such granaries be covered completely 
with quicklime, slacked in water, in which wormwood, hyssop, and uux 



FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 35 

vomica should be previously boiled. Apply this composition as hot as pos- 
sible. 

Sheep Ticks— May be destroyed with the decoction of lobelia seed, made 
as above. 

Home-made Guano of Unequalled Excellence. — Save all your fowl 
manure from sun and rain. To prepare it for use, spread a layer of dry 
swamp muck (the blacker it is the better) on your barn floor, and dump on 
it the whole of j'our fowl manure ; beat it into a fine powder with the back 
of your spade ; tills done, add liard wood ashes and plaster of Paris, so that 
the compound sliall be composed of the following proportions ; dried muck, 
4 bushels ; fowl manure, 2 bushels ; aslies, 1 bushel ; plaster, 1^ busliels. 
Mix thoroughly, and spare no labor ; for, in this matter, the elbow-grease 
expended will be well paid for. A little before planting, moisten tiie heap 
witli water, or better still, with urine ; cover well over with old mats, and 
let it lie till wanted for use. Apply it to the beans, corn, or potatoes, at 
the rate of a liandful to a hill ; and mix with the soil before dropping the 
seed. This will be found the best substitute for giumo ever invented, and 
may be depended on for bringing great crops of turnips, corn, potatoes, 
&c. 

Twenty Dollars' Worth of Manure for Almost Nothing. — If you 
have any dead animal, — say, for instance, the body of a horse, — do not suf- 
fer it to pollute the atmosphere br drawing it away to the woods or any 
other out of the way i)lace, but remove it a sliort distance only from your 
premises, and put down four or five loads of muck or sods, place the car- 
cass thereon, and sprinkle it over with quick-lime, and cover over im 
mediatelj' with sods or mould sufficient to make, with what had been pre- 
viously added, 20 good wagon-l(>a<ls ; and you will hav3 within twelve 
months a pile of manure worth $20 for any crop you choose to put it 
upon. Use a proportionate quantity of mould for smaller animals, but 
never less, than twenty good wagon-loads for a horse ; and, if any dogs 
manifest too great a regard for the enclosed carcass, shoot them on the 
spot. 

To Cultivate Tobacco. — To raise tobacco, select a sheltered situation, 
where the young plants can receive the full force of the sun ; burn over the 
surface of the ground early in spring (new land is best), rake it well, anif 
sow the seeds ; have a dry, mellow, rich soil, and after a shower, when the 
plants iiave got leaves the size of a quarter-dollar, transplant as j^ou would 
cabbage plants 3^ feet apart, and weed out carefully afterwards. Break 
off the suckers from the foot-stalks, as they appear ; also the tops of the 
plants when t le.v are well advanced,— say, about three feet high,— except 
those designed for seed, which should be the largest a)ul best plants. The 
ripeness of tobacco is known by small dusky spots api)earing on the leaves. 
The i)lants shoxdd then be cut near the roots, on the morning of a day of 
sunshine, and should lie singly to wither. When sufficiently withered, 
gather them carefully together, and hang them up under cover to cure and 
prejiare for market. 

Fertilizer for Tobacco.— Add 40 lbs. of the best Peruvian guano to 
eacli 100 lbs. of the superphosphate made by the above receipt, ami you 
will have one of the most powerful fertilizers for tobacco that can be made. 
If you do not have Peruvian guano, use instead 30 lbs. of lien manure to 
each 100 lbs. of superphosphate. 

Substitute for Barn-manure.— Dissolve a bushel of salt in w\ater 
enough to slack 5 or 6 bushels of lime. The best rule for preparing the 
compost heap is, 1 bushel of this lime to 1 load of swamp-muck, intimately 
mixed ; though three bushels to 5 loads makes a very good manure. In 
laying up the heap, let the layer of muck and lime be thin, so that decom- 
position may be more rapid and complete. When lime cannot be got, use 
unleached ashes.— 3 or 4 bushels to a cord of muck. In a month or six 
weeks, overhaul and work over the heap, when it will be ready for use. 
Sprinkle the salt water on tiie lime as the heap goes up. 



36 



FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 



TABLE OF AVOIRDUPOIS POUNDS IN A BUSHEL, 
As prescribed by Statute in the several States named. 



COMMODITIES. 



Barley 

Beans 

Blue Grass Seed 

Buckwheat 

Castor Beans 

Clover Seed 

Dried Apjjles 

Dried Peaches . . . . 

Flax Seed. 

Hair 

Hemp Seed 

Indian Corn 

Indian Corn in ear. 
Indian Corn Meal . . 

Mineral Coal* 

Oats 

Onions 

Peas. 

Potatoes 

Eye 

Rye Meal 

Saltt 

Timothy Seed 

Wheat 

Wheat Bran 



'A O 



48 48 
C2 

48 

60 60 

55 56 



34 



50 5G 



32 

60 

56 56 

46 

60 



* In Kentucky, 80 lbs. of bituminous coal or 70 lbs. of cannel coal make 1 bushel, 
t In Pennsylvania, 8 lbs. coarse, 70 lbs. ground, or 62 lbs. fine salt make 1 bushel ; 
and in Illinois, .50 lbs. common or 55 lbs. fine salt make 1 bushel, 
tin Maine, 64 lbs- of ruta baga turnips or beets make 1 bashel. 

Weather Prognostics for Farmers and Others.— Persons in every 
position ill society are led by motives of necessity or comfort to study liie 
indiciitions of the weatiier in tiie various appearances of tlie skies, tiie at- 
mospliere, vegetation, &c. The most reliable indications of tlie weatiier are 
afforded by tiie formation and position of i\\e clouds. Wiien their elevation 
is very great ;> wlien their forms are small, well defined, tiiread-like, tliey 
indicate rain. Wlien tliey become lower and denser, losing tiieir curl-like 
form, and spread into long dark streaks, tliey indicate wind and rain, the 
near or distant ajiproacli of which may be sometimes estimated from their 
greater or less abundance and permanence. Sometimes the cloiurs present 
a dense structure, are formed in tiielower atmospliere, and move along with 
tlie current which is next tiie earth. Tiie formation of these clouds to lee- 
ward in a strong wind indicates the approach of a calm with rain. When 
tliey increase rapidly, and appear lower in the atmosphere, with their sur- 
faces full of loose flues, they indicate rain. Wlien they do not disappear 
or subside about sunset, but continue to rise, thunder ma^' be expected. 
Tlie slieet cloud is the lowest of the clouds, its inferior surface connnonly 
resting on the oartli or water. The sheet cloud has long been regarded as 
a prognostic of fine weather, and it is generally indicative of calmness. 
Wane clouds ajjjiear to arise from the subsidence of niare's tails to a hori- 
zontal position ; but curl clouds do not always precede tliem. Tliey are 
always thickest at one extremity, or in the middle. Their form and rela- 
tive jiositions, when seen in tiie distance, frequently give the idea of a shoal 
of fish. At otiier times they appear like parallel bars, or interwoven 



FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 37 

streaks like the grain of polished wood. They precede wind and rain. 
They are almost always seen in the interval of storms. Sender clouds are 
usually formed by curl clouds collapsing as it were, and passing into 
small roundish masses, in which the tiiread-like texture of the curl is 
no longer discernible. These clouds are very frequent in summer, and at- 
tendant on warm and dry weather. They are occasionally seen in the in- 
tervals of showers, and in winter. The train cloud is formed in the inter- 
val between tlie first appearance of the fleecy pile cloud, and the com- 
mencement of rain, while the lower atmospliere is yet too dry ; also during 
the approach of thunder-storms. The indistinct a[)pearance of it is chiefly 
in tiie longer or shorter intervals of showers of rain, snow, or hail. Nimbus 
clouds are attended by, or productive of heavy showers, accompanied by 
liglitning or storm. The nimbus generally spreads a sudden and almost 
impenetrable gloom over the horizon, in the direction from which the storm 
approaches. Although it is one of the least beautiful of the clouds, it is 
frequently superbly decorated with its attendant, the rainbow, which can 
only be seen in ])erfection wiien backed by tiie widely extended gloom of 
the storm cloud. The nimbus is known to be formed of two sheets of 
clouds, in different electrical states, and hence it is so commonly attended 
with thunder and lightning. Clouds in any of the preceiling forms may 
increase so as to completely obscure the sky, and at times put on an ap- 
pearance of density, which to the inexperienced observer, indicates the 
speedy conmiencement of rain. But before rain falls, the clouds are gener- 
ally seen to undergo a change. These app'earances, when the rain hap- 
pens over our heads, are but imperfectly seen. We can then only observe, 
before the arrival of tlie lower or denser clouds, or through their inter- 
stices, that tiiere exists at a greater altitude, a thin light veil, or at least a 
tiH'bid haziness. When this has considerablj- increased, we see the lower 
clouds sjiread themselves till they unite at all points, and form a uniform 
sheet. The rain then commences and the lower clouds arriving from tlie 
windward, move xmder this sheet, and are successively lost in it. When 
the latter ceases to arrive, or when the sheet breaks, every one's experience 
teaches him to expect an abatement or cessation of rain. As the masses of 
clouds are always blended, and their arrangement destroyed before raiu 
comes on, so the re-apj)earance of these is tlie signal for its cessation. The 
thin sheets of c'oud, which pass over during a wet day, receive from the 
himiid atmosphere a supi)ly proportionate to their consumj)tion, wiiile the 
latter prevents their increase in bulk. Hence it will sometimes rain for a 
long time without any apparent alteration in the state of the clouds. 

The sun appearing whitish or ill-defined and settjng in the midst of a 
haze, betokens rain. A morning sun rising surrounded by a bright and 
lurid sky, is an indication of rain, because, rising in the east, it shines di- 
rectly on the rain falling in the west, and thereby foretells approaching wet 
weather with this humid wind. But the stm setting in the midst of a 
bright light is a symptom of fine weather, because when the sun sinks in 
the west, its rays fall on the rain in the east, whence the storni is depart- 
ing. If, also, the sun's rays appear like horns — if shorn of his rays, or if 
he goes down into a bank of clouds in the horizon, inclement weather is to 
be expected. 

The moon is another well-known indicator of the weather. If it looks 
pale and dim, we may expect rain; if red, wind ; and if of its natural 
color, with a clear sky, fair weather. Generally speaking, if the nioon is 
rainy throughout, it will clear at the cliange, and the rain will proljably 
return in a few days subsequently. If fair throughout, with rain at the 
change, the fair weather will probably return on the fourth or fifth day. 

Tlie wind exerts the chief influence over the atmospheric condition wiiich 
produces rain. Thus, if the winds blow from, instead of to a hilly country, 
the clouds will be cai ried elsewhere, and be precipitated in lower regions 
at a distance. But if the low-lying regions be warm, the clouds will be 
radiated, and their particles in a refined state, will be carried onward by 



38 FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 

the wind, till tliey come over a cold liigh-lying country, where they will 
drop in lieavy sliowers. The direction of the wind must evidently effect 
the state of tlie weather; if itcoihe to us after blowing over a large sur- 
face of land, it will not be overcliarged vvitli moisture, and there will be 
dry weather; whereas, if tlie wind come from tlie ocean, it will bring the 
vapors of the ocean witli it, and of course, frequently moist weatlier. Cold 
and warm weatlier, too, depend much upon tlie direction of tiie wind. As 
it blows from the cold regions of the nortii, or the warm and sunny districts 
of tlie south, most persons are sensible of the ciianges then produced, and 
will expect cold or warm, dry or wet weather, as the wind veers round to 
any of tiiese jioints. But beyond these general laws, speculations on the 
chance falling of rain are exceedingly hazardous, in consequence of the 
variability of the winds, and the conditions of tlie atmosphere at points far 
be\'oiul our knowledge. In all countries, however, particular winds are 
noted for being accompanied either by wet or dry weather; thus, the 
soutii and south-east winds bring much moisture, while tliose from the 
nortii and nortli-east are cold, dry and penetrating. Not only does tiiis 
arise from tlie immense surface of ocean over which these winds sweep 
soutli of the equator, but from these soutlierly winds being of a higlier 
temperature, wliereby they iiold a greater quantity of vapor in suspen- 
sion or solution, the condensation of wiii(!li must be proportionately greater, 
on arriving [n tliis colder climate. Accordingly it has been observed that 
the wind will turn from the north to the soutli quietly, and without rain ; 
but on returning from the south to the north, will blow hard, and bring 
much rain. Again, if it begin to rain from the south, with a high wind for 
two or three hours, and the wind falls, but the rain continues, it is likely 
to rain for twelve hours or more, and does usually rain until a strong 
north wind clears the air. For the same reason, winds from the west and 
soutli-westare considered to bring with them wet weather. 

T/if' seasons tis sit present existing, afford indications of what their fol- 
lowers will probably be. Thus, a moist autumn with a mild winter, is 
generally followed by a cold and dry spring, which greatly retards vegeta- 
tion. If the summer be remarkably rainy, it is proliable that the ensuing 
winter will be severe ; for the great evaporation will have carried off too 
much heat from the earth. Wet summers are generally attended with an 
unusual quantity of seeds on the white-thorn and dog rose bushes ; hence 
tlie unusual fruitfiiliiess of these shrubs betokens a severe winter; the 
cause being the moisture of the earth, and the consequent coldness by 
evaporation. When it rains plentifully in May, it will rain but little in 
September, and the reverse. When the wind is south-west during tiie 
summer or autumn, and the temperature of the air unusually cold for the 
season, both to the feeling and the thermometer, with a low barometer, 
much rain may be expected. A rainy winter predicts a cold spring, and 
therefore an unproductive year. The March winds causing great evapo- 
ration of moisture from wet soil, chill it so mucli that it is in a bad state for 
vegetation, and the crops must suffer accordingly. If, therefore, much or 
frequent rain falls in winter, the above-mentioned bad consequences will 
follow ; whereas, if the winter had been dry, the injurious process of ex- 
cessive evaporation in the following spring would not be undergone by the 
soil. When there has been no storm before or after the vernal equinox, 
the ensuing summer is generally dry. W^iien a storm happens from an 
easterly point on the 19th, 20th or 21st of March, the succeeding summer is 
generally dry. When a storm arises on the 25tli, 26th, or 27th of March 
(and not before), in any point, the succeeding summer is generally dry. 
If there be a storm at south-west, or west-south-west, on the 19tli, 20tli, 
21st, or 22nd of March, the succeeding summer is generally wet. 

The animal creation affonls many indications of the forthcoming 
weather. The low flight of swallows is a sign of approaching raiu. The 
cause of this is, that they pursue flies, which delight in warm air; and 
these flies escaping from the excess of moisture above descend nearest to 



FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 39 

the surface of the earth, and are there pursued by these birds. The ap- 
pearance of cranes and other birds of passage early in autumn announces 
a very severe winter, for it is a sign tliat winter lias already begun in the 
northern countries. Ducks, geese, and other water-fowl, before the ap- 
proach of rain, may be seen to throw water with their bills over their backs, 
and dive frequently, the cause of which is, that although so much in the 
water they do not like being wetted to the skin ; to avoid which, when 
warned by the peculiar sensation foretelling rain, they close tlieir plumage 
together, by throwing a sudden weight of water upon their bodies, in the 
direction of the growth of their feathers. Cattle, before the approacli of 
rain, may be seen stretching out their necks, and snutfing in the air with 
distended nostrils, which doubtless is occasioned by tlie odors of plants 
being more powerful than usual when the air is saturated with an excess 
of moisture. Dogs closely confiiied m a room, become drowsy' and stupid 
before rain ; the same is observed of cats in a less degree ; horses neigh 
much; donkeys bray; cattle low; the fallow-deer becomes restless; and 
numy other animals from the uneasiness they feel, owing to the altered 
condition, prognosticate the ajjproach of rain. Insects being very sensible 
of every change in the state of the atmosphere, are good weather guides ; 
hence, fine weatlier may be predicted when many spider's webs are seen in 
the open air; also when bees are found far be.yond their hives. On the 
contrary, when spiders remain hidden, and bees do not range abroad as 
usual, rain nuiy be expected. 

Many ]>knits and Jiuwers are excellent indicators of atmospheric changes. 
The o])ening and shutting of some flowers depend not so much on the ac- 
tion of ligiit as on the state of the atmosphere, and hence their opening 
and simtting betoken change. The common duckweed or stitch-wort may 
be considered as a natural barometer; for if the small upright flowers are 
closed, it is a certain sign of rain. Dining dry M'eather they expand freely, 
and are regularly open from nine in the morning till noon. After rain they 
become pendent, but in the course of a few days they again rise. The 
purple sandwort is anotiier indicator of the weather; its beautiful pink 
flowers expand only during the sunshine, and close at the approach of rain. 
The pimjiernel has been justly named "the poor man's weather glass." 
When its small brilliant red flowers are widely extended in the morning, a 
fine day may be expected ; on the ccuitrary, it is a certain sign of rain 
when the delicate petals of the flowers are closed. If the Siberian sow- 
thistle shuts at night, the ensuing day will be fine, and if it opens, the 
weather will be cloudy and rainy. When the African marigold remains 
closed after seven o'clock in the morning or evening, rain may be expect- 
ed. The stalks of tlie trefoil swell and grow more upright previous to rain, 
and the speedwell, so universal a favorite in every hedgerow, closes its 
blue corolla before rain conies on, opening again when it ceases. 

Nutiii-al phenomena sevve in a variety of ways to foretell the weather. 
Thus, when mountain ranges or distant objects appear nearer to us than 
usual, wlien sounds are heard more clearly from a distance, when tJie dust 
blows in eddies on the ground, rain may be exjiected. 

Personal ?ens<ilio?is act as weather predictors, to a certain extent. In 
certain habits of body, pain in the head, toothache, irritability of temper, 
pains in old sores which have healed, aching of the limbs, shooting of the 
corns, and excessive nervousness, are all signs of ai^proaching wet weatlier. 
Headache, drowsiness, and general lassitude, frequently precede thunder- 
storms. 

Domestic phenomena prognosticate tlie weather in various ways. The 
continued dampness of the biilustrades betokens heavy rain ; the damp- 
ness of salt in the saltcellars affoi'ds the snme indication ; the cracking of 
furniture, and the c:reakiiig of the boards of the floor and the stairs also, 
foretell rain. The fire burning dull is generally a sign of wet weather, but; 
when it l>urns brightly dry weather and frost may be expected. 

The ioliowing weather prouerbs ot various countries, are given for the 



40 FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 

purpose of familiarizing the various theories to tlie mind and assisting the 
memory :— 

English. 

A rainbow in the morning is the sheplierd's warning. 
. A rainbow at niglit is tlie sliepherd's delight. 

Evening red, and next morning gray- 
Are certain signs of a sunny day. 

Wlien the glow-worm liglits her latnp 
Then tlie air is always dump. 

If the cock goes crowing to bed, 
He'll surely rise with a watery head. 

Wlien you see the gossamer flying 
Be ye sure the air is drying. 

When black snails cross o'er your path, 
Then a cloud much moisture hath. 

When the peacock loudly bawls 
Soon there'll be both rain and squalls. 

When ducks are driving thro' the burn 
That night the weather takes a turn. 

If the moon shows like a silver shield 

Be not afraid to reap your field ; 

But if slie rises haloed round 

Soon shall we tread on deluged ground. 

When rooks fly sporting high in air 
It shows that vvindv storms are near. 



A cold May and a windy 
Makes a fat barn and findy. 



Eeench. 



When it thunders in March, we may cry alas 1 

A dry year never beggars the master. 

January and Februar}' do fill or empty the granary. 

A dry March, a snowy February, a moist April, and a dry May, pre- 
sage a-good year. 

To St. Valentine the spring is neighbour. 

At St. Martin's, winter is in his way. 

A cold January, a feverish February, a dusty March, a weeping April, 
a windy May, presage a good year and gay. 

Italian. 

Dearth under water, bread under snow. 

When the cock drinks in summer, it will rain a little after. 




STOCK OWNEES', MREIERS', AND LIYERY 
KEEPERS'. 



Horses, — their Management, Diseases, Remedies, &c., &c. 

The Hokse. — Tlie liorse is now one of tlie most universally distributed 
animals, and everywhere lie is recognized as tlie most useful amongst the 
quadruped servants of man, yielding intelligence to the dog alone, and jier- 
liai)s not to him ; for in tiiose countries — some i)ortions of Arabia, for in- 
stance — in which he is admitted to tiie full and unrestricted companionship 
of man, sharing his food with the family of his master, and, like them, a 
dweller in tlie tent, his sagacity far surpasses that of our stable-reared 
horses, however affectionately they may be treated. 

General Mamiifenieut of the Horse. — There is not a more important subject 
than the management of the colt from the earliest period, and the preparing 
and fitting him for the duties he has to perform. The mare is usually at 
heat at some period in the spring, varjdng from the middle of February to 
the latter end of May. The age of the foal is reckoned from January ; tiiere- 
fore it is a matter of some consequence among racing men, that the mare 
should foal early ; for two or three month's difference in the age of the (H)lt 
will materially influence tlie running at two years old. For mares of other 
classes, the months of Marcli, April, and May, are the most favorable peri- 
ods. There is, however, a strange difference in the length of the period of 
pregnancy in the mare, more so than in any other domesticated animal. The 
cause of this, or the circumstances that influence it, have never been satis- 
factorily explained. The writer of this sketch had two mares that were 
impregnated within two days of each other. One of them foaled a fortnight 
within the eleven months ; the other did not drop her foal until four weeks 
after the exjiiration of the eleventh month. There was no possibility of a 
second iiupregnation. 

The mare needs not be taken from moderate work because she is preg- 
nant. Exercise will be of advantage to her rather than otherwise, and may 
be continued almost to the period of her expected i)arturition. Siie should, 
however, be carefully watched, that her labour-jtains maj' not come upon 
her unawares. She will probably require, when half the period of preg- 
nancy is past, a little addition made to her food. Any possible symptoms 



42 STOCK OWNERS, &C. 

of abortion should also be watched, for these will now, if ever, occur. They 
will probably be attributable to being overworked or not worked at all, or 
to being over-fed or half-starved. It should also be recollected that the 
mare which has once aborted is subject to a repetition of this accident, and 
that all the mares in the pasture are subject to the same mishap, from a 
strange species of sympathy. 

A day or two after the foal is dropped, providing the weather is fine, it 
may be turned with its dam into a sheltered paddock, in wliich there is a 
liovel for security from the wind and rain. Hay, corn, and bran mashes 
must be allowed, if it is early in the season, or the grass has scarcely begun 
to shoot. There is nothing so detrimental to the colt as insufficient food. 
It sliould be regarded as a fundamental principle in breeding, that if the 
growth of the colt at any time is checked by starvation, beauty, energy, 
and stoutness will rarely be displayed in after-years. 

In five or six months, accorcling to tiie growth of the foal, the weaning 
may take place. The colt should be confined to a stable or other building, 
until he becomes a little reconciled to the loss of his dam. 

Tlie purpose for which the animal is adapted will determine tlie age when 
the process of breaking must commence. Thorough-bred ones are taken in 
hand in the summer after they have attained their first 3'ear. Those which 
are destined for otlier eniploj-ment will not require the attention of the 
breaker till they are three years old. This is a process on which will ma- 
terially depend the temper and value of the horse, and tlie pleasure of the 
rider. The foal should be handled and haltered, and led about by the ser- 
vant who has the chief care of him, and whose conduct towards him should 
always be kind. 

Taming of Horses. — We present a brief abstract of the various modes 
adopted by Rarey, in bringing about the wonderful results which have at- 
tended his efforts in this direction. Rarey's theory is founded on the fol- 
lowing three fundamental principles. First, that the horse is so constituted 
by nature that he will not offer resistance to any demand made upon him 
which he fully comprehends, if made in a way consistent with the laws of 
Ids nature. Second, that he has no consciousness of his strength beyond 
Ids e.xperience, and can be handled according to our will without force. 
Third, that we can, in compliance with the laws of his nature by vviiich he 
examines all things new to him, take any object, however frightful, around, 
over, or on him, that does not inflict pain, without causing him to fear. 

T'o drive a horse that is very ivild and has any vicious habits. — Take up one 
fore-foot and bend his knee till hi? hoof is bottom upwards, and nearly 
touching the body ; then slip a loop over his knee, and up until it comes 
above the pastern-joint, to keep it up, being careful to draw the loop togeth- 
er between the hoof and pastern-joint, with a second strap of some kind to 
prevent the loop from slipping down and coming off. This will leave the 
horse standing on three legs ; you can now handle him as you wish, for it is 
utterly impossible for him to kick in this position. There is something in 
this operation of taking up one foot that conquers a horse quicker and more 
surel}' than anything else you can do to him — the chief reason being, that 
by conquering one member you conquer, to a great extent, the whole horse. 
When the horse's foot is first tied up, he will sometimes become very wild, 
and strike with his knee, and try every possible wa}'^ to get it down, but he 
cannot do that, and will soon give up. This will conquer him better than 
anything you could do, and without any possible danger of hurting himself 
or the operator either, for you can tie up his foot and sit down and look at 
him till he tires. When j'ou find that he is (;onquereil, go to him, let down 
his foot, rub his leg with your hand, caress him, and let him rest a little; 
then put it up again. Repeat this a few times, alwav's putting up the same 
foot, and he will soon learn to travel on three legs, so that you can drive him 
some distance. As soon as he gets a little used to this way of travelling, 
put on your harness, and hitch him to a sulky. You need not be fearful of 
Lis doing any damage while he has one foot up, for he cannot kick, neither 



STOCK OWNERS, &C. 43 

can lie run fast enough to do any harm. If he wants to run, you can let 
him have tlie lines and whip too, with perfect safety, for he can go but a 
Blow gait on three legs, and will soon be tired and willing to stop; only hold 
liini enough to guide him in the right direction, and he will soon be tired, 
and willing to stop at the word. Thus you will effectually cure him at once 
of any further notion of running off. Generally speaking, horses kick be- 
cause they are afraid of what is behind them, and when they kick against 
it and it hurts them, they will only kick the harder; and this will hurt 
them still more, and cause them to remember the «ircumstance much long r, 
and also n)ake it still more difficult to persuade them to have any confidence 
in anytliing dragging behind them again. But by the method suggested 
above, horses may be harnessed to a rattling sulky, plow, wagon, or an^'- 
thing else in its worst shape. The horses may be frightened at first but they 
cannot kick or do anything to hurt themselves, and will soon find that you 
do not intend to liurt them, and then they will not care any more about it. 
You can then let down the leg and drive along gently without any further 
trouble. By this process, a horse, if he kick ever so badly, may be taught 
to go gently in harness in a few hours' time. 

To make a horse lie down : bend his left fore-leg and slip a loop over it, so 
he caimot get it down. Then put a surcingle round his body, and fasten 
one end of a long strap around tiie other fore-leg, just above the hoof. Place 
the other end under the surcingle, so as to keep the strap in the riglit direc- 
tion, take a short hold of it with j'our right hand, stand on' the left side of 
the horse, grasp the bit in your left hand, pull steadily on tlie strap with 
your right, and bear against his shoulder till you cause him to move. As 
soon as he lifts his weight, your pulling will raise the other foot, and he 
Avill have to come on his knees. As soon as a horse recovers from his 
astonishment at being brought to his knees, he begins to resist, that is, he 
rears upon his hind legs and springs about in a manner that is truly alarm- 
ing. At this juncture you must remember that your business is not to set 
your strength against the horse's strength, but merely to follow him about, 
holding the strap just tight enough to prevent him from putting out his off 
fore-leg. As long as you keep close to him and behind his shoulders, you 
are in little danger. The liridle in the left hand must be used like steering 
lines ; by pulling to the right or left, as occasion requires, the horse, turning 
on his hind legs, may be guided just as a boat is steered by the rudder 
lines ; or, pulling straight, the horse may be fatigued, by being forced to 
walk backwards. Tiie strap, passing through the surcingle, keeps the 
trainer in his right place ; he is not to pull or in any way fatigue himself 
more than he can help, but, standing upright, simply follow the horse about, 
guiding him with the bridle away from the walls when needful. To do this 
well requires considerable nerve, coolness, patience, and at times agility ; 
for sometimes the animal will make a very stout fight, and even jump side- 
ways with both fore-legs fast. When held and guided properly, few horses 
resist longer than ten minutes. Usually, after a violent struggle of eight 
minutes, the animal sinks forward on his knees, sweating profusely, with 
heaving flanks and quivering tail. Then is the time to get him into a com- 
fortable position for lying down ; if he still resists, ho may be forced by the 
bit to walk backwards. Then, too, by pushing gently at his shoulders, or 
by pulling steadily the off-rein, you can get him to fall, in the one case, on 
the near side, in the other, on the off side ; but the assistance rendered 
should be so slight that the horse must not be able to resist it. The horse 
will often give a final spring, when he is supposed to be quite beaten ; at 
length, however, he slides over, and lies down, panting and exhausted, on 
his side. If he is full of corn, and well bred, take advantage of the mo- 
ment to tie up the off fore-leg to the surcingle, as securely as the other, in a 
slip loop-knot. Now let the horse recover his wind, and tlien encourage him 
to make a second flight. It will often be more stubborn and fierce than the 
first. The object of this tying-up operation is, that he shall thoroughly ex* 



44 STOCK OWNERS, &C. 

haust without hurting himself, and that he shall be convinced that it is you 
wlio, b}' your superior strength, liave conquered him, and that you are al- 
wa3s able to conquer liim. Wiien the horse lies down for the second or 
third time, tliorougldy beaten, tlie time has arriveil for teaching a few more 
of the practical parts of iiorse-training. When you liave done all tiiat you 
desire to tlie subdued horse smoothed liis ears if fidgety about the ears ; tlie 
liind-legs, if a kicker ; shown him a saddle, and allowed liim to smell it, and 
then placed it on his back ; mounted him yourself, and pulled him all over 
— take off all the straps. In moving round him for tlie purpose of gentling 
him; walk slowly, always from the head round the tail, and again to tlie 
liead ; scrape the sweat off him with a scraper ; rub him down witii a wisp ; 
smooth the hair of liis legs, and draw the fore one straight out. If he has 
fought hard, lie will lie like a dead horse, and scarcely stir. You must now 
again go over him with a very gentle motion of the liand, and with this 
operation will be completed your first and most important lesson. You may 
now mount on the back of an unbroken colt, and teach him that you do not 
hurt liim in that attitude; if he were standing upright, he might resist, and 
throw you, from fright; but as he is exhausted and powerless, lie has time 
to find out that you mean him no harm. You can lay a saddle or harness 
on him, if he has previously shown aversion to them, or any part of them ; 
his head, tail, and legs are all safe for your friendly caresses ; do not spate 
them, and speak to him all the time. If he has hitherto resisted shoeing, 
now is the time for liandling his fore and Jiind legs kindly, yet, if he at- 
tempts to resist, with a voice of authority. If he is a violent, savage, con- 
firmed kicker, as soon as he is down, put a pair of hobbles on his hind-legs. 
These must be held by an assistant on whom you can depend, and passed 
through the rings of the surcingle ; with the horse's fore-legs tied, you may 
usefully spend an hour in handling liis legs, tapping the hoofs with your 
hand or a hammer — all this to be done in a firm, measured, soothing man- 
ner; onh' now and then, if he resist, crying, as you paralyse him with the 
ropes, " [Vo, ho!" in a determined manner. It is by this continued soothing 
and handling that you establish confidence between the animal and your- 
self. Patting him as much as you deem needful, say for ten minutes or a 
quarter of an hour, you may encourage him to rise. Some horses will re- 
quire a good deal of helping, and their fore-legs drawn out before them. It 
may be as well to remark, that the liandling of the limbs, especially of 
colts, requires caution. If a horse, unstrapped, attempts to rise, j-ou may 
easily stop him by taking hold of a fore-leg, and doubling it back to the 
strapped position. If by chance he should be too quick, do not resist, for it 
is an essential principle never to enter into a contest with a liorse unless 
you are certain of being victorious. In all these operations you must be 
calm and not liurried. When you have to deal with a savage kicker that 
you wish to subdue and compel to lie down, have a leather surcingle with a 
ring sewed on the belly part ; and when the hobbles are buckled on the 
hind-legs, pass the ropes through the rings, and when the horse rises again, 
by buckling up one fore-leg, and pulling steadily, when needful, at the hind- 
legs, or tying the hobble ropes to a collar, you reduce him to perfect help- 
lessness ; he finds that he cannot rear, for you pull his hind-legs, nor kick, 
for your pull at all three legs ; and after a few attempts he gives up in des- 
pair. In practising the art of taming, an average horse may be subdued by 
an average horseman ; but a fierce, determined, vicious horse requires a 
man above the average in temper, courage, and activity ; activity and skill 
in steering being of more importance than strength. It is seldom necessary 
to lay a colt down more than twice. Perhaps the best way is to begin prac- 
tising the strap movements with a donkej', or a quiet horse full of grass or 
■water, and so go on from day to day with the same perseverance as though 
you were practising skating or any other art. Remember you must not be 
in a hurry, and you must not chatter. When you feel impatient, j-ou had 
better leave off, and begin again another day. And the same with your 
horse : you must not tire him with one lesson, bui you must give him at least 



STOCK OWNERS, &C. 45 

one lesson every day, and two or three if he is very nervous. Tlie most 
curious circumstance of all, in connection with this strapping-up and laying- 
down process, is, that the moment the horse rises, he seems to have contrac- 
ted a personal friendship for the operator, and with a very little encourage- 
ment will generally follow him ; this feeling may as well be encouraged, by 
giving the animal a piece of carrot, apple, or bread. It is an excellent prac- 
tice to accustom all horses to strange sounds and sights ; and of very great 
importance to young horses which are to be ridden or driven in large towns. 
To accustom a horse to a drum : place it near him on the ground, and, without 
facing liim, induce him to smell it again and again, until he is thorougiily 
accustomed to it. Then lift it up, and slowly place it on the side of his 
neck, wliere he can see it, and tap it gently with a stick or your finger. If 
he starts, pause, and let iiim carefully examine it. Then re-commence, gra- 
dually moving it backwards, until it rests on his withers, by degrees playing 
louder and louder, pausing always when he seems alarmed, to let him look 
at it and smell, it needful. In a very few minutes you may play witii all 
your force, witliout his taking any notice. When this practice has been 
repeated a few times, the iiorse, however spirited, will rest liis nose unmoved 
on the big drum while tiie loudest sounds are being produced. To tearh a 
horse to tolerate an open umbrella : go through the same cautious forms ; let 
him see it and smell it; open it by degrees ; gain your point incii by incli, 
])assiiig it always from his ej'es to his neck, and from his neck to his back 
and tail. In lialf an hour any horse may be tauglit that no injury is intended 
him ; and he may thus be familiarized to many otlier articles, such as the 
riding-habit, saddle-clotii, &c. To accustom a horse to a bit. — Use a large 
smooth snaffle-bit, so as not to hurt his mouth, witli a bar on each side, to 
prevent the bit from pulling through either way. This you should attacli to 
the head-stall of the bridle, and put it on the horse without any reins to it, 
and let him run loose in a large stable or shed for some time, until he be- 
comes somewhat used to tiie bit, and will bear it without trying to get it 
out of his mouth. It would be well, if convenient, to repeat tiiis several 
times before you do anytliing more with the animal ; as soon as he will bear 
the bit, attacli a single rein to it. You should also have a halter on the 
horse, or a bridle made after the fashion of a halter, with a strap to it, so 
that you can Jiold or lead him about witliout pulling on the bit much. He is 
now ready for the saddle. To break a horse to harness. — Place him in a light 
stable, take the harness and raise it very slowly until he can see it, let him 
smell and feel it with his nose, until he becomes familiar with it, so that 
you can put it on and rattle it about without his being disturbed by it. As 
soon as he will hear this, put on the lines, caress him as you draw them 
ovier him, and drive him about in the stable, till he will bear them over his 
hips. As soon as he is familiar with the harness and lines, take him out 
and put him by the side of a gentle horse. Always use a bridle without 
blinkers when you are breaking a horse to harness. Lead him to or around 
a light gig or pliaeton ; let him look at it, touch it with his nose, and stand 
by it till he does not care for it ; then pull the shafts a little to the left, and 
stand your horse in front of the off-wheel. Let some one stand on the right 
side of the horse, and hold him by the bit, while you stand on the left side 
facing the vehicle. This will keep him straight. Run your left hand back 
and let it rest on his hip, and lay hold of the shafts with your right, bring- 
ing up very gently to the left liand, which still remains stationary. I)o 
not let anytliing but your arm touch his back, and as soon as you have the 
shafts square over him, let the person on the opposite side take hold of one 
of them, and lower them very gently to the shaft-bearers. Be very slow 
and deliberate about hitching ; the longer time you take the better, as a 
general thing. When you have the shafts placed, shake them slightly, so 
that the horse will feel them on each side. As soon as he will bear tliera 
witliout starting, fasten the braces, &c., and urge him along very slowly. 
Let one man lead the horse, to keep him gentle, while the other works gra- 
dually back with the Hues till he can get behind and drive him. After you 



46 STOCK OWNERS, &C. 

have driven him in this way for a short distance, you can get into tlie ve- 
hicle, and all will go right. It is very important that the horse should pro- 
ceed gently when he is first hitched. After he has been walked awhile 
there is not nearly so much danger of his starting. If the animal is verj 
wild, it is better to put-up one foot the first time he is driven, with the leg 
strapped up, the lighter the break or gig the better, and four wheels are 
better than two. To make a horse follow a person. — Turn him into a large 
stable or shed, where there is no chance of escape, with a halter or bridle on. 
Go to him and coax him a little, take hold of his halter and turn him 
towards you, at the same time touching him lightly over the hips with a 
long whip. Lead him the length of the stable, rubbing liim on the neck, 
saying, in a steady tone of voice, as you lead him, "Come along, boy !" or 
use his name instead of "boy," if you choose. Every time you turn, touch 
him slightly with the whip, to make him step uj) close to you, and then 
caress him with your hand. He will soon learn to hurry up, to escape the 
whip ami to be caressed, and you can make him follow you around without 
taking hold of the halter. If he should stop and turn from you, give him a 
few sharp cuts about the hind legs, and he will soon turn his head towards 
you, when you must always caress him. A few lessons of this kind will 
make him run after you, when he sees the motion of the whip ; in twenty 
or thirty minutes he will follow you about the stable. After you have 
given him two or three lessons in the stable, take him out into a small field 
and train him ; and thence you can take him into the road and make him 
follow you anywhere and run after you. To muke a horse stand without hold- 
ing. — After he has been well broken to follow you, place him in tlie centre 
of the stable, begin at his head to caress him, gradually working backward. 
If he move, give him a cut with the whip, and put liim back to the same 
spot whence he started. If lie stand, caress him as before, and continue 
coaxing him in this way until you get round him, without making him 
move. Keep walking round him, increasing your pace, and only touch liim 
occasionally. Enlarge your circle as you walk round, and if he then 
moves, give him another cut with the whip, and put him back to his j)lace. 
If he stands, go to him frequently and caress him, and then walk round him 
again. Do not keep him in one position too long at a time, but make him 
come to you occasionally, and follow you around the stable. Tiien make 
him stand in another place, and proceed as before. You sliould not train 
your horse more than half an hour at a time. To cure jibbing. — Horses con- 
tract the dangerous vice of jibbing, by improper management. "When a 
horse jibs in harness, it is generally from some mismanagement, excitement, 
confusion, or from not knowing how to pull ; but seldom from any unwil- 
lingness to perform nil that he understands. High-spirited, free-going hor- 
ses, are the most subject to jibbing, and only so because drivers do not 
properly understand how to manage this kind. The whipping of horses 
under such a condition is an error of judgment. When a horse jibs, or is a 
little excited, if he wants to start quickly, or looks around and does not 
want to go, there is something wrong, and he needs kind treatment imme- 
diately. Caress him kindly, and if he does not understand at once what 
you want him to do, lie will not be so much excited as to jump and break 
things, and do everything through fear. As long as 3'ou are calm, and 
keep down the excitement of the liorse, the chances are that 3'ou will make 
him understand you, which you would not do by harsh treatment. Almost 
anj^ horse, after first jibbing, will start kindly if you let him stand five or 
ten minutes, as tliough there was nothing wrong, and then speak to him 
with a steady voice, and turn him a little to the right or left, so as to get 
him in motion, before he feels the stress of the weight behind him. There 
is a quicker process, that will generally start a jibbing horse, but it does 
not apply to all. Stand him a little ahead, so that his shoulders will be 
against the collar, and then take up one of his fore feet in your hand, and 
let one driver start him, and when the weight comes against his shoulders 
he will try to step ; then let hini have his foot, and he will go right along. 



STOCK OWNERS, &G. 47 

If you wish to cure a horse of jibbintr, that lias long been in that habit, a 
day ougiit to be set aj)art for tiiat purpose. Put him by the side of some 
steady liorse ; have driving reins on them ; tie up all tiie traces and straps, 
so that there will be notliing to excite tiiem ; do not rein them up, but let 
tliem have their heads loose. Walk tliem about together for some time, as 
slowly and leisurely as possible ; stop often, and go up to the jibbing horse 
and coax him. Do not whip him or do anything to excite him ; but keep 
him as quiet as possible. lie will soon learn to start otf at tlie word, and 
stop whenever you tell iiim. As soon as he goes properly, hitch him in an 
empty waggon, which slionld be standing in a favorable position for start- 
ing. It would be well to shorten the trace-chain behind the steady horse, 
so that, if necessary, he can take the weight of the wagon the first time 
you start them. l)rive only a few yards at first ; watch tlie jibbing liorse 
closely, and if you see that he is getting excited, stop him before he stops 
of his (Mvn accord, caress him a little, and start again. As soon as he goes 
well, drive him over an ascent a few times, and then over a larger one, oc- 
casionally adding to the load. This process will cause any horse to pull 
truly. 

Rules to hp observed in the. purchase of a horse. — When about to purchase a 
horse, examine the eyes well. The best judges are sometimes deceived in 
the eyes, therefore you cannot be too careful. Clearness of the Et/es is a 
sure indication of their goodness; but this is not all that should be attended 
to ; the eyelids, eyebrows, and all the other parts, must also be considered ; 
fof many horses whose eyes appear clear and brilliant, go blind at seven or 
eight years old. Therefore be careful to observe whether the ]iarts between ' 
the eyelids and the eyebrows are free from bunches, and whether the parts 
round the under eyelids be full, or swelled; for these are indications that 
tlie eyes will not last. When the eyes are remarkably flat, or sunk within 
their orbits, it is a bad sign ; also when they look dead and lifeless. The 
iris, or circle that surrounds the sight of the eye, should be distinct, and of 
a pale, variegated cinnamon color, for this is always a sure sign of a good 
eye, and it adds beauty to the appearance of the animal. 

Next examine the Teeth, as you would not wish to purchase an old horse, 
nor a very young one for service. 

The Feet should next be regarded ; for a horse with bad f^t is like a 
house with a weak foundation, and will do little service. Tlie feet should 
be smooth and tough, of a middle size, without wrinkles, and neither too 
hard and brittle, nor too soft ; The Heels should be firm, and not spongy 
and rotten ; the Fro(/s horny and dry ; the Soles somewhat hollow, like the 
inside of a dish or bowl. Such feet will never disappoint your expectations, 
and such only should be chosen. 

Particular regard should be had to the Shoulders: they should not be too 
much loaded, for a horse with heavy shoulders can never move well ; and 
on the other hand, one that has very thin shoulders, and a narrow chest, 
though he may move brisklj' so long as he is sound, yet he is generally 
weak, and easily lamed in the shoulders ; a medium should therefore be 
ciiosen. 

The Body or Carcass, sliould neither be too small nor too large. The 
Back should be straight, or have only a moderate sinking below the with- 
ers : for when the back of a horse is low, or higher beliind than before, it is 
both very uglj' and a sign of weakness. The back should also be a proper 
length. The Ribs should be large, the Flanks smooth and full, and the 
Hind-parts, or, uppermost Haunches not higher than the shoulders. When 
the horse trots before you, observe if his haunches cover his fore-knees. 
A horse with a short hind-quarter does not look well. 

The next thing to be regarded in a horse is his Wind, which may be 
easily judged of by the motion of his flanks. A broken-winded horse also 
pinches in his flanks, with a very slow motion, and drops them suddenly, 
which may be easily perceived. Many horses breathe thick that are not 
broken-winded, indeed, any horse will in foggy weather, or if foul fed 



48 STOCK OWNERS, &C. 

without suflBcient exercise ; but if a horse has been in good-keeping, and 
bad proper exercise, and yet has these symptoms, there is some defect 
eitlier natural or accidental ; such as a narrow cliest, or some cold that has 
affected tlie lungs. 

There are other particulars that should be observed in clioosing a horse. 
If his Head be large and fleshy, and his Neck thick and gross, he will always 
go lieavy on tiie head, and therefore such should never be chosen. Aliorse 
that has his Hocks very wide, seldom moves well, and one that lias them too 
near will cliafe and cut his legs by crossing tliem. Fles/iy-kyc/ed liorses are 
generally subject to the Grease, and other infirmities of tliat kind, and 
therefore sliould not be chosen. 

The Temper of a horse siiould be particularly attended to. Avoid a fear- 
ful horse, wiiicli you may know at first sight by his starting, crouching, or 
creeping, if you aj)proach him. 

Tlie teeth of tlie horse require some lengthened consideration, not only 
from tlieir admirable adaptation to this purpose, but as indicating, by tlie 
various changes which tliey undergo, and almost beyond tlie possibility of 
error, the age of the aninuil. He may, wiien young in years, be reduced 
nearly to the decrepitude of age by the barbarous usage of those who ought 
to have been his most zealous protectors ; the cavity above the eye may be 
deepened, the under-lip may fall, the limbs may be bowed, and the feet 
may be battered and distorted — but it is not easy to alter the character of 
the teeth. 

The colt is generally dropped with the first and second molar and grind- 
ing-teeth having forced their way through the gum. When he is about 
seven or eight days old, the two central front or incisor teeth, above and 
below, appear. At the expiration of five or six weeks, the two next incis- 
ors may be seen. At three months they will have overtaken the central 
ones, and both pairs will have nearly attained their natural level. A third 
grinder will then have appeared ; and a little before or after the eighth 
month the third nipper, above and below and on each side, will have pro- 
truded. The colt will now have his full complement of front or cutting 
teeth. 

These teeth are beautifully adapted to their purpose. They have in front 
an elevated cutting edge of considerable sharpness. It is formed of enamel, 
a polished substance which covers the tootli, and is almost too hard to be 
acted upon by a file This elevated edge is bent somewhat inwards and 
over tlie tooth, so that there is a depression behind it which gradually be- 
comes stained by the food, and constitutes what is called " the mark " in 
the mouth of the colt or horse. 

This elevatpd edge of enamel, hard as it is, is gradually worn down in the 
act of nipping and cutting the food ; and as it wears away, the hollow be- 
hind becomes diminished, and is at length totally obliterated. By the 
degree in which this mark is affected, the horseman, not only with regard 
to the first, but the permanent teeth, judges of the age of the animal. This 
obliteration begins to be manifest at a very early age. At six months it is 
sutiiciently evident in the four central nippers. At a j'ear and a half the 
mark will be very faint in the central nippers, diminished in the other two, 
and the surface of all of them will be flattened. 

At twelve months a fourth grinder protrudes, and a fifth at the expiration 
of two years. 

These are all temporary teeth. They were only designed to last during 
an early period of the life of the animal ; and when his jaws become con- 
siderably exi)anded, they give way to another set, larger, firmer, and that 
will probably last during life. The permanent teeth had been long grow- 
ing in the socket beneath the temporary ones, and had been pressing upon 
their roots, and that pressure had caused an absorption of these roots, until 
at length they lost all hold and were displiuced. 

When the animal is about three j'ears old, the central pair of nippers, 
above and below, are thus removed, and two fresh teeth, easily distinguish- 



STOCK OWNERS, &C. 49 

able from the first by their increased size, make their appearance, so that a 
tliree-year-old colt is easily recognized by these two new and enlarged cen- 
tral nippers. 

A three-year-old colt has his form and energies much more developed 
than a two-year-old one, and is considerably more valuable ; therefore some 
dishonest breeders endeavour to pass him upon the unwary as being a year 
oilier tiian he really is, and tiiey accomplish tliis, in an ingenious but cruel 
manner, by punching or drawing out tiiese teeth. This cannot, however, 
be effecteil until a portion of the second year is past, when tiie permanent 
teeth below are beginning to press upon the roots of their predecessors, and 
then the breeder extracts the central milk-teetii. Those below, having no 
longer anything to resist tiieir progress, grow far more rapidly tiian tiiey 
otherwise would do, and the scoundrel gains four or five months in the ap- 
parent age of his colt. 

Can this trickery be detected? Not always, except by one who is well 
accustomed to horses. Tlie comparatively slow wasting of the other nip- 
pers, the difference of the development of these nip])ers in the upper anil 
under jaw, — for the breeder usually confines'iiis roguery to the lower jaw, 
the upper one being comparatively seldom examined — these circumstances, 
together with a deficiency of general development in tiie colt, will suffi- 
cientl}' enable tiie purchaser to detect the attein[)ted ciieat. 

Tiie honest mouth of a three-year-old horse should he thus formed : — 
the central teeth are pri)bal)ly larger than the others, and have the mark on 
their upper surface evident and well defined. They will, however, be lower 
than the other teeth. Tiie mark in the next pair of nippers will be nearly 
worn away, and that in the corner nippers will liave begun to wear. 

At three ^ears and a half the second nippers will be pushed from their 
sockets, and their place gradually supplied by a new pair; and at four and 
a half the corner nippers will be undergoing the same process. Thus at 
four years old the central nippers will be fully grown : the next pair will be 
up, but will not liave attained their full iieight ; and the corner nippers will 
be small, with their mark nearlj^ effaced. At five ^ears old tlie mark will 
begin to be effaced from the central teeth ; tlie next pair will be fully grown, 
and the blackness of the mark a little taken off ; and the corner pair will be 
protruding or partly grown. 

At this period, or between the fourth and fifth year, another change will 
take place in the mouth of the horse ; the tushes will have begun to appear. 
There will be two of them in each jaw, between the nippers and the grind- 
ers, considerably nearer to the former tlian the latter, and particularly so in 
the lower jaw. Tlie use of these tushes in tlie domesticated state of the 
horse is not evident; but they were probably designed as weapons of 
offence in the wild state of the animals. Attempts are too frequently made 
to hasten the appearance of the second and the corner teeth, in the same 
manner as described with regard to the first, and the gum is often deeply 
lanced in order to hasten the appearance of the tush. 

At six years old the mark on the central nippers will be diminished, if 
not obliterated. A depression and a mark of rather brown hue may remain, 
but the deep blacked hole in the centre will nolonger be found. The otlier 
incisors will also be somewhat worn, and the tush fully developed. 

At seven the mark on the next pair of incisors will have nearly disap- 
peared, and the tush will be rounded at the jioint and the edges. 

At eight the mark will be gone from all the incisor teeth, and the tush 
■will be evidently rounded and blunter. 

At this period another piece of trickery is occasionally practised. 
The breeder had, until the animal was five years old, been endeavoring 
to give him an older appearance than his years entitled him to, be- 
cause, in proportion as he approached the period when his powers were 
most perfectly developed, his value increased ; but now he endeavours to 
conceal the ravages of age. The horse is cast, and with a sharp pointed 
steel instrument a little hole is dug on the surface of the corner incisor, to 

3 



50 STOCK OWNERS, &C. 

which a red-hot iron is afterwards applied. An indelible black mark is 
tlius left on tlie tootli. Sometimes tlie roguery is carried furtlier; tlienext 
tootli is slightly touched with the engraver and the cautery ; but here the 
dishonest dealer generally overreaches himself, for the form and general 
appearance of a six-year old liorse can rarely be given to one wliicii has 
passed his eiglith year. The eighth year having passed, it is difficult to 
decide on tlie exact age of the liorse. Tlie incisors of the upper jaw are 
then the best guides. At nine years the mark will be worn away from the 
central teeth ; at eleven, from the next pair ; and at twelve from the corner 
ones. The tusii likewise becomes sliorter and blunter. 

There are many circumstances which render a decision as to the age of 
the liorse very difficult after the marks are effaced from the lower incisors, 
and even before tliat period. Horses always kept in tlie stable have the 
mark much sooner worn out tlian those tiiat are at grass; and it is impos- 
sible to form any certain calculation as to crib-biters. 

Cruelty to Horses. — Besides the cruel punislmient inflicted upon 
horses, by the careless and heartless driver, he is subjected to severe punish- 
ment in the winter season, by being compelled to take frozen bits into his 
mouth in cold weather, tearing the skin from the tongue and the roof of 
bis mouth, producing a heavy inflammation in the mouth and throat ; he 
gets poor, hidebound, and the sympathetic nerves of the head take up the 
inflammation, carry it to the head and eyes, frequently producing blindness, 
and a hundred other diseases. The whip should be u.sed as an instrument 
of pleasure instead of torture ; and your bits should be wound with flannel 
or leather ; so that no frozen iron will come in contact with his mouth, lips, 
or tongue. 

Rarey's Directions for Shoeing Horses. — " There are very few 
blacksmiths that ever once think what . a complicated piece of machinery 
the foot of a horse is, and by one careless blow they frequently stop the 
working of tliis machine. The majority of smiths, as soon as they pick up a 
horse's foot, go to work paring the heel, from the fact tiiat it is the most 
convenient part of the foot, and thereby destroy the heel and braces of the 
foot, causing in many instances, contracted heels. The heels of a liorse 
should be well kept up and the toe down. By lowering the heels you throw 
the entire weight of your horse upon the tendon of the legs, and there- 
by produce lameness from overtaxing a very important set of tendons. By 
keeping up the heel you throw the weight upon the wall of the foot. la 
this position you prevent stumbling, clicking, &c. Next the shoer commen- 
ces to pare away the sole, thins it down until he can feel it spring with his 
thumb. Ask him why he does this, and he gives 30U no reason, except 
from custom ; next comes the bars or braces of the foot, they are smoothed 
down; next in his ruinous course, comes the frogs of the feet, they are sub- 
jected to the same cutting and smoothing process. All the cutting, paring, 
and smoothing of the soles, bars, or frogs is a decided injury to the horse 
as well as to the owner. All the corns in the land are produced by this 
process of paring. The frogs have been placed in the foot by nature to 
expand the M'all of the foot, and as soon as you commence to cut it, the oily 
substance commences to leak out, it dries up, becomes hard, losing its oily 
substance, makes the wall hard and dry, inducing it to crack. The nerves 
of the feet are very sensitive, and smiths should be very careful not to prick 
the foot, as it requires quite a time to relieve them. The foot is a very 
complicated piece of machinery, and if j'ou keep a horse well shod and his 
foot in good condition, you can then generally manage the balance. The 
feet suffer from being kept too dry. Horses that stand on board floors 
should have their feet wet every da\\ or there should be a vat five inches 
deep, five feet long, and three wide, filled with water and clay, in which 
each horse can stand for one hour per week, unless his feet are feverish, 
then he should be kept in it an hour per da}^ or until the fever subsides. 
Another source of injury to horses' feet, is the habit of patronizing cheap 
blacksmiths. If a man can drive a nail, he then sets up a sign as a farrier 



STOCK OWNERS, &C. 51 

or a veterinary surgeon, when in fact he knows nothing of the anatomj' of 
the horse's foot ; not liaving sjient any time or money in acquiring the 
necessary information, he can afford to slioe a few shillings cheaper than a 
well-informed man, but the patrons of such cheap shoeing are generally tiie 
sufferers. All horse-slioers siiould be well skilled veterfnary surgeons, or 
there should be a skilful surgeon attached to every sliop. Another source 
of poor shoeing and injury is tlie loss of elasticity of tiie frog, refusing to 
perform its proper functions ; the heel contracts, the foot rolls, and you 
liave a sore horse for ten or twelve months, for it requires this long to re- 
lieve a horse's suffering from being badly shod. 

Under the circumstances, the first thing that touches the road or the floor 
of the stall, should be the frog, and the wall of the foot should be kept cut 
so as not to prevent it from touching at every, step ; and no man that owns 
a horse should ever allow a blacksmith to cut the soles, bars, or frogs of his 
horse's feet. Nature has adapted the frogs to all description of roads, cli- 
mates, and weather, without being pared. So many horses have been 
ruined by this process of paring, tliat there are now severnl establishments 
. in this country that manufacture Imlia rubber pads, thinking thereby to 
supply the wasted frog and the elasticity of the natural foot. The frog is 
insensible to pressure, and you may place the whole weight of your horse 
on the frog and he will suffer no inconvenience, as may be seen from shoeing 
with one of my corn shoes ; besides, this is the onlj' reliable way to cure 
contracted feet ; by throwing the weight upon the frog, you force them up 
between the walls ; it acts as a wedge, and soon relieves the contracted feet. 
Smiths should never have their shoes liot when fitting them, as tlie applica- 
tion of hot iron extracts the oily substance from the hoof. The amount of 
cruel punishment inflicted on horses by cross-grained blacksmiths, is another 
source of poor slioeing. As soon as the horse does not stand the smith gets 
angry, and commences whipping and jerking the animal, which only adds 
terror to it, so that he soon refuses to go to the shop if he can avoid it ; it is 
nat\iral for horses to dislike to be shod, because the hammering shocks the 
nervous system, until they are accustomed to it. He should be taught to 
stand, and his feet well handled at home, before he is ever brought to the 
shop by the owner. You then save the horse pounding, and the smith an 
immense amount of hibor that he never gets any pay for, for no man ever 
thinks of paying anj'thing extra for shoeing a bad horse. Tlie wall of the 
foot should never be rasped above the nail holes, and as little below the 
clinches as possible ; all the rasping and filing but tends to thin and weaken 
the wall by cutting the the fibres of the foot. The nails should be counter- 
sunk into the shoe, so that there will be no chance for tlie clinches to rise. 
No horse interferes with the heel or toe ; it is always the side of the foot. 
The habit of turning the inside of the shoe under, causes a number of horses 
to interfere, that would not if they were shod straight in the inside. Spread 
the heels as wide as possible ; set the outside a little under ; keep the toes 
fidl. For clicking horses, raise the heels high, cut the toes short. For 
speedy cuts, place your toe corks a quarter of an inch to the inside of the 
centre of your shoe ; keep the heels wide apart. For corns, put on a shoe 
with a prong, for the main rim, so as to cover the entire frog, pare the wall 
lower tlian the frog, so as his entire weight will be thrown on the frog. 
Have the inner cork not quite so sharp as the outer one, so that if he steps 
upon the other foot it will not cut it ; make the shoes as light as possible con- 
sistent with good service,as they are ordinarily made just about j^ too heavy." 

Shoeing Horses. — A smith who shod for the hunt, and who said that 
he would have to shut up shop if a slioe was lost, as it might cause the loss 
of a horse worth a thousand pounds, fastened the shoe as follows : — As he 
drove the nails, lie merely bent the points down to the hoof, without twist- 
ing tliem off, as tlie usual practice is ; he then drove the nails home, and 
clinched them. He then twisted off the nails, and filed them lightly to 
smooth them, thus having, as he remarked, a clinch and a rivet to hold the 
nails. 



52 STOCK OWNERS, <fcC. 

When a Horse is Well Broken. — A horse is well broken wlien he 
has been tauglit inrplicit and cheerful obedience to his rider or driver, and 
dexterity in performance of his work. A dogged, sullen, spiritless submis- 
sion may be enforced by the cruel and brutal usage to which the breaker 
so frequently has recourse ; but that prompt and eager response to the 
slightest intimation of the rider's will — that manifest aim to anticipate 
every wish, which gives to the horse so much of his value, must be 
founded on habitual confidence and attachment. The education of the 
horse should be like that of the child. Pleasure should be as much as possible 
associated with the early lessons ; while firmness, or, if need be, coercion 
must establish the habit of obedience. 

It is surprising how soon, under a system of kind management, the 
animal whicii has been accustomed to go where he pleased, and to do as he 
thought fit, may be taught to yield up iiis will to anotlier, and to obey with 
alacrity his master's bidding. If there is a kind-hearted and faithful 
servant about the premises who will undertake this task, the breeder is 
fortunate ; for without this, he is often compelled to resign his colt to the 
tender mercies of a colt-breaker — a man wlio seldom has any conception of 
obtaining his object by tlie moral influence which kindness wouhl give him 
over the youngster, but wiio has too frequent recourse to violence, and that 
of the most outrageous kind, imtil the colt becomes a dull, dispirited, 
useful but desponding and ill-treated slave through life, or, cherishing a 
deep feeling of wrong and a spirit of revenge, becomes determinedly 
vicious and dangerous. 

Patience and Kindness. — Having weathered the second winter, the 
education of the farmer's horse may be pursued. He may be bitted. How 
much depends upon the application of this little coercive instrument, tiie 
bit! The first bit sliould always be a large one. It may be contrived so 
as not to hurt the mouth in the slightest degree. The colt may be permit- 
ted to champ and play witli it an hour or two at a time, for a few succes- 
sive days. Then portions of the liarness ma}' be put upon liim ; and, by- 
and-by, the winkers ; and, a little after that, he may go as centre iiorse 
in a team of three. If he has been kindly and well managed, it is a great 
chance if he does not go quietly enough, and in a day or two begin to pull 
with the rest. Not many days need to pass before the most diflicult of all 
the manoeuvres -of tlie cart, backing, is tried ; and it will succeed oftener 
than tiiey who see tlie horrible cruelties that are inflicted on the mouth of 
the horse would think to be possible. The author of this sketch is not 
advocating the humoring and spoiling of the horse, but he is sliowing how 
many lessons may be inculcated by patience and kindness, which brute 
force would fail to accomplish. 

Bit for Horses. — The compound bit is composed of five principal pieces, 
viz.: the mouth-piece ; the branches; the rings; the curb; the cross-bar. 
A compound bit, however, is not always requisite, many ponies and horses 
being ridden with a simple snaffle, wliich should be in the corners of the 
horse's mouth without pressing against it. Tiie curb bit powerfully 
controls the horse, but with the snaffle he can take a natural position and 
act with more freedom. The snaffle is preferable for common use in every 
way ; but if the rider cannot control his horse, he must resort to the curb 
bit, which should be knotted underneath the snaffle. Care should be taken 
that the bit does not ])ress unnecessarily hard upon the horse's mouth, nor 
that it is so sharp as to wound it. It may be necessary to have a sharp bit 
for the headstrong and obstinate beast ; yet, if it is severely and unjustifi- 
ably called into exercise, the animal will in all probability plunge and rear, 
and endanger both himself and his rider. The torments which the trap- 
pings of the mouth often inflict upon the docile and willing horse are useless 
and cruel, and instead of any benefit being derived from such a mode of 
treatment, it onl_v serves to render the mouth hard, thereby destroying all 
the pleasure of riding, as well as causing the horse to become fretful and 
vicious. 



STOCK OWNERS, &C, 53 

To Tame Horses. — Take finely-grated liorse castor, oils of rhodium and 
cummin ; keep tliem in separate bottles well corked ; put some of tlie oil of 
cummin on your liand, and approacii tlie horse on tlie \vi«(i\' side. He will 
then move toward you. Then rub some of the cummin on his nose, give liim 
a little of the castor on anvthing he likes, and get eight or ten drops oil of 
rliodium on his tongue. You can then get him to do anything you like. Be 
kind and attentive to the animal, and jour control is certain. 

The Feeding of Horses. — Almost of more importance than the form in 
which food is given, is the frequency and regularity of meals. The horse's 
digestive organs are not constructed for long fasts. Long intervals without 
food produce hunger, and liunger begets voracity ; food is bolted, and in- 
digestion and colic follow. Tliis is doubly true and dangerous with horses 
doing hard work. They come to their long-deferred meal not only hungry, 
but exhausted ; not only is the food bolted, but the stomach is in such a 
state as to be incapable of thoroughly active digestion, and is overpowered 
by half the amount of food it could otherwise digest. The prevention of 
waste is almost attained when we give a j)roper form ; but there are two 
points to wiiich it is right to devote some attention — the form of the man- 
gers, and attention to the wants of the individual animals. The mangers 
should not be less than three feet long, eighteen inches wide, and twelve 
inches deep. They should have an upper border of wood projecting in- 
wards for two inclies and a transverse bar of half-inch iron across the middle. 
A piece of two-inch hoop iron, on the top of the manger, protects ii from 
damage by tlie horse's teeth. This simple arrangement prevents the horse 
from throwing out his corn, and the proveniler is not set in so thick a layer 
as in the ordinary narrow and shallow manger. 

Table showing the proportions of medicines to be given to horses at 
various ages : — 

Calomel or 

Tartarized Antimony. 

Grah\s. 

To foals 10 

Yearlings 15 to 20 

Two years old . . , 20 25 
Three years old . . 25 GO 
Four years old , . _ 30 gO 
and upwards J 

To put Horses in Good Conditigx. — They need good care and clean 
feed. If your horse is hide-bound, and out of condition, give him a good 
purge of linseed oil, or castor oil — one pint. Then give brao mashes 
morning and evening ; he will soon regain his appetite, and will be all right. 
At any time when your horse loses his appetite, check his food, and give a 
mash. Give as little medicine as possible. By this treatment you will have 
healthy horses. 

Tiie following are some of the Tricks that Jockeys not xtnfreqiienHy 
resort to in disposing of horses. — In purchasing keep a sharp look out lest 
some one or moreof them may be practised upon you. 

How to make a Foundered and Spavined Horse Go Off Limber. 
— Take tincture ca\'enne, 1 oz. ; laudanum, 2 ozs. ; alcohol, 1 pt. ; rub the 
shoulders well with warm water, then rub the above on his shoulders and 
backbone; give him 1 oz. of laudanum and 1 pint of gin; put it down his 
throat with a pint bottle ; put his feet in warm water as hot as he can bear 
it; take a little spirits of turpentine, rub it on the bottom part of his feet 
with a sponge after taking them out of the water ; drive him about half a 
mile or a mile, until he comes out as limlier as a rag. If he does not sur- 
render to his pain, tie a thin cord around the end of his tongue. 

How TO Make Old Horses Appear Young. — Take tincture of assafoo- 



Linseed Oil. 


Aloes. 


Ounces. 


Drachms. 


4 to 6 

6 8 

8 12 

12 15 


i to 5^ 

1 lV^ 

2 2% 
2i 3>^ 


1 2 pts. 


4 6 



54 STOCK OWNERS, &C. 

tida, 1 oz. ; tinct. cantliarides, 1 o?. ; oil cloves, 1 oz. ; oil cinnamon, 1 oz. ; 
antimony, 2 ozs. ; fenugreek, 1 oz. ; fourtli proof brandy, i gallon ; let it 
stand ten days, than give 10 drops in gal. of water. 

How TO Make a Horse Appear as if Foundered. — Take a fine v/ire 
or any substitute, and fasten it around the pastern joint at niglit; smooth 
the hair down over it nicely, and by morning he will walk as stiff as if foun- 
dered. 

To Make a Horse Fleshy in a Short Time. — Feed with buckwheat 
bran, to which add a little of tiie shorts; keep in a dark stable. Half a day's 
drive will make a horse fatted in this way poor. 

How to Make a Horse Stand by his Feed and Not Eat it. — 
Grease the front teeth and roof of the mouth with common tallow, and he 
will not eat initil you wash it out. 

How to Make a True Pulling Horse Baulk. — Take tincture of 
cantiiarides, 1 oz., and corrosive sublimate, 1 drachm. Mix, and bathe the 
ghoulders at niglit. 

How to Distinguish between Distemper and Glanders. — The dis- 
charge from the nose, if glanders, will sink in water ; if distemper, it will 
not. 

How TO Make a Horse Appear as if he had the Glanders. — Melt 
fresh butter and pour in his eais. 

Physicing. — There is more injury done in the practice of this than in 
any otlier medical treatment of tlie horse. The old practice has been to 
physic and bleed every spring, and this is necessary where tlie horse is really 
sick. When you change him from tiie pasture to the warm stable and dry 
food, it is also good, tlie horse must be prepared for it. Give three or four 
niaslies before the pliysic, and, in the majority of cases, they will be suffi- 
cient without it, especially if the bowels are sliglitly moved, for really the 
less medicine given the better. 

After the physic is given, the horse should have walking exercise for an 
hour or two ; but, when it begins to operate, he should be kept still as pos- 
sible, or the medicine would be likely to gripe, and perhaps irritate tlie in- 
testinal canal, and cause inflammation. You can give him a small amount 
of hay, and as much mash as he will eat, and as much water with the chill 
off as he chooses to drink ; if he will not drink tepid water, give him about 
a quart of cold water every hour. When the purging ceases, give a mash 
twice a day, until you give more physic, which should be only once a week. 

Barbadoes aloes is the best purgative, being alvva3s sure and safe. The 
dose, with the horse prepared by bran maslies, would vary from five to 
seven drachms, the latter sufficient for any horse. You can dissolve in 
warm water, and give as a drench, or make into a ball with linseed oil, and 
lay upon the roots of the tongue, letting go tlie tongue at the same time. 

The next best purgative is the Croton nut ; the farina or meal of the nut 
is used. It should be made into a ball with linseed oil. Give from a scruple 
to half a draciim, according to the state of the subject. It acts more speed- 
ily than aloes, but causes more debility. Linseed oil is uncertain, but safe 
in doses from a pound to a pound and a half. It leaves the horse in very 
good condition. 

How TO Teach a Horse to Pace. — ^First take nine or ten pounds of 
lead, divide in four parts, equal to three and three-quarter inches, by four 
and a half in size ; make two holes in each end of these leads, then fasten two 
of them together and have them padded. Then fasten them on tlie horse's 
legs, one on each hind leg, just above the ankle joint. Ride your horse 
briskl_v with tliose weights upon his ankles, at the same time pulling each 
rein of the bridle alternately. By this means you immediately throw him 
into a pace. After you liave in this way trained him to some extent, change 
your leaden weights to something lighter ; leather paddings, or something 
equal to it will answer tiie purpose. Let him wear those weights until he 
is perfectly trained. By adopting this plan, you will speedily make a 
smooth and easy pacer of any horse. 



STOCK OWNERS, &C. 55 

Feeding Horses on the Road. — Many persons, in travelling, feed tlieir 
liorses too nnicli, and too often, continually stuffing tliem, and not allowing 
then* to rest and digest tlieir food ; of course tliey suffer from over-fulness, 
and carrying unnecessary weight. Horses sliould be well fed in tlie evening, 
and must not be stuffed too full in'tbe morning, and tiie travelling should 
be moderate on starting when tlie horse has a full st(*mach. If a horse 
starts in good condition, he can go 20 or 25 miles without feeding. The pro- 
vender required by liorses while travelling or engaged in ordinary farm 
work, per da\', may be stated thus : Hay 20 lbs., onts 3 gals., water 4 gals. 
Muddy water is the best for horses. Beeves require 20 lbs. of hay and 6 
gallons of water per day. Quantity will vary in every case according to 
the size, condition, breed, &c., together with the kind of work in which they 
are employed. 

The Check Eein on Horses. — We desire to register an earnest protest 
against this barbarous appendage to horses' harness. It retards tlie liorse's 
progress in everj' position both while he is at work, and while travelling on 
a journey. It is both useless and cruel in every sense of the word, without 
any compensating qualities to recommend it. Mr. Angell, of the " Bostoit 
Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals," who has travelled over 
a great part of Europe in the interests of humanity to our dumb servants, 
says, that the use of the check rein is confiiied to America alone, being deser- 
vedly discarded everywhere both in England and on the Continent. The 
reason why it is so discarded, was very grai)liically explained by an exten- 
sive horse owner in Glasgow, as he remarked, in conversation with Mr. An- 
gell, that " We canna get the wark oot o' the horse wi' the check rein." 
To check rein a horse, is equivalent to trussing a man's head backward, 
towards his back or heels, and compelling him, while bound in this 
position, to do duty with a loaded wheelbarrow. 

To Trevent Horses from Jumping. — Pass a good stout surcingle around 
liis body ; put on his halter, and have the halter strap long enough to go 
from his head, between his fore legs, then through the surcingle, and back 
to tine of his hind legs. Procure a thill strap, and buckle around the leg 
between the foot and joint, fasten the halter strap in this — shorter or longer, 
as the obstinacy of the case may require. It is also useful to keep colts 
from running where there is likely- to be danger from the result ; if the thill 
stra[) should cause an}' soreness on the leg, it ma}' be wound with a woollen 
cloth, and it would be well to change it from one leg to another occasionally. 

To Cure Balky Horses. — One method to cure a balky horse is to take 
him from the carriage, whirl him ra])iilly around till he is giddy. It re- 
quires two men to accomplish this, — one at the horse's tail. Don't let him 
step out. Hold him to the smallest possible circle. One dose will often cure 
liim, 2 doses are final with the worst horse that ever refused to stir. Another 
plan is to fill his mouth with the dirt or gravel from the road, and he 
will at once go, tlie philosophy of this being that it gives him something else 
to think about. 

Halter Pulling. — A new wa}' to prevent horses pulling at the halter, 
is to put a very small rope under the liorse's tail bringing the ends forward, 
crossing them on the back, and tviiig them on the breast. Put the halter 
strap through the ring, and tie the rope in front of the horse. "When the 
horse pulls, he will, of course, find himself in rather an uncomfortable posi- 
tion, and discontinue the effort to free himself. 

To Prevent Horses Kicking in the Stall. — Fasten a short trace- 
chain about 2 feet long, by a strap to each hind foot. A better way is to 
have the stalls made wide enough so that the horse can turn in them easily. 
Close them with a door or bars, and turn the animal loose. After a while 
he will forget the habit, and stand tied without further trouble. 

Ceib-biting. — This familiar habit in horses is nothing more than a symp- 
tom of dyspejisia. It is that form of indigestion which in man is accomjia- 
nied with acid eructations. Crib-biting is simply belching. Give one ounce 
of powdered charcoal twic;e a day in a bran mash. 



56 STOCK OWNERS, &C. 

Mexican Mustang Liniment. — Petroleum, olive oil, and carbonate of 
ammonia, eacli equal parts, and mix. 

Merchant's Gargling Oil. — Take 2| gals, linseed oil ;2| gals, spirits 
turpentine ; 1 gal. western petroleum ; 8 oz. liquor potass. ; sap green, 1 oz. ; 
mix all together, and it is ready for use! 

Scratches. — Cut off tlie hair close, and wash the legs in strong soap-suds 
or urine, or wash witli warm vinegar saturated with salt, and afterwards 
dress over witli a small quantity of liog's lard. 

Condition Powders. — 1 pound ginger; 1 ounce anise seed, pulverized; 
one ounce fenugreek seed; two ounces ginseng root, pulverized. ; one ounce 
seed'of sumac berries pulverized ; one ounce antimony. Mix it with a pound 
of brown sugar. Excellent for coughs, cokls, or to give a horse an appetite. 

Arabian Condition Powders. — Ground ginger, 1 lb.; suipliuret of anti- 
mony, 1 lb.; powdered sulphur, 1 lb.; saltpetre, 1 lb. Mix all together, and 
administer in a masii, in such quantities as may be required. The best con- 
dition powder in existence. 

CoLGH Powders. — Camplior, one ounce ; tartar emetic, one ounce ; ni- 
trate potassa, two ounces, and digitalis, one draciim, if you choose. 

Blistering Liniment. — 1 part Spanish flies, finely powdered ; 3 of lard; 
and 1 of yellow resin. Mix the lard and resin together, and add tlie flies 
wlien the other ingredients begin to cool. To render it more active, add 1 
pint spirits turpentine. 

Sloan's Horse Ointment. — i oz. resin ; 4 oz. bees-wax ; lard, 8 oz, ; ho- 
ney, 2 oz. Mix slowly and gently, bring to a boil ; then add less than 1 pint 
spirits turjjentine ; tiien remove and stir till cool. Unsurpassed for horse 
Ik'sh, cracked hoofs, human flesh, &c. 

House Ail. — Make a slow fire of old shoes, rags, herbs, &c. When fired 
a little, smother so as to make a great smoke and steam, then set a barrel 
without heads, over the fire, ami iiold the horse's head down in the barrel, 
and smoke him well. This will soon produce a copious running at the nose, 
and lie will be so well pleased that he will voluntarily iiold his head in the 
smoke. Continue this iialf an iiour or more daily, meanwhile give liim po- 
tatoes and warm bran mashes, and gently physic if there be much costi- 
veness which tlie laxative food will not remove. If he has fever, treat him 
for it. 

For Restoring Hair to Galled Spots on Horses. — Take one pound 
red clover blossoms and six quarts of water, simmer to a thick syrup — then 
add sufficient barbary tallow to make a paste. This form is the best oint- 
ment for this purpose extant. 

Grease Heel. — Lye made from wood-ashes, and boil wliite-oak bark in 
it till it is quite strong, both in lye and bark-ooze ; when it is cold, it is fit 
for use. Wash, off the iiorse's legs witli Castile soap ; when dry, api)ly the 
above lye with a swab fastened on a long stick to keep out of his reach, as 
the smart caused by the application might make him let fly without much 
■warning ; but is a sure curi.', only it brings off the Jiair. To restore the hair 
after the cure is effected, make and apply a salve by stewing elder bark in 
old bacon ; then form the salve by a<lding a little resin, according to the 
amount of oil when stewed, or -J lb. resin to eacii pound of oil. 

Medicated Food for Horses and Cattle. — Take linseed cake and 
pulverize or grind it up in the shape of meal, and to every 50 lbs. of this 
ingredient, add 10 lbs. Indian meal ; 2 lbs. sulphuret of antimony ; 2 lbs. 
ground ginger, 1 ^ lbs. of saltpetre, and 2 lbs. powdered sulpliur. Mix the 
wh(jle thoroughly together, put in neat boxes or packages for sale or other- 
wise as desired, and you will have an article equal in value to "Thorley's 
Food," or almost any other preparation that can be got up for the purpose 
of fattening stock or curing disease in every case when food or medicine 
can be of an^- use whatever. This article can be fed in any desired quan- 
tity, beginning with a few tablespoonfuls at a time, for a horse, mixing it 
witli his grain, and in the same proportion to smaller animals, repeating the 
dose and increasing the quantity as the case may seem to require. 

*3 



STOCK OAVNERS, ifeC 57 

Poll Etil and Fistula. — Common potash dissolved in ^ pint of water, 
1 lb. ; add J oz. belladonna extract, and 1 oz. gum arable dissolved in a little 
water; work all into a paste with wheat flour, and bottle up tiglit. Direc- 
tions : wash the sores well with Castile soap-suds ; then apply tallow all 
around tiiem. Next, press the above paste to the bottom of all the orifices; 
repeat every two days till the callous fibrous base around the poll evil or 
fistula is completely destroyed ; put a piece of oil-cloth over the sores, and 
afterwards heal up with Sloan's Horse Ointment. 

Cure for Bots in Horses. — Give the horse, first, 2 quarts of new milk, 
and 1 quart molasses ; 15 minutes afterwards, give 2 quarts very strong sage 
tea; 30 minutes after tiie tea, give 3 pints (or enough to operate as pliysic), 
of curriers' oil. The molasses and milk cause the bots to let go their hold, 
the tea puckers them up, and the oil carries them completely away. Cure, 
certain, in tiie worst cases. 

To Distinguish and Cure Distemper. — Wet up bran with rather 
strong lye ; if not too stroTig, the horse will eat it greedily. If they have 
the distemper, a free discharge from the nostrils, and a consequent cure, 
will be tlie result, if continued a few days ; but if only a cold, with swellings 
of tlie glands, no change will be discovered. 

Remedy for Founder. — Draw about 1 gal. blood from the neck ; then 
drencli the horse witli linseed oil, 1 qt. ; now rub the fore-legs long and well 
with water as hot as can be borne without scalding. 

For Strains and Swellings. — Strong vinegar saturated with common 
salt, used warm, is good for strains and reducing swellings. 1 oz. of white 
vitriol ; 1 oz. of green copperas ; 2 teaspoonfuls of gunpowder, all pulverized 
together, and dissolved in 1 quart of soft water, and used cold, rubbing in 
thoroughly, is one of tlie best ajjplications known for reducing swellings. 

Cure for Staggers. — Give a mess twice a week, composed of bran, 
1 gal.; sulphur, 1 tablespoonful ; saltpetre, 1 spoonful ; boiling sassafras tea, 
1 quart ; assafcetida, 1 }i oz. Keep the horse from cold water for half a day 
afterwards. 

Split or Broken Hoof. — Let the blacksmith bore two holes on each 
side of tlie crack or split ; pass long nails through the holes and clinch tight. 
After anointing with the hoof-bound liquid, it will soon grow together. 

Hoof-Bound Wash. — Spirits turpentine, 4 oz. ; tar, 4 oz. ; whale oil, 8 oz. 
Mix, and apply to the hoofs often. 

To Toughen Hoofs. — Wash them frequently in strong brine, and turn 
brine upon the bottoms, and soak a few minutes each time. 

Liniment for Fifty Cents per Gallon. — Best vinegar, 2 qts. ; pulver- 
ized saltpetre, ^ lb. ; mix, and set in a cool place till dissolved. Invaluable 
for old swellings, sprains, bruises, &c. 

Sore Breasts. — Tliis generally occurs in the spring, at the commence- 
ment of plowing. At times the fault is in having poor old collars, and not 
liaving the collar well fitted to the horse's breast ; and often, the hatnes are 
either too tight or too loose. There is a great difference in horses about 
getting chafed or galled, and at times it has seemed to be impossible to keep 
their breasts from getting sore ; but a thorough application of strong alum 
water or white oak bark to the breasts of the animal, 3 days before going to 
work, toughen them so that they will not get sore. Another excellent plan 
is, when you let your team rest for a few moments during work, to raise the 
collar and pull it a little forward, and rub the breast thoroughly with you 
naked hand. 

Itch. — To cure a horse. affected with itch, first reduce his daily allow- 
ance of food, putting him on low diet and then give him a teaspoonful of a 
mixture of equal parts of sulphur and antimony, and at the end of a week 
or 10 days the sores will have disappeared and the horse will be covered 
with a fine coat of new hair. 

To Cure Broken Legs. — Instead of summarilj' sliooting the horse, in 
tlie greater number of fractures it is only necessary to partially sling the 
horse by means of a broad piece of sail, or other strong cloth placed under 



58 STOCK OWNERS, &C. 

the animal's belly, furnished with 2 breechings and 2 breast girths, and by 
means of ropes and pulleys attached to a cross beam above, he is elevated, 
or lowered, as may be required. By the adoption of tliis plan every facility 
is allowed for the satisfactory treatment of fractures. 

Physic-Ball for Horses. — Barbadoes aloes, from 4 to 5 or 6 drachms 
(according to size and strength of the horse) ; tartrate of potassa, 1 drachm; 
ginger and Castile soap, each 2 drachms ; oil of anise, or peppermint, 20 drops ; 
pulverize and make all into one ball, with thick gum solution. Feed by 
giving scalded bran instead of oats, for two days before giving the physic, 
and during its operation. 

Wkak Ankles in Colt. — If the ankles are very weak, and incline to 
bend back so as to bring the fetlock close to the ground, you will have to 
rive out some ash or oak splints ; pack the uneven parts with cotton batting ; 
starch a long cotton bandage, (8 to 12 feet long), and eveidy apply the 
splints, and then evenly wind the bandage. Remove every third day until 
no longer needed. If an ordinary weakness, the oak bark astringent lotion, 
already twice recommended, will be all you will require. 

Big Leg. — To cure, use the " Blistering Liniment " with regularity 
every third hour until it blisters. In 8 days wash the leg with linseed oil. In 
6 days wash it clean with soap and water. Repeat every 6 days until the swel- 
ling goes down. -If there should be any callous left, apply spavin ointment. 

Liniment for Sweeny. — Alcohol and spirits turpentine, of each 8 oz. ; 
camphor-gum, pulverized cantliarides, and capsicum, of each 1 oz. ; oil of 
spike, 3 oz. ; mix. Bathe this liniment in with a hot iron, and a cure is 
sure to follow. 

Swelling on Neck of Horse. — Paint constantly with a small brush 
dipped in strong tincture of iodine. Should this fail after a few weeks trial, 
apply instead, biniodide ointment. Keep from being chafed or irritated, or 
it will terminate in fistula most surely. 

Lampas. — This consists in a swelling of the first bar of the upper palate. 
It is cured hy rubbing the swelling 2 or 3 times a day with -J oz. of alum and 
the same qnantitj' of double refined sugar mixed with a little honey. 

Gravel. — Steep i lb. of hops in a quart of water and give it as hot as 
the horse can stand it. 

For Spavin. — Take sweet oil, 4 oz. ; spirits turpentine, 2 oz. ; oil of 
stone, 1 oz. Mix, and apj)ly tliree times per day. If the horse is over four 
years old, or in any case when this is not sufficient, in addition to it, you 
will fit a bar of lead just above it, wiring the ends together, so it constantly 
wears upon the enlargement; and the two togetlier will cure nine cases out 
of every ten, in six weeks. 

Cuke for Bone Spavins, $300 Recipe. — Corrosive sublimate, quick- 
silver, and iodine, of each 1 oz. Rub the quicksilver and iodine together; 
tlien add the sublimate, and lastly the lard, rubbing them thoroughly. Shave 
off the hair the size of the bone enlargement ; grease all around it, but not 
where the hair is shaved off, this prevents the action of tlie medicine, except 
on the spavin. Then rub in as mucli of the paste as will lie on a 3-cent 
piece, each morning, for 3 or 4 mornings. In from 7 to 8 days, the whole 
spavin will come out ; then wash the wound with suds for an liour or so, to 
remove the poisonous effects of the paste ; afterwards heal up the sore with 
any good healing salve, or Sloan's Horse Ointment, as per recipe above, 
keeping the sore covered while it is healing up. 

Another very Valuable Recipe for Ring-bone. — Pulverized cantha- 
rides, oils of spike, origanum, amber, cedar, Bayhadoes tar, and British oil, 
of each 2 oz. ; oil of wormwood, 1 oz. ; spirits turpentine, 4 oz. ; common 
potash, -J- oz. ; nitric acid, 6 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 4 oz. ; lard, 3 lbs. Melt the 
lard, and slowly add the acids ; stir well, and add the other articles, stirring 
till cold ; clip off the liair, and apply by rubbing and heating in. In about 
3 days, or when it is done rumiiiig, wash off with soap-suds, and apply 
again. In old cases, it may take 3 or 4 weeks ; but, in recent cases, 2 or 3 
applications have cured. 



STOCK OWNERS, &C. 59 

Another. — Pulverized cantharides, oils of origanum and amber, and 
spirits turpentine, of each 1 oz. ; olive oil, ^ oz. ; sulphuric acid, 3 drams : 
put all, except the acid, into alcohol ; stir the mixture, add tiie acid slowl}-, 
and continue to stir till the mixture ceases to smoke ; then bottle for use. 
Apply to ring-bone or spavin with a sponge tied on the end of a stick, as 
long as it is absorbed into the parts ; twenty -four hours after, grease well 
with lard ; and in twenty-four hours more, wash off well with soap-suds. 
One application is generally sufficient for spavins, but may need two ; ring- 
bones, always two or tliree applications, three or four days apart, whicti 
prevents loss of hair. This will stop all lameness, but does not remove the 
lump. 

Splint and Spavin Liniment. — Oil of origanum, 6 oz. ; gum camphor, 
2 oz. ; mercurial ointment, 2 oz. ; iodine ointment, 1 oz. ; melt by putting 
all into a wide-mouthed bottle, and setting it in a kettle of hot water. Apply 
it to bone spavins or splints, twice daily, for four or five days, and a cure is 
guaranteed. 

Spavin and Eingbone. — Cantharides, four ounces ; origanum, two oun- 
ces ; sulphate of zing, one ounce ; Venice turpentine, three ounces ; niuriat. 
tinct. iron, two ounces ; verdigris, three ounces ; oil vitriol, two ounces ; fresli 
lard, one pound. Siiave the hair from the part diseased, and rub the parts 
with the medicine. You mu.st use your own judgment in using tliis medi- 
cine ; that is in the length of time necessary to remove tlie callus. It must 
be used every otlier day ; this will dissolve the ossified substance, and ooze 
it out. When you see the lump is diminished enough, tiien use the same 
astringent as I have directed in tlie otlier cure, that is, white oak bark and 
alum ; a quarter poimd to a half gallon of bark juice, boiled down to a 
strong decoction. Use morning and evening. 

Spavin and Ringbone Receipt. — The first-named disease comes at the 
lower part of the ganibrel joint. It is caused by a strain or bruise — either 
Avill cause it ; tliis opens tlie pores, and causes tlie substance to concentrate 
at one place, and forms in a gristly or bony substance, and causes the joint 
to become stiff and sore. The horse sometimes becomes lame before en- 
largement is perceivable. In some cases it will continue to grow for two 
years ; it will then become a hard bone. The enlargement at this stage, 
cannot be removed — you may kill the disease, and kill the lameness. The 
great object with tliis disease is stop the leakage. There has nothing been 
used as an astringent ; when by removing the lump, without the astringent, 
it leaves the parts loose and open, but if used, it closes and stops the pores ; 
then, by letting the horse stand until it heaves, becomes firm. 

Cure. — Four ounces green eupliorbium, fine ; one ounce Spanish flies, 
pulverized ; foui ounces corrosive sublimate ; four ounces red precipitate ; 
six ounces white pine turpentine ; four ounces iodine ; six ounces lard ; melt 
the lard and turpentine together; after it is nearly cold, add the other arti- 
cles, and stir until it is cold ; it is then ready for use. 

Tlien rub the enlargement until it is warm ; then rub on the ointment, 
and let it remain for twenty-four hours ; then take lard, and rub upon it 
until all of the ointment is taken out. Let it remain one day, then apply 
the medicine again ; keep this up until the enlargement is gone ; then use 
oak bark as an astringent to bathe it in, and bandage until well, keeping it 
well saturated with the oak bark water. 

You may use the same ointment for "thorough-pin;" after it is blist- 
ered sufficiently deep, use the oak bark and bandage until healed. The 
same for blood spavin and wind puffs. It will be necessary to use a pad 
under the bandage in " thorough-pin, " to make it bear evenly. 

Keep the horse quiet, while using tliese medicines and on a low diet. 

Saddle and Harness Galls, &c. — White lead and linseed oil, mixed as 
for paint, is unrivalled for healing saddle, harness, or collar galls and bruises. 
Try it, applying with a brush. It soon forms an air-tight coating and 
soothes the pain, powerfully assisting nature. 

Magic Liniment. — Two ounces oil spike ; two ounces, origanum ; two 



60 STOCK OWNKRS, AC 

ounces of hemlock ; two ounces of wormwood ; four ounces of sweet oil ; 
two ounces sjtirits ammonia ; two ounces i)f gum cam]>lior ; two ounces 
spirits of turpentine, and one quart of proof spirits ; nine per cent. Mix well 
togetlier and bottle tight. For sprains, hruises, himeness, etc., tliis liniment 
is unsurpassed and originally cost, (what it is really worth) one hundred 
dollars. This is tiie same liniment without the turpentine, which has 
achieved such wonderful cures for human ailments. For domestic purposes 
it is invaluable. 

Cough. — Quit feeding musty hay, and feed roots and laxative food. 
Sprinkle human urine on his fodder, or cut up cedar boughs and mix with 
his grain; or boil a small quantity of flax-seed, and mix it in a mash of 
scalded bran, adding a few ounces of sugar, molasses, or honey. Adminis- 
ter lukewarm. If there should be any aj)i)earance of heaves, put a spoonful 
of ground ginger once per day in his provender, and allow him to drink 
freely of lime water. 

Rarey's Liniment. — Sulphuric ether, 4 ozs. ; hartshorn, 4 ozs. ; oil of 
origanum, 4 ozs. ; alcohol, 4 ozs. ; sweet oil, 4 ozs. Shake well before 
using. For sprains on horses, &c., apply by rubbing and cover with a tight 
flannel bandage. For headache, rub a little on the temples and apply a 
bandage wet with the liniment to the forehead. 

Raeey's Wizard Oil. — Oil of origanum, G ozs. ; alcohol, 6 ozs. ; spirits 
turpentine, 1 oz. ; camphor, 1 oz. Shake well before using. 

Dr. Cole's King of Oils. — 1 oz. green copperas ; 2 oz. white vitriol ; 
2 oz. common salt ; 2 oz. liuseed oil ; 8 oz. molasses. Boil over a slow fire 
fifteen minutes in a pint of urine ; when almost cold, add 1 oz. of oil of 
vitriol and 4 oz. of spirits of turpentine. Apply to wounds with a feather. 
A very powerful liniment. 

Simple Liniment. — Put into spirits of turpentine, all the camphor gnm 
it will cut, when for ordinarj' purposes it is fit for use ; but if designed to 
reduce pain, add as much laudanum as there is turpentine. This liniment 
is as good as it is simple. 

English Stable Liniment, vert strong. — Oil of spike, aqua-ammonia, 
and oil of turpentine, each 2 oz. ; sweet oil, and oil of amber, each, 1| oz. ; 
oil of origanum, 1 oz. Mix. 

Founder cured in 24 Hours. — Boil or steam stout oat-straw for half 
an hour, then wrap it around the horse's leg qu^^e hot, cover up witii wet 
woollen rags to keep in tlie steam ; in six hours renew the application, take 
1 gal. of blood from the neck vein, and give 1 quart linseed oil. He may- 
be worked next day. 

Liniment for Open Wounds. — Sulphate of coyiper (copperas) one ounce ; 
white vitriol two ounces; mixture of soda (salt) two ouiices ; oil linseed, 
two ounces ; -Orleans molasses, eight ounces ; boil over a slow fire fifteen 
minutes, in a pint of wine, all of the above ingredients. When nearly cold, 
add one ounce of oil vitriol and four ounces spirits turpentine, and bottle 
for use. Api)ly it to the wound with a quill, which will soon set the wound 
to discharging, and perform a cure in a few days. Be careful to keep the 
wound covered, either by bandage or a plaster. Should be applied once or 
twice a day, until it discliarges freely. 

Colic Cure for Horses and Persons. — Spirits turpentine, 3 oz. ; lau- 
danum, 1 oz. ; mix ; and for a horse give all for a dose, by putting it into a 
bottle with half a pint of warm water. If relief is not obtained in an hour, 
repeat the dose, adding half an ounce of the best powdered aloes, well dis- 
solved. Cure, certain. 

For Persons, a dose would be from 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls in warm tea ; 
children or weak persons, less. 

Colic Cure. — Bleed freely at the horse's mouth ; then take \ lb. raw 
cotton, wrap it around a coal of fire, so as to exclude the air ; when it begins 
to smoke, hold it under his nose till he becomes easy. 

To Cure Distemper. — Take 1% gals, of blood from the neck vein ; then 
administer sassafras oil, H oz. Cure, speedy and certain. 



STOCK OWNERS, &C. 61 

Hide Bound. — Tliis is not so much a shrinking of tlie fatty substance 
between tlie skin and tlie muscles, as it is an alteration of the skin itself. 
It is a drying up of the oily moisture of the skin ; it thus becomes dry and 
hard, tlie scales to the cuticle no longer yield to the skin, but se{)arating in 
every direction, turn the hair and gives it a staring rough look, which is an 
indication that the horse is out of condition. The vessels of the skin and 
bowels, as well as the stomach, are deranged. It is a symptom of disease 
of the digestive organs. 

At first, give a bran mash, and, if it can be bad, sassafras tea. But in 
severe cases use levigated antimony two drachms, nitre three drachms, 
sulphur five drachms — give every night in a mash. The antimony acts on 
the skin, the sul])hur on»the bowels, and the nitre on the urinary organs. 
Rub him and give him warm clothing. The skin will soon become loose, 
and the horse t)e in condition again. 

For Loosenkss or Scouring in Horses or Cattle. — Tormentil root, 
powdered. Dose for a horse or cow, 1 to \jr oz. It may be stirred in 1 pint 
of milk, and given ; or it may be steeped in IJ pints of milk, then given 
from three to six times daily, until cured. 

Scours and Pin- Worms in Horses and Cattle. — White ash bark burnt 
into ashes, and nuide into a rather strong lye ; then mix -J pint of it with 1 
pint warm water, and give all two or three times daily. This will certainly 
carry off the worms, which are the cause, in most instances, of scours and 
looseness. 

Quarter Crack. — For tins, pare with a sharp knife from tlie hair down, 
taking away tiie whole back part of the hoof down to the quick ; then pare 
the other down thin ; then set your shoe only so far as tiie hoof runs. By 
this means tiie shoe cannot spring down upon the heel. The hoof will then 
grow down firm and sound. 

Cure for Heaves. — Take smart weed, steep it in boiling water till the 
strength is all out ; give one quart every day mixed with bran or shorts, for 
eiglit or ten days. Give green or cut up feed, wet with water during the 
operation, and it wi'l cure. 

Valuable Remedt for Heaves. — Calcined magnesia, balsam of fir, 
balsam copaiba, of each 1 oz. ; spirits turpentine, 2 oz. ; put them all into 1 
pint best cider vinegar; give for a dose, 1 tablespoonful in his feed, once a 
day for a week ; then every other day for 2 or 3 months. Wet his liay with 
brine, and also his other feed. He will cough more at first, but looser and 
looser till cured. 

Best Remedy for Heaves. — Balsam of fir and balsam of copaiba, 4 oz. 
each, and mix witii calcined magnesia sufficiently thick to make it into 
balls ; and give a middling-sized ball night and morning for a week or ten 
days. 

Heaves. — Reasons why it is not in the Lungs. — First. If the disease 
was in the lungs, it would create inflammation, and have the same effect as 
inflammation of the lungs by cold. The horse would be weak and drooping, 
without appetite, and really could not be driven two miles as any person 
would naturally drive a horse. But a heavy horse can be driven from eight 
to twelve miles within an hour. This is positive proof that it is not in the 
lungs. 

Second. — Take a heavy horse and turn him out to pasture forty-eight 
hours, and lie will breatiie clear and easy, showing no signs of the heaves. 
The grass has not reached the lungs, still it has stopped the hard breath- 
ing; but if you will give the horse cold water to drink, he will cough. Has 
the water touched the lungs ? No ; but it has touched the disease. This is 
another reason why it is not in the lungs. 

I will tell you where the disease is, and what it is caused by. First. — A 
dainty horse is not liable to heaves, but a hearty eater is liable to tliis 
disease — not from the amount of food that he eats, but from the hoggish 
way of eating. There are two pipes leading to the stomach and lungs; 
where they meet there is a throttle-valve. A horse on eating coarse food, 



62 STOCK OWNERS, &C. 

scratclies his throttle ; then, by a hard drive, and warming the horse, he 
takes cold in his wound, and it becomes a running sore or canlier. By 
turning the horse to grass, tiie juice cleanses and washes the wound ; the 
grass being cool takes the inflammation from the disease ; the swelling is 
gone, and the horse breathes free and easy as ever. This is positive proof 
that it is not in the hmgs. Then, by feeding with coarse and dry hay, it 
irritates and creates inflammation and causes the horse to breathe hard 
again. 

Cdke. — Take Balsam of Fir and Balsam of Copaiva, equal parts ; add 
enougli calcined magnesia to make into balls. Give a middle-sized ball, 
night and morning, for ten daj's or two weeks — a ball about tlie size of the 
yolk of an egg. Tliis a sure cure. I never made a failure in any case. 
You should be careful about feeding for two weeks, after giving the medi- 
cine. Cut feed, and wet the hay. A little brown sugar in his food lor a 
few days would be good. 

Glanders. — In purchasing a horse, be very careful to ascertain that he 
is unaffected with this truly terrible disease, for which there is no cure, and 
whicli has, in so many frightful instances, proved its communicability to 
man and otiier animals. Notwithstanding the awful nature of this disease, 
however, not a whit less dreadful than hydrophobia — dealers at fairs and 
other places will frequently endeavor to pass off a glandered horse upon an 
unwary customer. The usual trick is, stimulating the nostrils till the horse 
has snorted away all the matter lying in them, and then, by injections of an 
astringent nature, producing a temporary suppression of the discharge. 
Others cram a pledget of tow up the nostrils. Tliese tricks may be deetcted 
by the animal's uneasiness, tossing of his head, efforts to sneeze, tiie red and 
vascular appearance of the interior of the nostril, but especially by the fetid 
breath. 

Accidents. — There are also some accidents that the proprietor of a horse 
may with safety look after himself. For instance broken knees. When a horse 
falls and lacerates his knees, your first object should be, by careful washing, 
to remove all foreign substances from the wound. In the next place, ascer- 
tain wliether the joint cavity has been penetrated. Do not use a probe for 
this purpose ; but apply a poultice of linseed-meal, and when, in about eight 
or ten hours afterwards, you take it oft', you willseeayellewisli, glairy fluid, 
effused upon it, if the joint have been penetrated. Should this have been the 
case, send at once for the veterinary surgeon. When the joint has not been 
penetrated, get the lips of the wound together, and keep them so by a com- 
press and bandages, which need not be renewed till the third day. The 
earlier the wound is closed the less mark will be left on the part. 




Flora. 




HOUSEHOLD AND CULmARY. 



Baking, Cooking, Preserving, Pickling, etc.. Bread, Bis- 
cuit, Meats, Soups, Vegetables, Puddings, Sauces, 

ETC. 

Chickens. — Chickens for roasting or boiling should have a dressing pre- 
pared like that for turkeys. Half a teacup of rice boiled with tlie chickens 
makes them look white. Tiiey will be less liable to break if the water is 
cold when they are put in. A little salt pork boiled with tlie chickens, im- 
proves them. If you do not boil pork with them they will need salt. 
Chickens for broiling should be split, the inwards taken out, and the chick- 
en washed inside and out. Put tiie bony side down on the gridiron, and 
broil it very slowly until brown, then turn it, and brown it on the other side. 
About forty minutes is required to broil a common sized chicken. For 
roast chicken, boil the liver and gizzards by themselves, and use the water 
for gravy to the chickens — cut the inwards in slices, and put them in the 
gravy. 

Chickens Boiled. — Care should be taken to select the chickens plump, 
or they form a meagre dish ; they should receive much attention in the 
boiling; they require less time than a fowl, and are sent to table with 
white sauce, and garnished with tufts of white broccoli. 

Chicken Braised. — Bone and stuff chickens with forcemeat. Lay the 
bones and any other poultry trimmings into a stew-pan, and the chickens on 
them. Put to them a few oni(ms, a bunch of herbs, three blades of mace, a 
pint of stock, and a glass or two of sherry. Cover the chickens with slices of 
bacon, and then white paper ; cover the whole close, and put them over a slow 
fire for two hours. Then take them up, strain the braise, and skim off the 
fat carefully ; set it on to boil very quick to a glaze, and brush the chickens 
over with it. Serve with gravy and catsup. 

Chickens Pulled. — Remove the skin carefully from a cold chicken, then 
pull tlie tlesh from the bones ; preserving it as whole as you can. Flour 
them well and fry them a nice brown in fresh butter ; draw them, and stew 
in a good gravy well-seasoned ; tliicken a short time before serving with 
flour and butter, and add the juice of half-a-lemon. 

Chicken Cutlets. — Skin and cut into joints one or two young chickens, 
and remove the bones with care from the breast, merry-thoughts, and thighs, 
whicli are to be separated from the legs. Mix well together a teaspoonful 
of salt, nearly a fourth as much of mace, a little grated nutmeg, and some 



64 HOUSEHOLD. 

cayenne ; flatten and form into good sliape tlie boned joints of cliicken, and 
tlie flesli of the wings ; rub a little of tlie seasoning over tliem in every part, 
dip them into beaten egg, and then into very fine bread-crumbs, and fry 
tliem gently in fresh butter until tliey are of a delicate brown. Some of 
the bones and trimmings may be boiled down in half a pint of water, with 
a roll of lemon-peel, and a little salt and pepper to make gravy, wiiicli, after 
being strained and cleared from fat, may be poured hot to some thickening 
made in the j)an with a slice of fresh butter and a dessertspoonful of flour. 
Pile the cutlets high in the centre of the dish, and serve the sauce under 
them, or separately, in a tureen. 

Chicken Fricassee. — Take 2 large young chickens, cut in small pieces, 
put in cold water for 1 hour to take all the blood out, then put in saucepan 
to parboil for half an hour, then take from saucepan drained well, have 
ready 1 qt. good fresh cream, 2 oz. good butter, 1 oz. of flour, all well mix- 
ed together ; put in saucepan witli the chickens; put on tiie fire to boil 
tender; season with pepper and salt; serve with toasted bread in the bot- 
tom of the dish. 

Chicken Fricassee. — Parboil chickens in a small quantity of water ; let 
them cool ; cut them up, and simmer them in a little gravy made from the 
liquor they were boiled in, together with apiece of veal or mutton, with 
onion, mace and lemon-peel, some white pepper, and a bunch of sweet 
herbs. When quite tender, keep them hot wliile tiie sauce is being thicken- 
ed in the following manner: — strain it off, and put it back into tlie sauce- 
pan vvitli a little salt, nutmeg, flour, and butter; give it one boil, and just 
before serving b?at up the yolk of an egg in half a pint of cream, and stir 
them over the fire without allowing tiiem to boil. 

Chicken Roasted. — Draw and truss the chicken, and cover the breast 
with a slice of fat bacon ; baste it first with butter, and afterwards with its 
own gravy. Cover the breast with a sheet of buttered pajjcr ; whicii must 
be removed about ten minutes before the chicken is done, tiiat it may be- 
come of a good brown color. A large chicken will require half an hour to 
roast, a small one twenty minutes. 

Chicken Salad. — Cut into fillets the meat of cold roast chicken ; dispose 
them symmetrically, with a lettuce cut, at the bottom of a salad-bowl ; ar- 
range other lettuces cut, with fillets of anchovies ; cover the whole with 
sauce made of oil, vinegar, mustard, and the yolks of hard-boiled eggs, rub- 
bed smooth. 

Chicken Broiled. — Boil a chicken gently for five or ten minutes, leave 
it to become cold, then divide it, and dip it into egg and well-seasoned bread- 
crumbs, plentifully sprinkled with clarified butter ; dip again into the 
crumbs, and broil over a clear and gentle fire from half to three-quarters 
of an hour. It should be served very hot, with mushroom-sauce or with 
good plain gravy thickened and flavored. It should be opened at the back 
and evenly divided quite through : the legs trussed ; the breast-bone remov- 
ed, and botii sides of the bird made as flat as possible, that the fire may 
penetrate every part equally ; the inside being first laid towards it. The 
neck, feet, and gizzard maybe boiled ilown with a small quantit3'' of onion 
and carrot, previously browned in a morsel of butter to make the gravy; 
and the liver, after having been simmered with tlietn for five or si.x minutes, 
may be used to thicken it after it is strained. A teaspoonful of lemon-juice, 
some cayenne pei)per, and minced parsley, should be added to it, and a lit- 
tle arrowroot, or flour and butter. 

Chickens Stewed. — Take two pair of good, young, fat chickens ; have 
tliem well dressed ; cut them in pieces through each joint, as the breaking 
of the bones spoils them, it leaves small pieces of the bone all through 
them ; put them in cold water, and wash them well ; then ]mt them in a 
saucepan with as much water as will cover them ; set them on a good fire 
to boil, have one pound of good clear salt pork cut in strips about ^ of an 
inch square ; ])ut all in the same pan together, and boil till well done ; have 
some flour and good fresh butter, well rubbed together, put in saucepan to 



HOUSEHOLD. 65 

boil for five minutes ; season with pepper and salt to suit you. May add a 
little fine cut parsley if }'<>ii like ; serve liot, with stewed or baked potatoes. 

Turkey Roasted. — Wlien trussed for roastinjj, cut tlie liver to pieces, 
and set it over tlie fire in a stewpan, with half a pint of oysters washed, and 
tiieir liquor, whicli must be strained, some pepper and salt, two bay leaves, 
two blades of mace, a piece of butter rolled in flour; let these stew very 
gently about ten minutes, and then take tliem off, singe the turkey, and 
stuff it witli the oysters, cover the paper over it, spit it and lay it down to a 
good fire, but at a distance ; while it is roasting, set on a stewpan, witli lialf 
a pint of essence of ham ; take a pint of oysters, throw them into boiling 
water, remove the beard, then put them into the essence of liani ; add a lit- 
tle lemon-juice, give them a boil. 

Turkey Roasted No. 2. — It is stuffed with either sausage meat or fillet of 
veal stutHng. While roasting, a piece of paper should be placed over tlie 
part stuffed, as, being, bulky, it will catch the fire and become scorched, 
but keep the heat well to the breast, in order that it may be as well done as 
the rest of the bird. Baste well, and froth it up. Serve with gravy in the 
dish, and l)read sauce in a tureen. To the sausage meat, if used, add a few 
bread crumbs and a beaten egg. Turkey is sometimes stuffed with truffles ; 
they are prepared thus: they must be peeled, and chopped, and ponndeil in 
a mortar, in quantities of a pound and a half ; rasp the same weight of the 
fat of ba(;on, and mix it with the trutfles. Stuff the turkey with it; this 
stuffing is usually placed in the turkey two days previous to cooking, it is 
supposed to impart a flaVor to the flesh of the fowl. Cut thin slices of fat 
bacon, and place over the breast of tiie turkey. Secure it with half a sheet 
of clean white paper, and roast. Two hours will roast it. 

Turkey Boiled. — A hen bird is considered the best. It may be stuffed 
with truffles, or sausage meat. Boil it in a clean floured cloth ; throw some 
salt into the water in which it is boiled. Cover cloth, and simmer for two 
liours, removing the scum frequently. Serve witii white sauce, or parsley 
and butter. 

Turkey Hashed. — Cut up the remains of a roasted turkey, put it into a 
stewpan witli half a gill of sherry ; shallots, truffles, mushrooms, chopped 
parsley, salt, pepper, and a little stock ; boil half an iiour, and reduce to a 
thick sauce. When ready, add a pound of anchovies and a squeeze of lem- 
on. Skim the sauce free from fat, and serve all together. 

Turkey Legs Broiled. — Braise some undressed legs of turkey until ten- 
der, dip them in melted butter, or clear salad oil ; broil them a fine brown 
color, and serve with sauce. 

Goose. — If a goose is tender under the wing, and you can break the skin 
easily b^' running the head of a pin across the breast, there is no danger of 
its being tough. A goose should be dressed in the same manner, and roast- 
ed the same length of time as a turkey. 

To Roast a Goose. — Goose in itself is of a strong rich flavor, and requires 
botli nicety in the cooking, as well as in the stuffing, to obviate that strength 
of flavor. There are many modes of stuffing ; for one mode, take two mod- 
erate sized onions, and boil them rapidl3^ ten minutes, then chop them finelv, 
mince sage to the quantity of half the onion, add of powdered bread twice 
as much as of onion, pepper and shU it, introducing a little cayenne, and then 
bind it with the beaten yolk of an egg. Potatoes mashed are sometimes in- 
troduced, but not frequently, into the body ; they should be mashed with 
floury potatoes mixed with a little fresh butter and cream, rather highly 
seasoned with cayenne and salt. Both ends of the goose should be secured 
when trussed, that the seasoning may not escape. It should be roasted l)e- 
fore a quick fire, and kept constantly basted ; a piece of white paper may be 
placed over the breast while roasting, until it rises, and then it may be re- 
moved ; it will take from an hour and a half to an hour and three quarters ; 
serve with a rich brown gravy and apple sauce. 

Previous to sending to table, a fiavoring may be made as follows : to a 
dessertspoonful of made mustard, add a quarter of a teaspoonf ul of cayenne 



66 HOUSEHOLD. 

pepper, about the same quantity of salt, mix it evenly with a glass of port 
wine, and two glasses of rich gTa,v3', make it hot, cut a slit inthe apron of 
the goose, and pour it tiirougli just previously to serving. 

Roast Goose. — Boil one dozen potatoes ; pare and roast them with a 
quarter of a pound of butter, one onion chopped, a spoonful of sweet marjo- 
ram finely rubbed, with salt and pepper to taste ; mash all well together ; 
then have the goose well washed, dry tlie inside with a towel and season 
witii sage, pepper and salt. Put in the dressing ; season the outside with 
pepper and salt to taste ; place it in the pan, dredge a little flour over, and 
one teaspoonful in the pan with plenty of water for gravy ; baste frequent- 
ly', and when brown turn it over that all parts may be well done. Apple 
sauce or cranberry to serve up. 

Dressing for Roast Pork or Goose. — Make a dressing as for goose, add 
one teaspoon of mustard, and one teaspoon salt, with a wine-glass of claret, 
and mix with the dressing before putting in the goose or pork, or pour this 
into the gravy. 

Boiled Fowls. — Flour a white cloth, and put the fowls in cold water, 
let tiiem simmer for tliree quarters of an hour ; serve with parsley and but- 
ter, or oyster or celery sauce. The fowls may be covered with a white 
sauce if sent cold to table, and garnished with colored calf's foot jelly of the 
hue of beetroot. 

Cold Fried Chicken. — Cut the chicken in quarters, and take off the 
skin, rub it with an egg beaten up, and cover it with grated bread sea- 
soned with pepper, salt, grated lemon-peel, and chopped parsley, fry it in 
butter, thicken a little brown gravy witii flour and butter, add a little cay- 
enne pepper, lemon pickle, and mushroom catsup. 

Ducks. — Are good stewed like pigeons, or roasted. Two or three onions in 
the dressing of wild ducks, takes out tiie fisliy taste they are apt to have. 
If ducks or any other fowls are slightly injured by being kept long, dip 
them in weak saleratus water before cooking tliem. 

To Roast Dock. — Ducks should be well plucked without tearing the skin, 
all the plugs being removed. Some cooks go so far as to skin the duck, 
holding it a minute by the feet in scalding water, that the skin may peel 
easier; clean the insides thorougidy with a little warm water, and stuff 
them with the same stuffing as for geese, using a little more bread for the 
sake of mildness ; roast them before a brisk fire, but not too close, and 
baste very frequently ; they will take from half an liour to an hour, accord- 
ing to the age and size: when the breast plumps, they will be just done; 
serve them with a rich brown gravy. 

DccK Stewed, with Peas. — Truss a duck witli the legs turned inside, 
which put into a stewpan witli two ounces of butter and a quarter of a 
pound of streaked bacon, cut into small slices ; set the stewpan over a mod- 
erate fire, occasionally stirring its contents until it becomes liglitl^' browned, 
tiien add a tablespoonf ul of flour, and when well mixed a pint of stock or 
water, stir occasionally until boiling, when add twenty of the smallest sized 
onions, and a bimch of parsley, with a bay leaf; let tlie whole simmer for a 
quarter of an liour longer, or until the peas are quite tender, wiien take out 
the duck, draw out tlie string, aiul dress it upon the dish ; remove the pars- 
ley and bay leaf, season the peas and sauce with a little pepper, salt, and 
sugar, pour over tlie duck, and serve. 

Pigeons. — Take out the inwards, and stuff the pigeons with a dressing 
prepared like that for turkeys, lay them in a pot with the breast side down. 
Turn in more than enough water to cover them. When stewed nearly ten- 
der, put in a quarter of a pound of butter to every dozen of pigeons — mix 
two or three teasi)oonfuls of flour, witii a little water, and stir into the 
gravy. If you wish to l)rown them, put on a heated bake pan lid, an hour 
before they are done, or else take tiiem up wlien fender, and fry them in 
pork fat. Tiiey are very good split open and stewed, with a dressing made 
and warmed up separately with a little of tlie grav\-. Tender pigeons are 
good stuffed and roasted. It takes about two hours to cook tender pigeons, 



HOUSEHOLD. 67 

and three hours tough ones. Eoast pigeons should be buttered when put to 
the fire. 

Pigeons Roasted. — Veal stuffing for pigeons, it improves the flavor ; they 
must be f resli and well cleaned ; butter and parsley may be served with them ; 
but parsley alone as a stuffing, though frequently used, is b}' no means so 
palatable as the veal stuffing, or one made with veal, the fat of bacon, and 
the crumbs of bread soaked in milk, and well seasoned. Tliey are some- 
times stuffed with truffles, or chestnuts and bacon, as turkey, covered with 
thin slices of fat bacon enwrapped in vine leaves instead of paper. They 
receive a fine flavor, but are they worth so much trouble ? 

Pigeons — Broiled. — Split the backs, season them highly, lay them over 
a clear, brisk fire, and serve with mushroom sauce. 

Pigeons Stewed. — Take a white cabbage, cut it as if for pickling, then 
rinse it ir. clear cold water, drain it well, and put it into a saucepan with 
equal quantities of milk and water, boil it, strain off the milk, and take a 
portion of the cabbage and lay it in a stewpan ; soak the pigeons for lialf 
an hour in cold milk and water, season them well with salt and pepper, add- 
ing a little cayenne ; then place them in the stewpan with the cabbage, 
cover tliem over with wliat remains, add some white broth, stew slowly un- 
til the pigeons are tender, thicken with a little cream, flour, and butter, let 
it boil, and serve up the pigeon witli a puree of tlie cabbage. 

Pigeons in Jelly. — Make some jelly of calf's foot, or if you have the 
liquor in which a knuckle of veal has been boiled, it will answer the same 
purpose ; place it in a stewpan witli a bunch of sweet herbs, a blade of 
mace, white pepper, a slice of lean bacon, «ome lemon peel, and the pigeons, 
which truss and prop their necks up to make tliem appear natural ; 
season to your palate. Bake them; when they are done remove them 
from the liquor, but keep them covered close, that their color may be pre- 
served. Remove the fat, boil the whites of a couple of eggs witli the jelly 
to clear it, and strain it; this is usually done by dippinga cloth into boiling 
water, and straining it through, as it prevents anytliinar like scum or dirt 
sweeping through the strainer. Put the jelly rough over and round the 
pigeon. 

To Pot Pigeons. — Season them well with pepper, cayenne, a little mace, 
and salt, pack them closely in a pan, cover them with butter, and bake them ; 
let them get cold, then take off the fat, and put the pigeons into pots, pour- 
ing melted butter over them. 

Wood Pigeons. — May be dressed exactly as tame ]>igeon, save that they 
require rather less time in the cooking, and the gravy or sauce should be 
richer and of higher flavor. 

Fowl Broiled. — Separate the back of the fowl, and lay the two sides 
open ; skewer the wings as for roasting, season well with pepper and salt, 
and broil ; send to table with the insi(le of the fowl to the surface of the 
dish, and serve mushroom sauce ; it is an admirable breakfast dish when a 
journey is to be performed. 

To Roast Pheasants. — In preparing pheasants for roa8ting,the toes may 
be cut off the feet, but the heads sliould not be removed from the birds ; 
the feathers are sometimes allowed to remain upon the heads and tails, the 
feathers being in the latter case brought forward, so as to decorate each side 
of the birds. When any of the plumage is in this way retained, the pheas- 
ants require to be enveloped in oiled or buttered paper ; but one or two of 
the best feathers may be stuck into the tail after the birds are dressed, if 
more convenient. Merely baste pheasants witii butter, and do not dredge 
them with flour while they are down at the fire. From lialf an hour to forty 
minutes is considered ample to roast them in. It is almost needless 
to say tliat feathered or what is called wint^ game, of any kind, is rarely 
stuffed. Bread sauce alone is esteemed proper to accompany it at table — 
a little very rich gravy being served witli it in the dish. Cold roasted 
pheasant and chutney sauce form a delicious dish for breakfasts and lunch- 
eons. 



68 HOUSEHOLD. 

To Stew Pheasants. — Truss tlie plieasant as for boiling ; put it into a 
saucepan wliich is just lar<je enousjh to liold it ; pour in enougli veal gravy, 
and stew it ver\' slowly, till sufficiently done ; add ahout a score of chestnuts, 
previously boiled and blanched ; one or two sliced artichoke bottoms, already 
dressed ; pepper, salt, a glass of white wine, and a little butter roiled in flour. 
Make all hot ; squeeze into it the juice of half a lemon ; put the plieasant 
in a dish, and pour the sauce over it. Some game forcemeat balls may be 
added, if fancied. 

Partridge. — Yellow legs and a dark bill are signs by which a young 
bird may be known, and a rigid vent when fresh. When this part is greea 
the bird is stale. 

To Bo\E Birds. — Begin to bone any birds by first taking out the breast 
bone, when j'ou will have sufficient space to remove the back with a sharp 
knife, and then tlie leg i)ones ; tiie skin must not be broken but the meat of 
the legs must he pushed inwards. 

Partridge — Broiled. — Let the partridge hang until longer would make 
it offensive, tiien split it, and take a soft clean cloth and remove all the 
moisture inside and out ; lay it upon a gridiron over a very clear fire, and 
spread a little salt and cayenne over it. Wiien it is done, whicii will be in 
twent3' minutes, rub a little butter over it, and send it to table with mush- 
room sauce. 

Partridge Stewed. — Partridges are differently trussed for stewing to 
wliat they are for roasting, the wings are fixed over tiie back, and the legs 
skewered. Take a piece of bacon, and put it witii a small i)iece of butter 
in a stewpan ; fry it brown, put in tiie partridges so that tiie bacon covers 
the breast, and let them be very brown: ad<l half a pint of gravy. Boil a 
cabbage, so that it is ready by the time the partridges are fried brown, chop 
it with pepper and salt, and a lump of butter. Add it with the .gravy to the 
partridges, and stew slowly for an hour; when dishing, place the bacon in 
the centre of the dish, lay the partridges upon it, and make a wall of the 
cabbage round. Wliile stewing, turn tlie partridges often. 

To Roast Grouse. — Dress tlie birds as above, and serve on a toast; they 
will require tweiit}' miinites less than black cock in roasting. Wiien they 
are sent to table without the toast, serve witli fried bread crumbs and bread 
sauce, or brown gravy instead of the bread crumbs. 

Stuffing for a Hare — After having either scraped or scalded the liver, 
scrape some fat l)acon,a little suet, some parsley, thyme, knotted-marjorani, 
a little shallot, a few crumbs of bread, pepper and salt, a few grains of nut- 
meg, beat it ail well in a mortar with one egg, but if your hare is boned it 
will take more. You can dress a boned hare two ways: either taking each 
bone out but the head and the point of tlie tail ; but this will not keep 
80 good a .Jfliajie as if you only took out the back and rib bones, leav- 
ing the shoulders and legs on ; this way, when stuffed, will keep its shape 
best. 

Plovers. — These birds must not be drawn, roast them before a brisk fire, 
but at a distance, and serve on toast with melted butter. 

Partridge Roast. — I^et the bird hang as long as it can be kept without 
being offensive; pick it carefully, draw, and singe it; wipe the inside thor- 
oughly with a clean cloth ; truss it with the head turned under the wing, and 
the legs drawn close together, not crossed. Flour tliein when first laid to the 
fire, and baste them plentifully with butter. Serve them with bread sauce 
and good brown gravy. 

To Broil Grouse. — Carefully pluck thebirds ; remove tlie first joints of 
tbe wings, the heads, and the legs at the knees; split the grouse evenly in 
lialf ; pe(>per them, dip them in butter made liquid, ajid sprinkle tiieni with 
bread-crumbs ; repeat tliis process ; make a gridiron hot over a clear fire, rub 
it with suet, and lay upon it tlie grouse ; being careful to do tlie iiisides first, 
or the gravy will get too quickly drawn, and you will not be able to turn 
the birds. When they are done enough, and are nicely browned, dish them 
upon a poivrade or tomato sauce rendered rather piquante. 



HOUSEHOLD. 69 

Gkouse Pie. — Pluck and singe a leash of grouse ; cut off the legs at the 
drumsticks : season tlie birds well with pep])er, salt, chopped thyme, and 
parsley ; lay a slice of veal at tiie bottom of tlie pie dish ; plnce upon it the 
grouse; put a rim of good liglit crust round the edge of the dish ; add a 
little gravy made by boiling down the heads, &c., of the birds ; cover the 
pie with a lid of paste, and bake it for about an hour. A few mushrooms 
or truffles may be aitvantageously introduced when tliej' are at command. 

Grouse Soup. — In some good well seasoned stock, stew a brace of grouse 
until tliey are tender; take them up ; cut off the primest flesh; beat this in 
a mortar until it is a smooth paste ; press it tlirough a sieve ; simmer down 
the bones in the stock until the latter is well reduced; strain it into 
another saucepan ; add tlie puree ; give all a good warm up, but do not 
allow it to reach boiling jxiint. Serve it in a tureen into whicli you have 
put a couple of glasses of port wine and a dessertspoonful of beaten loaf 
sugnr. ^ 

rARTRiPGE Salad. — Carve a cold roasted partridge ; place the memViers 
in a dish; add lettuce hearts in quarters, fillets of Gorgona ancliovies, pick- 
les, pieces of clear jelly, hard-boiled yolks of eggs in slices, celery, tomatoes 
or nnytinng likely to give effect to the dish ; pour over it a Mayonnaise 
sauce, or add a salad dressing at table. The flesh, sliced atul divested 
of bone may be employed instead of the members of the bird, if pre- 
fer reil. 

To Roast Wild Duck. — Cut off the pinions and scald the feet ; truss 
the birds; rub them outside with their livers : baste them with plenty of 
butter ; and immediately gravy begins to run from them when thev are 
roasting you may consider they are done. They shoidd not be stuffed, but 
a good piece of butter may be ])laced in tiie insides. When you serve them, 
score the flesh on the breasts lengthwise ; sprinkle over them cayenne 
pepper, and squeeze upon them tlie juice of a lemon. Send brown gravy 
or shnllot sauce to table, separately. 

To Stew Wild Duck. — Simmer together for ten minutes some sage, 
sweet herbs, pepper, salt, port wine, lemon juice, and gravy ; meanwhile 
partially roast a tender, fat wild duck; cut it up ; add it to the sauce, and 
do all slowly till you think it is sufficiently done. Strain tiie sauce over 
the liird when you have placed it in a ilish. 

To Roast Snipe. — These are soon roasted, quarter of an hour being quite 
long enougli for them ; they, of course, should not be drawn. Place a 
piece of tliin toast under eacli wlule they are being roasteil, and only baste 
them with butter without dredging them with flour. French cooks place 
bacon fat over the birds before roasting them ; but this is not needful. 
Immediately they are done send them to table upon the pieces of toast, 
placed in a liot dish. 

To Hash Snipe. — Cut the meat from the bones and roughly mince it; 
stew down the bones and insides together with herbs, shallots. Champagne, 
and stock ; when this is pretty thick strain it; add to it the flesh of the 
snipes; make all thorougidy hot, by which time the birds will be sufficiently 
d<me, and serve it in a (lish garnished round the margin with sippets of 
bread fried in butter, and each sippet decorated with an egg nicely poached 
and trimmed. 

To Roast Quails. — Quails cannot be too fresh when they are dressed ; 
draw and truss them; wrap round each either a vine or laurel leaf; then 
fasten over this a thin slice of bacon. Roast them until the gravy begins to 
run from them, and serve upon tonst. 

To Roast Woodcock. — Carefully pluck the birds, but omit drawing 
them ; they should not he spitted, but suspended with tlie vent downwards; 
place a nice round of toast underneath to catch the trail ; about twenty 
minutes' roasting will be enough ; baste simply with fresh butter, and send 
the birds to table as hot as possible. They should be laid upon the toast 
in a dish, and slices of orange may be employed as a garnish. Bread sauce 
and a rich gravy are generally sent to table apart. 



70 HOUSEHOLD. 

To Pot Woodcock. — Be careful to pluck and thoroughly singe the 
birds you intend to pot ; skew«r the bills through the tliighs ; draw the 
legs one through another, and fix the feet upon the breasts; season tlie 
woodcocks with salt, pepper, and beaten mace ; put them into a deep dish 
or jar, and add enough fresh butter to cover them with when it is melted. 
Bake them for forty minutes; when done, j)lace them iijion a clean dish, so 
as to let the gravy drain from them as they cool. Put tliem into potting 
jars when they are quite cold ; add to them some of the butter in which 
they were dressed, but see that it is free from sediment; fill up with freshly 
clarified butter, and cover the jars close. 

To Boil Woodcock. — Pluck, and in this case draw the birds ; truss 
them, and boil them for ten minutes in nice clear, savory beef stock ; 
wl\ile they are doing, chop the trails, &v.., and tlie livers ; mix these in a 
saucepan with a few tablespoonfuls of the liquor in which you boil the 
birds ; add a piece of butter jjolled in flour, two tablespoonfuls of port wine ; 
and when the butter is melted put in a teacupfulof fried bread-crumbs ; as 
soon as tliese are hot place the woodcocks in a dish, and mask them with 
the sauce ; garnisli with thin sli(;es of fresh lemon. The birds should be 
young and tender for this way of dressing. 

To Broil Hare. — The best parts of a cold roast hare are very good 
broiled. The pieces should be cut and trimmed so as to be as nearly as 
possible of one size ; dip them in olive oil, well season them, and do them 
quickly upon a gridiron over a clear fire till they are beautifully brown. 
When the hare is previously uncooked, it should be cut up and the pieces 
boned ; then soak them in a marina<le of oil seasoned with salt, pepper, 
chopped parsley, and shallot ; at the end of an hour or so take the hare out 
of tins marinade, roll it in fine bread-crumbs, grill it quickly, and serve it 
upon a sauce a la Tartare. 

To Roast a Hare. — First stuff it with a forcemeat made by chopping 
the liver together with some anchovy, bacon fat, bread-crumbs, thyme, 
and marjoram ; add shred lemon rind, salt and pepper, and moisten it with 
sufficient egg and port wine; sew up the hare ; truss it, and put it to roast; 
baste it for half an hour with milk ; tiien use butter; and dredge it now 
and then with flour, so as to give it a fine frotli. An hour is long enough 
to roast a leveret, but a good sized hare will take about half as long again. 
Red currant jellj' and rich game, or beef gravy, should be served separately. 

To Stew Hare. — Skin the hare; cut it up ; do not wasli or wipe it ; 
toss it in butter for about five minutes ; add a quart of brown stock nicely 
flavored; stew all togetlier very slowly till tlie meat is sufficiently tender; 
add some port wine, flour, and butter ; and serve it with small sippets of 
fried bread. 

Rabbit Boiled. — Wash the rabbit thoroughly, truss it firmly with the 
head turned and skewered to tlie sides, put it into sufficient boiling water 
to keep it quite covered until it is cooked, simmer it gently for thirty or 
forty minutes ; when very 3"oung they will require less time than this. 
Cover it with rich white sauce, mix it with the liver parboiled, finely 
pounded, and well seasoned with cayenne and lemon-juice : or serve with 
onion sauce. 

Rabbit Pie. — Cut a rabbit into joints, splitting tlie head in half, and lay 
them in lukewarm water for half an hour ; then dry them upon a cloth, 
season well with pepper and salt, and with chopped shallots, parsley, two 
bay leaves, and a teaspoonf ul of flour ; cut three-quarters of a pound of 
streaked bacon into square pieces, lay in the pieces of rabbit and bacon 
together, in a i>ie dish, pour in a little water, cover with paste, and bake in 
a moderate oven. 

Rabbit Roasted. — Truss the rabbife, and stuff it with the liver minced 
raw and mixed with grated bread, ham, butter or suet, and chopped parsley, 
seasoned with a little lemon-thyme, grated nutmeg, salt, and pepper, and 
bound witli beaten egg. Sew it up, set it down before a quick fire, and 
baste it with butter. Serve with gravy, or melted butter with lemon-juice in it. 



HOUSEHOLD. 71 

Rabbit Stewed. — "Wash a rabbit tborouglily, let it lie for two or three 
hours in cold water, cut it into joints, dry them upon a cloth, dredge tliera 
with flour, fry them of a light brown with butter, and stew them in tlie 
following sauce : brown three ounces of butter in a stewpan, with a table- 
spoonful of flour, a jiiinced onion, some pepper and salt ; add a pint of gravy 
and tlie rabbits, stew them till they are tender, apd just previous to serving, 
stir in a tablespoonful of ketchup. When the rabbit is to be dressed with 
a white sauce, it should not be fried, but stewed in the white stock, which 
is seasoned with white pepper and salt, and thickened witii a piece of butter 
mixed with flour. A few minutes before serving add a little cream, and a 
tablespoonful of lemon pickle. 

Venison, Haunch of. Roasted. — Take a haunch weighing twelve 
pounds, and require tlie butcher to trim off the chine-bone and tlie end of the 
knuckle ; wrap two or three folds of liuttered jiaper, or tlie caul of a lamb, 
closely around the haunch to prevent the fat from burning ; spit the haunch, 
set it before a slow fire, and roast it three hours, basting it frequently with 
salt and water, to prevent the paper for burning off ; then remove the paper 
or caul, baste the haunch witli butter, set it nearer the fire, and give it a 
light brown; continue to baste with butter; dredge it lightly witii flour, 
and when it is well frothed and browned on all sides, it is done ; wrap a 
ruffle of cut paper round the knuckle bone and send the haunch to table 
witii a plain gravy, made from the trimmings of tlie venison, and seasoned 
only with a little salt, served witli currant jelly. If the venison has hung 
three or four weeks (an<l it ought to hang as long before cooking) it will 
be necessary to remove the outer skin before roasting. 

Venison Hashed. — Cut nice slices from the venison which may have 
been left cold, not forgetting to put plenty of fat with it, flour it, place it 
in a saucepan, pour over it three half pints of stock gravy, a gill of port 
wine, a little currant jelly, and two tablespoonfuls of ketchup; let it sim- 
mer gently, it must not boil, or it will make the venison hard ; as soon as it 
is thoroughly hot, add a little salt and ca_yenne pepper; serve with sippets 
round the dish. There should be currant jelly on the table. 

Venison Broiled. — Cut thin slices of venison, mix stale crumbs of 
bread with salt, pepper, and spices, egg the slices, dip in the seasoned bread, 
broil over a clear fire, and serve with a gravy sauce. 

Venison Fried. — Cut the meat into thin slices, and make a gravy of the 
bones. Fry it of a light brown, and keep it hot before the fire. Put butter 
rolled in flour into the pan, and stir it till thick and brown. Put in half a 
pound of powdered sugar with the gravy made from the bones, and some 
red wine. Have it the thickness of cream ; squeeze in a lemon, warm the 
venison in it, put it in the dish, and pour the sauce over. 

Venison Steaks. — From a small neck of venison, neatly cut four or five 
steaks ; remove a portion of the bone from each, and trim them in the French 
fashion — that is to say, divest them of all superfluous parts : and give each 
steak a good blow with the blade of the chopper, so as to flatten the steaks 
evenly. Rub a gridiron with a bit of the fat ; place the venison upon it; 
and broil it over a clear charcoal fire until the steaks are done. Serve 
with a sauce made by simmering together red wine and currant jelly until 
they form a syrup. 

Venison Chops. — Cut the chops as nearly one size as possible ; flatten 
them nicely; lard them with slips of fat bacon ; soak them for a day in a 
marinade ; drain them ; toss them in scalding hot olive oil ; do them 
quickly over a brisk fire ; when tlie.y are nicelj' browned arrange them en 
couronne in a dish ; and serve them with either a poivrade or tomato sauce. 

To Mince Venison. — Mince rather finely some cold roasted venison di- 
vested of sinews, skin, &c. Prepare an e.xcellent poivrade sauce ; when this 
is perfectly hot in a saucepan, put into it the venison; add a small piece of 
fresh butter ; shake it gently over the fire for a few minutes, but on no ac- 
count let it boil. Serve it in a dish decorated with small sippets of toast, 
nicely glazed. 



72 



HOUSEHOLD. 



THE SCIEN CE O F CARVING. 

The carving knife should be ligtit, of middling size, and of a fine edge. 
Strenrjth is less required tlian skill in tlie manner of using it ; and to facili- 
tate this, tlie butcher should be directed to divide i\\9 joints of the bones of 
all carcass joints of mutton, lamb, and veal (sucii as neck, breast, and loin,) 
whicli tlien may easily be cut into tliin slices, attached to tlie hones. If the 
whole of the meat belonging to eacli bone should be too thick, a small slice 
may be taken oif between every two bones. 

Tlie more fleshy joints (as fillets of veal, leg, or saddle of mutton, and 
beef), are to be helped in tliin slices, neatly cut, and smooth. Observe to 
let tlie knife pass down to the bone in tlie mutton and beef joints. 

The dish should not be too far off the carver, as it gives an awkward 
appearance, and makes the task more difficult. Attention is to be paid to 
help every one to a part of such articles as are considered best. 

In helping fish, take care not to break the flakes, which in cod and very 
fresh salmon are large, and contribute much to the beauty of its appearance. 
A fish knife not being sharp, divides it best. Help a part of the roe, milt, 
or liver, to each person. The heads of carp, part of those of cod and sal- 
mon, sounds of cod, and fins of turbot, are likewise esteemed niceties, and 
are to be attended t-o a-ccordingh'. 

In cutting up any wild fowl, duck, goose, or turkej% for a large party, if 
you cut the slices down from pinion to pinion, without making wings, there 
will be more handsome pieces. 

1. Sirloin of Beef. — This may be begun at either end, or by cutting 
in the middle. It is usual to inquire whether the outside or inside is pre- 
ferred. For the outside, the slice should be cut down to the bones, and 
the same with every following helping. Slice the inside likewise, and give 
with each piece some of the soft fat. The inside, done in the following 
manner, is excellent : Have rendy some shallot vinegar, boiling hot ; mince 
the meat large, and a good deal of the fat ; sprinkle it with salt, and pour 
the vinegar and gravy on it. Help with a spoon as quick as possible, on 
hot plates. 

p fflfc a * ^' ■'^^TCH OR Edge-Bone of 

i^^i^"Hir!!^~i J. I Beef. — Cut downwards, an inch 

Tj.-^S ^" ^^g^^ S^^^^^^ thick, all the length from a to 6, 

and then help. The soft fat, 
0, which resembles marrow, lies 
at the back of the bone, be- 
low d — the firm fat must be cut 
in horizontal slices at the edge of 
the meat, c. The skewer used in 
keeping the meat together wliile 
boiling, is shown at a, which 
should be drawn out before served 
up ; or, if necessary to leave it in, place instead one of silver. 

3. Shoulder of Mutton. — This 

^ ^^ is a very good joint, and by many 

tt ^.^P.,''^^ ' ~^^ preferred to the leg ; for, if proper- 

C --Iv^ ^y roasted, it abounds in gravy, and 

produces many nice bits. The fig- 
1 '^ ure annexed represents it as laid in 

f, iitl*-'"' dish, with its back uppermost. 

It should first be cut in the hollow 
mmiij/p pjirt, in the direction a, b, and the 
MUMIW/I^^ knife passed deep to the bone. The 
wM!tt0//mm^ V)est part of the fat lies on the outer 

edge, and it is to be cut out in thin 
slices, in the direction/ If many are at the table, and the hollow part cut 
on the line «, h, is eaten, some very good and delicate slices may be cut out 
in each side of the ridge of the blade bone, in the direction of c, d. The 





HOUSEHOLD. 



73 




line between these two dotted lines is 
tliat in tlie direction of wliich the 
edge or ridge of the blade bone lies, 
and cannot be cut across. It is nec- 
essary to wind writing pajjer around 
the shank, as in the leg, provided you 
wish to liandle it. Tlie lower side of 
_ the shoulder has two cuts abounding 
;= in gravy. The part in the direction 
i, k, is lean ; tlie other, q, h, is verv 
fat. -^ 

4. Knuckle of Veal. — 
A knuckle of veal cuts in 
neat slices only in one di- 
rection, viz : from a to b. 
Tlie line d, c, divides two 
bones, which it is necessary 
to separate in order to get 
at tlie best marrowy fat 
portion — also cut asunder 
the knuckle bones. 



5. KoASTED Breast of 
Veal.— Cut to the left on the 
first line d, c; then cross from 
c to the most distant a. Tlie 
lines a, d, a, d, &o., represent 
the directions in which the 
brisket,or gristly part should 
be divided ; d, c, show the 
course of the ribs, and e is 
the sweetbread. 

6. A Spare Eib. — Cut out first 
a slice from the fleshy portion, 
following the line a, h. This will 
give a due proportion of fat and 
lean. After this part is taken 
away, the bone lying in the di- 
rection d, b, c, should be separa- 
ted, breaking it off at the joint c. 

7. Saddle of Mutton. — Cut 
long, thin slices from tlie tail to 
the end, viz. : from a to b, begin- 
ning close to the back bone. If a 
large joint, the slice raa.y be di- 
vided. Cut some fat from the 
sides. 



74 



IIOUSKnOLU. 





8. Pig.— The cook usually ai- 
vides tlie body before it is sent to 
tlie table, and j,'arnislies tlie dish 
with the jaws and ears. The first 
thing is to separate the slioulder 
from the carcass on one side, and 
then the leg, according to the di- 
rection given by tlie dotted line 
a, b, c. The ribs are then to be 
divided in about two helpings, and an ear or jaw presented with them, and 
plenty of sauce. The joints may either be divided into two each, or pieces 
may bo cut from them. The ribs are reckoned the finest part, but some 
people prefer the neck and between the shoulcjers. 

9. Half a Calf's Head, 
Boiled. — Be careful and get a 
j'oung one, as they look much 
handsomer served up, and be- 
sides are more tender. First 
cut in the direction c, b. The 
throat bread is considered the 
choicest part ; it lies in the 
flesh)' portion, near the termi- 
nation of the jaw-bone, and the 
line c, d, shows the direction to 
cut into it. On the under part 
of the lower jaw there is some very nice meat ; and about the ear, g, some 
fat rather gristly, but highly esteemed. The part near the neck is very in- 
ferior. Sometimes tlie bone in the line/, e, is cut off, but this is a coarse 
part. The sweet tooth is quite a delicacy — it lies back of all the rest, and 
in a young calf is easily extracted M'ith the knife. Many like the eye, 
which you must cut out with the point of your knife, and divide in two. 
Under the head is the palate, which is reckoned a nicety. 

10. Leg of Mcttton. — A 
leg of wether mutton (which 
is best flavored), may be 
known at the market by a 
round lump of fat at the edge 
of the broadest part, a little 
above the letter a. The best 
part is midway between the 
knuckle and farther end. Be- 
gin to help there, by cutting 
thin slices to 6. If the out- 
side is not fat enough, help some from the side at the broad end, in slices 
from e to/. Tiiis part is most juicy, but many prefer the knuckle, which, 
in fine mutton, will l)e very tender though dry. There are very fine slices 
in tlie back of a leg — turn it up, and cut the broad end, not in tlie direction 
you did the other side, but lengthwise. To cut out the cramp bone, take 
hold of the shank (which should previously be wound round with half a 
slieet of fool's-cap paper) with your left hand, and cut down to the thigh 
bone at ff, then pass the knife under the 7ramp bone, in the direction of 7, d. 

11. Ham. — Ham may be cut 
three ways; the common method 
is to begin in tiie middle, by 
long slices from b to c, from the 
centre, through the thick fat. 
This brings to the prime at first, 
which is likewise accomplished 
by cutting a small, round hole 
on the top of the hatn, as at a, 
and with a sharp knife enlarging 





HOUSEHOLD. 



75 





tliat by cutting successive thin circles — this preserves the gravy and keeps 
tlie meat moist. The List, and most saving wa}'', is to begin at the lioclc 
end (wliich many are most fond of), and proceed onward. Ham that is used 
for pies, &c., sliould be cut from tlie under side. 

12. Fore Quarter of A 
Lamb. — Sejjarate tlie shoul- o^.^HBHJ^P'*^"^^^*^^^^ 
der from tlie breast and ribs ^^^■^^^K_ '^ 
by passing the knife under, 
in the direction of a, b, c, 
and d. Be careful to keep it 

toward j-ou horizontally, to ^^G^^jJfflljB^^^^L^^sss^^ jS'^ ■'^^ 

prevent cutting the meat too ^^^^^p^^B^H," ^^^^P*"^ ^,^/^^; /„/,/,. j A 

much off the bones. If '^^-.,1^ ~~— - — .^^aat^ " ' 

grass lamb, the shoulder being large, put it into another dish. Squeeze the 
juice of half a Seville orange or lemon on the other part, and sprinkle a lit- 
tle salt and pepper ; then separate the gristly part from the ribs, in the line 
e, c, and help either from that or from the ribs, as may be chosen. 

13. Haunch of Veni- 
son. — First cut it down to 

the bon-e, in the line d,c, a, ^ >jr«'^ 
then turn the dish witli the / /^ ,^^» ' ^*^^ 

end a towards you ; put in / / jj^jm^ ^)^^4R\' ^^ 

the point of the knife at c, j / Ji p^aj^ ^^P -' Tj 

and cut it down as deep as I \ ^^^^^^^». i 
you can in the direction c, \\ ^^^^m'^ 

b. Thus cut, you may take 
out as many slices as you 
please, on tlie right or left. 
As the fat lies deeper on 
the left, between b and a, to those who are fond of fat, as most venison eat- 
ei:s are, the best flavored and fattest slices will be found on tlie left of the 
line c, b, supposing th^ end a turned toward you. Slices of venison should 
not be out too tliick nor too thin, and plenty of gravy given witli them. 

14. KouNB of Beef. — This is cut the same way as a fillet of veal. It 
should be kept even all over. When helping the fat, be careful not to hack 
it, but cut it smooth. A deep slice should be taken off before you begin to 
help, as directed in the edge-bone. 

15. Brtsket of Beef. — This must be cut lengthwise, quite down to the 
bone, after separating tlie outside or first slice, which must be cut pretty thick. 

16. Leg of Pork. — This joint is sent to the table, whether boiled or 
roasted, as a leg of mutton, roasted and cut up in the same manner. The 
close, firm flesh about the knuckle is by many reckoned best. 

17. Haunch of Mutton. — This is formed by tlie leg and part of the loin, 
cut so as to resemble a haunch of venison, and is to be helped at table m 
the same manner. 

18. Goose. — Turn the neck ^^'\^iT!^rrrr.!...............i''**''««»«»fc,o^ 

end «f the goose toward you, ^f /?: ^i 

and ciit the whole breast in W /^ '"'" 

slices on each side of the bird, Wc.i^^ "^^^l ^- 1 -^ - . ^ 

but only remove them as you ^* ^%sss,. .,.A«„. ^v r^:' s,- 

help each person, unless the 

company is so large as to re- " 

quire tlie legs likewise. Turn the goose on one side, and then take off the 

leg by putting the fork into the small end of the leg bone, pressing it close 

to the body ;"and, having passed the knife in the line e, d, turn the leg back 

and, if a youns? bird, it will easily separate. 

To take off the wing, put your fork into the small end of the pinion, and 
press it close to the body ; then put in the knife ate, and divide the joint, 
taking it down in the direction c, d. Nothing but practice will enable peo- 
ple to hit the joint exactly at tlie first trial. When the leg and wing of one 




7G 



HOUSEHOLD. 




side are done, go on to the other ; cut off tlie apron in the line /", e, g, then 
take off the merry-thought in the line o, i. Tiie neck bones are next to be 
separated as yi a fowl, and all other parts divide the same. 

19. A Fowl. — A boiled fowl's legs are 
bent inwards, but before it is served, the 
skewers are to be removed. Laj' the fowl 
on your plate, and place the joints as cut 
off on tlie dish. Take the wing off, in the 
direction of a to b, in the annexed engrav- 
ing, only dividing the joint with j'our 
knife ; and then, with your fork, lift up 
the pinion, and draw the wings towards the legs, and the muscles will sep- 
arate in a more complete form than if cut. Slip the knife between the leg 
and body, and cut to tlie bone, then, with the fork, turn the leg back, and, 
if the bird is not old, the joint will give way. When the four quarters are 
thus removed, take off the merry-thought from a, and the neck bones, these 
last by putting in the knife at c, and pressing it under the long, broad part 
of the bone, in the line c, h; then lift it up, and break it off from the part 
that sticks to the breast. The next thing is to divide the breast from the 
carcass, by cutting through the tender ribs, close to the breast, quite down 
to the end of the fowl ; lay the back up, put j'our knife into the bone, half 
way from the neck to the rump, and on raising the lower part, it will read- 
ily separate. Turn the neck towards you, and very neatly take off the 
two sidesmen, and the whole will be done. As each part is taken off, it 
should be turned neatly on the dish, and care should be taken that what is 
left should go properly from the table. The breast and wings are looked 
upon as the best parts, but the legs are most juicy in young fowls. After 
all, more advantage will be gained by observing those who carve well, and 
a little practice, than by any written direction whatever. 

20. Partridge. — This bird is cut up in the same way as a fowl. The 
best parts are the wings, breast, and merry-thought ; but the bird being 
small, the two latter are not often divided. The wing is considered the 
best, and tlie tip is reckoned the most delicate morsel 4)f the whole. 

21. Pigeons. — Pigeons are considered very fine eating. It is usual to cut 
them in half, either from top to bottom, or across. The lower part is gen- 
erally thought best. 

22. Turkey. — Fix your fork firmly in the lower part of the breast, so 
as to have full command of the turkey. Slice down each side of the cen- 
tre of the breast, two or three lines lengthwise with the body; then take 
off the leg on one side, holding the knife in a sloping direction, the point 
turned towards the e.nd of the body. This done, cut off the wing on the 
same side, in a line nearly parallel with the length of the turkey. When 
you have thus separated the wings and legs, take off from the breast bone 
the parts you before sliced down. Be very attentive, in separating the 
wing, not to cut too near the neck, or you will find yourself interrupted by 
the neck bone, from which the wing must be taken. 

23. Cod's Head. — ^Fish in 
general requires very little 
carving, the fleshy parts be- 
ing those principally esteem- 
ed. A cod's head and shoul- 
ders, when in season, and 
properly boiled, is a very gen- 
teel and handsome dish. When 
cut, it should be done with a 
fish trowel ; the parts about the back-bone, or the shoulders, are by far the 
firmest and best. Take off a piece quite down to the bone, in the direc- 
tion a, b, c, d, putting in the spoon at a, c, and with each slice of the fish 
give a piece of the round, wliicii lies underneath the back-bone, and lines 
it, the meat of which is thin, and a little darker colored than the body of 
the fish itself. This may be got by passing a spoon under it, in the direc- 




HOUSEHOLD. 77 

tion d,f. About the head are many delicate parts, and a great deal of the 
jelly kind. Tiie jelly part lies about the jaw-bone, and the firm parts with- 
in tlie head. Some are fond of the palate, and others the tongue, which 
likewise may be got by putting a spoon into the mouth. 

To Roast Beef. — The primest parts are roasted, except the round, 
which should be boiled ; the ribs make the finest roasting joint. 

Where a small quantity is required, it is better for the bones to be cut 
out, and the meat rolled ; this sliould be done by the butcher, who will not 
only cut cleaner, but skewer the parts into a flUet with more firmness and 
neatness than the cook, who is not expected to be as expert with the knife 
and the skewer as the butcher. The tops of the ribs are frequently cut off 
into pieces of three or four pounds ; this piece, though occasionally roasted, 
should be salted ; it then approaches in flavor to the brisket. 

In roasting tlie ribs, or any piece of beef, the precautions mentioned 
respecting placing it too near the fire must be observed ; and where there is 
much fat, and it is desired to preserve it from being cooked before the lean, 
it may be covered with clean white paper skewered over it ; when it is 
nearly done the paper should be removed, a little flour dredged over it, and 
a rich, frothy appearance will be obtained. Tlie joint should be served up 
with potatoes and other vegetables ; the dish should be garnished round the 
edges with horse-radish scrajjcd into thin curls. This receipt will suffice for 
all tlie other roasting parts of beef. 

Roast Beep, No. 2. — The tender loin and first and second cuts off the 
rack are the best roasting pieces — the third and fourth cuts are good. 
When the meat is put to the fire, a little salt should be sprinkled on it, and 
the bony side turned towards the fire first. When the bones get well 
heated through, turn the meat, and keep a brisk fire — baste it frequently 
while roasting. There should be a little water put into the dripping pan 
when the meat is put down to roast. If it is a thick piece, allow fifteen 
minutes to each pound to roast it in — if tliin, less time will be required. 

To Cook the Inside of the Sirloin. — Take out the inside of the 
sirloin in one piece, put it into a stew-pan, with sufficient good gravy to 
cover it ; season with mixed spice, pepper, salt, and cayenne, and a spoon- 
ful of walnut ketchup; more of the latter maybe added, if tlie quantity 
maile sliould require it to flavor ; serve with pickled gherkins, cut small. 

Fillet of Beef Roasted. — The fillet, which comes from the inside of 
the sirloin, may be larded or roasted plain : for high dinners it is larded. 
Baste with fresh butter. It must be a large fillet which takes longer than an 
hour and twenty minutes ; serve with tomato sauce, and garnish with horse- 
radish, unless served with currant jelly, then serve as with venison or hare. 

A Salt Round of Beef. — Use the spice as for the fillet of beef, but 
salt as usual for a round of beef. Let it lie for a week, frequently rubbing 
it; boil it in a cloth ; send up carrots, and turnips, and suet dumplings, and 
a little gravy from what it was boiled in, adding a little consomme, or it 
will be too salt. Serve with young cabbages. 

Beep Steak. — The tender loin is the best piece for broiling — a steak 
from the round or shoulder cloil is good and comes cheaper. If tlie beef 
is not very tender, it should be laid on a board, and pounded, before boiling 
or frying it. Wash it in cold water, then lay it on a gridiron, place it on a 
hot bed of coals, and broil it as quick as possible without burning it. If 
broiled slow it will not be good. It takes from fifteen to twenty minutes to 
broil a steak. For seven or eight pounds of beef, cut up about a quarter of 
a pound of butter. Heat the platter very hot that the steak is to be put 
on, lay the butter on, take up the steak, salt and pepi^er it on both sides. 
Beef steak to be good sliould be eaten as soon as cooked. A few slices of 
salt pork broiled with the steak makes a rich gravy with a very little but- 
ter. Tiiere should always be a trough to catch the juices of the meat 
when broiled. The same pieces that are good broiled are good for frying. 
Fry a few slices of salt pork, brown, then take them up and put in the beef. 
When brown on both sides, take it up, take the pan off from the fire, to let 



78 HOUSEHOLD. 

the fat cool ; when cool, turn in lialf a teacup of water, mix a couple of 
teaspoonfuls of flour with a little water, stir it into the fat, put the pan 
back on the fire, stir it till it boils up, and then turn it over the beef. 

Beef Kidney, Fried. — Remove all the fat and the skin from the kidney, 
and cat it in slices moderately thin. Mi.x with ateaspoonful of salt, grated 
nutmeg, and cayenne pep{)er. Sprinkle over them this seasoning, and also 
parsley and eselialot, chopped very fine. Fry them over a quick fire until 
brown on both sides, then pour into a good gravy a glass of Madeira, and 
when the slices of the kidney are browned, pour it into the pan gradually ; 
just as it boils throw in a spoonful of lemon juice, with a piece of butter the 
size of a nut. Have read}' a dish, garnished with fried bread, cut in dice, 
and pour the whole into it. 

Beef Kidneys, Stewed. — Procure a couple of very fine beef kidneys, 
cut them in slices, and lay them in a stew-pan ; put in two ounces of butter, 
and four large onions cut into very thin slices ; add to them a sufficiency of 
pepper and salt to season well. Stew them about an hour ; add a cupful 
of rich gravy to that extracted from the kidney. Stew five minutes, strain 
it, and thicken the gravy with flour and butter ; give it a boil up. Serve 
with the grav3' in the dish. 

Beef Heart Roasted. — Wash thoroughly, stuff with forcemeat, send it 
to table as hot as it is possible, with currant jelly sauce ; it will take about 
forty minutes roasting. 

Beef and Sauer Kraut. — Put about eight pounds of beef into cold 
water. When it comes to a boil, let it boil very fast for eight or ten min- 
utes, not longer. Take it in a stewpan, covering it completel}' over with 
sauer kraut. Pour in a pint of thin gravy. Stew four hours, and serve 
with the gravy in a tureen or deep dish. 

A Beef Stew. — Take two or three pounds of the rump of beef, cut away 
all the fat and skin, and cut it into pieces about two or three inches square, 
put it into a stewpan, and pour on to it a qiiart of broth ; then let it boil, 
and sprinkle in a little salt and pepper to taste : when it has boiled very 
gentl}', or simmered two hours, shred finely a large lemon, adding it to the 
gravy, and in twenty minutes pour in a flavoring, composed of two table- 
spoonfuls of Harvey's sauce, the juice of the lemon (the rind of which has 
been sliced in the gravy), a spoonful of flour, and a little ketchup ; add at 
pleasure two glasses of Madeira or one of sherry or port, a quarter of an 
liour after the flavoring, and serve. 

Beef Hashed. — Take the bones of the joint to be hashed, and break 
them small ; then stew them in a very little water, with a bunch of sweet 
herbs and a few onions ; roll a lump of butter in flour, brown it in a stew- 
pan, pour the gravy to it, and add the meat to be hashed ; two small onions 
in thin slices, a carrot also, and a little parsley shred finely ; stew gently until 
the meat is hot through, and serve. 

Tongue Boiled. — When taken fresh from the pickle, they require no 
soaking, unless they should have remained in it much beyond the usual 
time, or have been cured with a more than common proportion of salt ; but 
when they have been smoked and highly dried, they should be laid for two 
or three hours into cold, and as much longer into tepid water, before they 
are dressed. If extremely dry, ten or twelve hours must be allowed to 
soften them, and they should always be brought rery slowly to boil. Two 
or three carrots and a large bunch of savory he", bs, added after the scum 
is cleared off, will improve them. They should be simmered until they are 
extremely tender, when the skin will peel from them easily. A highl}'- 
dried tongue of moderate size will usually require from three and a half to 
four hours' boiling ; an unsmoked one, about an hour less ; and for one 
which has not been salted at all, a shorter time will suffice. 

Beef Tongue, to Cure. — Throw a handful of salt over the tongue, 
seeing that it is sprinkled on both sides, and let it remain to drain until the 
following day ; make a pickle of a tablespoonf ul of common salt, half that 
quantity of saltpetre, and the same quantity of coarse sugar as of salt; 



HOUSEHOLD. 79 

rub tliis mixture well into the tongue, every day for a week ; it will then 
be found necessary to <add another tablespoonf ul of salt ; in four more days 
the tongue will be cured sufliciently. 

Some persons do not rub the pickle into the tongue, but let it absorb 
it, merely turning it daily ; this method will be found to occupy a month 
or five weeks before it is cured. When the tongue is to be dried, affix a 
paper to it with a date ; smoke over a wood fire four days, unless wrapped 
in paper, and tlien as many weeks will be required. 

Tongue Pickled. — To tliree gallons of spring water add six pounds of 
common salt, two pounds of bay salt, two pounds of common loaf-sugar, 
and two ounces of saltpetre. Boil these over a gentle fire, and be careful 
to take off all the scum as it rises ; when quite cold, it will be fit for use. 
Hub the tongue to be cured with fine salt, and let it drain for a day, in order 
to free it from tlie blood ; then immerse it in the brine, taking care tliat 
every part of it shall be covered. The tongues should not remain more 
than from three to five days in the pickle. When tlie pickle has been in 
use for about three months, boil it up again gently and take the scum care- 
fully off ; add to it three pounds of common salt, four ounces of sugar, and 
one of saltpetre. It will remain good for many months. 

Alamode Beef. — The round of beef is the best piece to alamode ; the 
shoulder clod is good and comes lower ; it is also good stewed, without any 
epices. For five pounds of beef, soak about a pound of bread in cold water 
till soft, then drain off the water, mash the bread fine, put in a piece of 
butter, of the size of a hen's egg, half a teaspoonful of salt, the same quan- 
tity of ground cloves, allspice, and pepper, half a nutmeg, a couple of eggs, 
and a tablespoonful of flour; mix the whole well together; then cut gashes 
in tlie beef, and fill them with about half the dressing, put the meat in a 
bake-pan, with lukewarm water enough to cover it ; set it where it will 
stew gently for a couple of hours, cover it with a heated bake-pan lid. When 
it has stewed a couple of hours turn the reserved dressing on top of the 
meat, heat the bake-pan lid hot enough to brown the dressing, stew it an 
liofir and a half longer. After the meat is taken up, if the gravy is not 
thick enough, mix a teaspoonful or two of flour with a little water, and stir 
it into the gravj' ; put in a little butter, a wineglass of wine, and turn it 
over the meat. 

Potted Beef. — To a pound of common salt put a quarter of an ounce of 
snltpetre, and two ounces of coarse sugar. Rub three ounces of lean beef 
with this, and let it remain in the brine fifty hours. Drain and dry it ; pep- 
per it well with black pepper, and put it into a pan ; cut half a pound of 
butter in slices, and lay round it ; lay a paste crust over it, and bake it very 
slowly four hours and a half. Let it get cold, and then cut off the meat, 
being careful to separate the stringy pieces from it; pound it in a mortar, 
working up with it four ounces of fresh butter, and some of the gravy from 
the meat when baked, seasoned with ground allspice, a little niace and 
pepper. When the meat has been combined with the butter and gravy, 
until it is worked into an even paste, put it into jars, and cover it with 
clarified butter. 

If it is purposed to keep it long, cover it with bladder skin. The beef 
may be potted without in the first instance being salted, but if it is done, it 
should have salt worked up with it, and be soon eaten after potting. Some 
persons make their potted beef of meat that has been previously cooked, 
but the above will be found to be the best receipt. 

Beef Steak with Onions. — Prepare a rump steak by pounding it till 
quite tender ; season with salt, pepper, and fresh butter, put in the steak 
and fry it, when brown on one side turn over, do not let it scorch ; when 
nicely done, take it up, put a little flour over the steak, then add gradually 
a cup of hot water, seasoned with more salt and pepper if necessary ; then 
put the water over the fire to boil again, and pour over the steak. 

Peel two dozen onions, put them on to boil with about two qunrts of 
water, an hour befoi'e the steak is put on to fry. When the steak is done, 



80 HOUSEHOLD. 

cut tiiem up, put them in the frying pan, season well with salt, pepper, and 
butter, sprinkle witii flour, stir all well together, place over the fire, stir 
often to ]irevent scorching ; when they are a little brown and soft, turn 
them over tlie steak. 

Beef Steak. — Tiie inside of the sirloin makes the best steak ; cut about 
three-quarters of an inch thick, have the gridiron hot, put on tlie meat and 
set it over a good fire of coals ; turn them often. From eight to ten min- 
utes is the rule for broiling. 

Beef Hams. — Prepare, trim, and shape a leg of beef like a ham, then put 
on a dish, and baste with the following pickle morning and evening, for a 
montli ; then remove from the pickle, drain, roll in bran, and smoke it 
Cover witli a piece of canvas, give it a coat of lime-wash, and hang it in a 
dry place until wanted. For a piece of meat weighing fourteen pounds 
mix a pound of salt, the same of coarse brown sugar, an ounce of saltpetre, 
the same of bay salt, half an ounce of coarse black pepper, and three oun- 
ces of treacle, adding sufficient beer to form into a thick pickle. 

Beef Boiled. — Tlie round is the best boiling piece. Put the meat in 
the pot, with water enough to cover it ; let it boil very slow at first — this is 
the great secret of making it tender; take off the scum as it rises. From 
two to three hours, according to size, is the rule for boiling. 

Beef Liver. — Liver is very good fried, but the best way to cook it is to 
broil it ten minutes, with four or five slices of salt pork. Then take it, cut 
it into small strijis, together with the pork ; put it in a stew-pan with a little 
water, butter, and pepper. Stew it four or five minutes. 

How TO Choose Mutton. — The best is of a fine grain, a bright color, the 
fat firm and white. It is better for being full grown. The meat of the ewe 
is not so bright, while the grain is closer. The ram mutton may be known 
by tlie redness of the flesh, and the sponginess of the fat, 

Eoast Leg of Mutton Boned and Stuffed. — The principal skill re- 
quired in preparing this dish, is the boning; this must be done with a very 
sharp knife, commencing on the underside of the joint, and passing the 
knife under the skin until exactly over the bone, then cut down to it, and 
pass the knife round close to the bone right up to the socket, then remove 
the large bone of the thickest end of the leg, seeing the meat is clear of the 
bone ; 3'ou may then draw out the remaining bones easily. Put in the ori- 
fice a highly-seasoned forcemeat, fasten the knuckle end tightly over, re- 
place the bone at the base of the joint, and sew it in ; roast it in a cradle 
spit or on a jack, if the latter, let tlie knuckle end be downwards, as it is 
less likely4o suffer the forcemeat to drop out. It must be well basted, and 
should be sent to table with a good gravy. 

Leg of Mutton BcJiled. — Should be first soaked for an hour and a half 
in salt and water, care being taken that the water be not too salt, tlien wiped 
and boiled in a floured cloth ; the time necessary for boiling will depend 
upon the weight ; two hours or two hours and a half should be about the 
time ; it should be served with mashed turnips, potatoes, greens and caper 
sauce, or brown cucumber, or oyster sauce. 

Leg of Mutton Roasted. — Like the haunch and saddle, should be hung 
before cooking, slowly roasted and served with onion sauce or currant 
jelly. 

Another Method. — Put the leg into an iron saucepan, with enough cold 
water to cover it, and let it come to a boil gently ; or boil it by simmering 
only ; have the spit or jack ready, and take it from the hot water and put 
it to the fire instantly, it will take from an hour and a half if a large joint. 

Breast of Mutton. — May be stewed in grav}- until tender ; bone it, 
score it, season well with cayenne, black pepper, and salt ; boil it, and while 
cooking, skim the fat from the gravy in which it has been stewed, slice a 
few gherkins, and add with a dessertspoonful of mushroom ketchup ; boil 
it, and pour over the mutton when dislied. 

Breast of Mutton Crumbed or Gratin. — If one breast of mutton, cut 
flff the chine bone down to the gristle ; if you have a stock-pot on, put the 



HOUSEHOLD. 81 

breast of mutton into it, let it boil until tender, then take it up to cool ; 
liave ready as for the crumbed cutlets, adding to the butter and egg a little 
chopped musliroom, whicli strew all over it with a paste brush ; tlien put it 
on a dish and place it in the oven to brown ; tlie sauce will be under it wlien 
dished. 

Saddle of Mutton. — Tliis joint like tlie haunch, gains much of its 
flavor from lianging for some time ; tlie skin should be taken off, but skew- 
ered on again until within rather more than a quarter of an hour of its being 
done, tlien let it be taken off, dredge the saddle with flour, and baste well. 
The kidneys may be removed or remain at pleasure, but the fat which is 
found witliin tlie saddle sliould be taken away previous to cooking. 

Fillet of Mutton. — Ciioose a very large leg, cut from four to five inches 
in thickness from the large end, take out the bone, and in its place put a 
highly savored forcemeat, flour, and roast it for two hours ; it may be sent 
to table with melted butter poured over it, or a rich brown gravy and red 
currant jelly. 

Haunch of Mutton. — Tlie haunch should be hung as long as possible 
without being tainted ; it should be washed with vinegar every day while 
hanging, and dried thoroughly after eacli washing ; if the weatlier be 
muggy, rubbing with sugar will prevent its turning sour ; if warm weather, 
pepper and ground ginger rubbed over it will keep off the flies. 

Wiien ready for roasting, paper the fat, and commence some distance 
from the fire ; baste with milk and water first, and then when the fat begins 
dripping, change tlie dish, and baste with its own dripping; half an liour 
previous to its being done, remove the paper from the fat, place it closer to 
the fire, baste well, and serve witli currant jelly. 

Haricot Mutton. — In this dish remove the bones, leave the fat on, and 
cut each cutlet thick ; fry them over a quick fire to brown ; twelve cutlets 
will make this dish ; put them into a proper sized stewpan with a little 
good second stock, pepper and salt, a little piece of sugar, cover it over 
and stew gently over a slow fire ; when tender, strain off sufficient stock 
for the sauce. 

Mutton Cutlets. — Loin chops make the best cutlets. Take off the 
vertebrae or thickest end of each bone, and about an inch off the top of the 
bone ; put the chops into a stewpan in which has been previously melted a 
little butter seasoned with salt ; stew for a short time, but not until they are 
brown, as that appearance is accomplished in another manner. Chop some 
parsley very fine, add a little thyme, mix it with sufficient j'olk of egg to 
coat the chops, which will have been suffered to cool before this addition to 
them ; then powder them with bread crumbs, over wliich a pinch of cay- 
enne pepper has been sprinkled ; broil them upon a gridiron over a clear 
but not a brisk fire, and when they are brown dish them ; lemon juice may 
be squeezed over them, or the dish in which they are served may be gar- 
nished with thin slices of lemon in halves and quarters. 

Mutton Chops Fkied. — The fat in which the chops are to be fried 
should be boiling when the chops are put into it. They should be pared of 
fat and well trimmed before cooking, turned frequently, and when nicely 
browned they will be done ; of course if they are very thick, judgment 
must be exercised respecting the length of time they will occupy in cooking. 

Hashed Mutton. — Cut the cold mutton into slices as uniform in size as pos- 
sible, flour them, pepper and salt them, put them into a stew pan with some 
gravy made of an onion stewed, with whole pepper and toasted bread, in a 
pint of water, to which a little walnut ketchup has been added — this gravy 
should be stewed two hours before using. Do not let the hash boil ; when 
it is done, add a little thickening of butter, flour and water, if required, 
and serve uji with sippets of toasted bread. 

To Dress Mutton Hams. — Soak the ham for five or six hours in cold 
spring water, unless it has only recently been cured, then one hour will suf- 
fice ; put it into cold water, boil gently ; it will be done in two hours and a 
half. It is eaten cold. 

4* 



82 HOUSEHOLD. 

Irish Stew. — Cut a neck of mutton as for tlie liaricot; blanch the 
chops in water, then put them into another stewpan with four onions cut in 
slices, put to it a little of j'our second stock, and let it boil a quarter of an 
hour ; have ready some potatoes pared, put them into the stewpan with the 
mutton, with salt and pepper. As some like the potatoes wliole and some 
mashed, so as to thicken tlie stew, you must boil them accordingly ; dish the 
meat round, and the vegetables in the middle. 

Lkg of Lamb, Roasted. — This joint should be roasted gradually, com- 
mencing at a distance Irom the fire, and gradually placing it nearer ; it 
should be well basted, dished hot, and served with mint sauce. 

Leg of Lamb, Forced. — Carefully take out all the meat with a sharp 
knife, and leave the skin whole with the fat on it ; convert the lean wliich 
has been cut into a forcemeat, thus : to two pounds of meat add two pounds 
of beef suet chopped small, and beat it in a marble mortar till it is very 
fine ; take away all the skin off the meat and suet, and mix it with four 
spoonfuls of grated bread, eight or ten cloves, four or five blades of mace 
dried and beaten fine, half a nutmeg grated, a little pepper and salt, some 
lemon-peel cut fine, a small portion of thyme and parsley, and four eggs ; 
mix all together and put it into the skin, so that it may assume its original 
form : sew it up, roast it, and baste it with butter, and serve with stock cut 
from the loin and fried in gravy. 

To Stew a Brisket of Lamb. — Cut it into pieces, pepper and salt well, 
and stew in sutficient gravy to cover the meat until tender, then thicken the 
sauce, and pour in a glass of sherry ; serve on a dish of stewed mushrooms. 

Lamb's Head. — Wash well a lamb's head and pluck, take out the brains, 
blanch them by themselves, boil the head and pluck for about a quarter of 
an hour, take it up to cool, take out the tongue, trim the two halves of the 
head neatly, and score it, tlien egg and bread-crumb them as you woidd cut- 
lets, and brown them in the oven or before the fire. Cut up in small dice in 
equal quantities the tongue, liver, heart, and lights ; fry in a stewpan a little 
chopped parsley, shallot, and mushroom if you have it, to a nice light brown ; 
dry up the butter with flour, use some good second stock or brown sauce ; 
season with lemon, cayenne pepper, salt, and a dust of sugar, put the 
emince*s under the head, the brain, egg, and crumb in four pieces, and put 
round. 

A Leg of Pork Roasted. — The pork should be young and dairy-fed ; 
score the skin with a sharp penknife ; a little fresh butter is sometimes 
rubbed over the skin to make it brown and crisp without bUstering. Chop 
some sage that has been scalded very fine, add to it an onion parboiled, mix 
some bread crumbs and a small portion of finely-chopped apple ; mix alto- 
gether, season witli pepper and salt, make an incision by separating the 
skin from the fat in the under and fillet end of the leg, and place the stuffing 
there ; serve up with apple sauce. The time of roasting will depend upon 
the size of the leg. 

A Leg of Pork Boiled. — After having been salted, it should be washed 
in clean cold water, and scraped thoroughly white and clean preparatory to 
cooking ; it should then be put into a floured clotli, and into cold water on 
the fire ; when the rind is quite tender the pork will be done. Let the water 
be well skinuned, and serve with such vegetables as are in season. Should 
the joint be large, allow a quarter of an hour to each pound, with an ad- 
ditional twenty minutes from the time it boils. 

Loin of Pork. — Should, like the leg, be scored before roasting, and well 
jointed, to make the chops separate easily, and then roast as a loin of mut- 
ton ; or it may be put into enough water to cover it ; simmer until it is nearly 
done, then take it out, strip the skin off, coat it well with yolk of egg and 
bread crumbs, and roast for about a quarter of an hour or until it is thor- 
oughly done. 

Spare Rib. — A spare rib will take two hours and a half to roast, unless 
very large, and then three hours will be required to cook it thoroughly ; 
wliile roasting, baste with butter and dredge with flour, pound some sage, 



HOUSEHOLD 83 

and powder tlie spare rib witli it about twent} minutes before it is done ; a 
pinch of salt may be added. 

Boiled Pork — of all kinds. — The leg you must skin tliesameasham, 
and dish it back part upwards, and glaze it ; place a ruffle at the knuckle ; 
use for sauce, sauer kraut, or stewed red cabbage ; peas pudding to all pork 
when boiled. 

Pig's Head Boiled. — Tliis is the more profitable dish, though not so 
pleasant to the palate ; it should first be salted, which is usually done by the 
pork butcher, it should be boiled gently an hour and a quarter ; serve witli 
vegetables. 

Pig's Harslet. — Is made with the liver and sweetbreads, which must be 
well cleaned ; add to them pieces of pork, both fat and lean, chop finely 
sage and onions, season with pepper and salt, and mix with tlie preceding; 
put them in a cowl, tie it closely, and roast. It may also be baked. Serve 
with a sauce of port wine, water, and mustard, just boiled up, and put into 
the dish. 

To Core Hams. — Pound some bay salt, saltpetre, common salt, and 
some coarse sugar, niix it well together, then put it all in to get hot, and 
while hot, rub the hams well with this, repeating it every morning for a 
week; then let them lie in the brine for another week, until all is well in- 
corporated in the meat ; then take them out to drain on dislies, flour tliem, 
and hang tliem up to dr}'. You must be guided a good deal by the size of 
the hams. 

Keeping Hams for Summer Use. — Slice tliem and fry rather less than 
for the table, as fast as a sli(?e is done place it in a stone jar and keep well 
pounded down until the jar is full, then place a weight on, and, when cold, 
fill with the fat left from cooking. 

Ham Toast. — Melt a small piece of butter in a stewpan until it is slightly 
browned ; beat up one egg and add it to it ; put in as much finely-minced 
ham as would cover a round of buttered toast, adding as much gravy as will 
make it moist when quite hot. When all the ingredients are in, stir them 
quickly witli a fork; pour on to the buttered toast,wliich cut in pieces after- 
wards any shape you please. Serve hot. 

To Bake a Ham. — Put the ham in soak previous to dressing it ; if an old 
one, two hours will be required, but if not very old, an hour will sutfice. 
Wipe it very ilry, and cover it with a paste about an inch in thickness. The 
edges being first moistened, must be drawn together, and made to adhere, 
or the gravy will escape. Bake it in a regular well-heated oven, it will take 
from three to six hours, according to its weight. 

Pettitoes. — Put them in just sufficient water to cover them, add the 
heart and liver, boil them ten minutes, then take out the liver and heart, 
and mince them small, return them to the feet, and stew until quite tender ; 
thicken with flour and butter, season with pepper and salt, and serve up 
with sippets of plain or toasted bread ; make a pyramid of the minced heart 
and liver, and lay the feet round them. When pettitoes are fried, they 
should first be boiled, then dipped in butter, and fried a liglit brown. 

Sausages. — Chop fresh pork ver}' fine, the lean and fat together, (there 
should be rather more of the lean than the fat,) season it higlily with salt, 
pepper, sage, and other sweet herbs, if you like them — a little saltpetre 
tends to preserve them. To tell whether they are seasoned enough, do up a 
little into a cake, and fry it. If not seasoned enough, add more seasoning, 
and fill your skins, which should be previously cleaned thoroughly. A 
little flour mixed in with the meat, tends to prevent tlie fat from running 
out when cooked. Sausage-meat is good, done up in small cakes and fried. 
In summer, when fresh pork cannot be procured, very good sausage-cakes 
maj' be made of raw beef, chopped fine with salt pork, and seasoned with 
jiepper and sage. When sausages are fried, they should not be pricked, and 
they will cook nicer, to have a little fat put in the fryingpan with them. 
Tliey should be cooked slowly. If you do not like them ver}^ fat, take 
tiiem out of the pan when nearly- done, and finish cooking them on a grid- 



84 HOUSEHOLD. 

ron. Bologna sausages are made of equal weight each, of ham, veal, and 
l)ork, chopped very fine, seasoned high, and boiled in casings, till tender, 
then dried. 

SiVUSAGES, TO Frt. — Are hest wlien quite fresh made. Put a bit of 
butter or dripping into a clean fr\'ingpan ; as soon as it is melted (before it 
gets liot), put in tlie sausages, and shake tlie {)an for a minute, and keep 
turning them (be careful not to break or prick them in so doing), fry tliem 
over a slow fire till they are nicely browned on all sides ; when they are 
done, lay them on a hair-sieve placed before tlie fire for a couple of minutes, 
to drain the fat from them. Tlie secret of frying sausages is to let tliem get 
hot very gradually, they then will not burst if they are not stale. You may 
froth them by rubbing them with cold fresh butter, aiul lightly dredge them 
with flour, and put tliem in a cheese-toaster or Dutch-oven for a minute. 

Sausage Meat. — Take 2 lbs. lean meat, 1 lb. fat pork, chop fine, and 
mix witli two tablespoonfuls black pepper, 1 of cloves, 7 of powdered sage, 
and 5 of salt. 

Yorkshire Bacon. — It is generally admitted that the bacon which comes 
from Yorkshire is the best of this kind of food. Tlie peculiarity of flavor 
depends upon the mode of curing, wliich is conducted in tlie following 
manner :— After killing, the meat is suffered to hang for twenty -four hours, 
before being cut up ; saltpetre is tlien rubbed in, in the proportion of one 
pound to two hundred and eiglity pounds of meat, and from twenty-one to 
twenty-eiglit pounds of common salt; this being well rubbed in, tiie meat is 
laid in a tub kept for tliat purpose. Having lain for a fortniglit, it is turned 
over, and about seven pounds of salt is apiilied* after whicli the meat is left 
for a fortniglit longer ; it is tlien taken out, and hung up in tlie kitchen, the 
inside washed over with quicklime and water, to preserve itfrom the bacon- 
fly and prevent it turning rancid ; it is then hung up in a spare room away 
from all heat, but where it is perfectly dry. 

Bacon and Cabbage. — Boil some streaky bacon in a small quantity of 
stock, with eight or ten sausages ; in the same stock boil some white cab- 
bages for about two hours ; add salt and spices, and serve very hot. 

Head Cheese. — Boil the head and feet very tender; remove all the 
bones ; put tlie meat into a strainer and press all the grease out that is pos- 
sible ; when cool chop fine : season witii pepper and salt, and pack the same 
as sausage meat. 

Calf's Liver and Heart. — Are good, broiled or fried. Some people 
like the liver stuffed and baked. 

Tripe. — After being scoured, should be soaked in salt and water seven 
or eight days, changing the water every other day, then boil it till tender, 
which will take eiglit or ten hours. It is tlien fit for broiling, frying, or 
pickling. It is pickled in tlie same manner as souse. 

Pork Chops. — Cut the chops about a third of an inch thick, trim them 
neatly and beat them flat. Put a piece of butter into the fryingpan, and as 
soon as it is hot, lay in the chops, turn them frequently, and they will be 
well browned in a quarter of an hour. Take one upon a ]>late and try it ; 
if done, season it witli a little finely-minced onion, powdered sage, pepper 
and salt. Or prepare some sweet herbs, sage and onion chopped fine, and 
put all into a stewpan with a bit of butter. Give tliem one fry, beat two 
eggs on a plate with a little salt, and tlie minced herbs, and mix it all thor- 
oughly together. Dip the chops in, one at a time, then cover them with 
bread crumbs and fry them in hot lard or dripping, till they are of a light 
brown. 

Pork Steaks. — Cut the steaks from a loin or neck, and of middling 
thickness ; pepper and broil them, and keep them turning. When nearly 
done, sprinkle them with salt, rub a little butter over them, and serve imme- 
diately they are taken off the fire, a few at a time. 

Pig Roast. — Tlie young of tlie animal, known as tlie sucking pig, is 
made choice of for this dish. Tlie hair of the animal sliould be removed by 
scalding. When this is done, remove the entrails, thoroughly clean the nos- 



HOUSEHOLD. 85 

trils and ears, and wash tlie whole body in cold water. Cut off the feet at 
the first joint, loosening the skin, and leaving it on to turn neatly over. The 
pig must then be stuffed as follows : Take half an ounce of mild sage, and 
two young onions parboiled ; chop these very fine, add a cupful of grated 
bread crumbs, a quarter of a pound of good butter,' and a high seasoning of 
cayenne pepper, and salt. Sew tlie slit neatly up, set it down to roast be- 
fore a brisk clear fire, and baste first with brine, then with tlie fresh butter 
or salad oil ; when the crackling is tliorouglily browned and crisp, tlie pig 
will be sufficiently done. A pig iron, or some ingenious substitute, must be 
placed in the centre of the grate, part of the time, to prevent tlie middle re- 
gions of the animal from being scorched before the extremities are done. 
Serve with a sauce of clear beef or veal gravy, with a squeeze of lemon, 
and, if approved, a little of the stuffing stirred in the same tureen. 

Souse. — Take pig's ears and feet, clean them thoroughly, then soak 
them in salt and water for several days. Boil them tender and split them, 
thej' are then good fried. If you wish to souse them when cold, turn boiling 
vinegar on them, spiced with pepper-corns, and mace. Cloves improve 
the taste, but it turns them a dark color. Add a little salt. They will 
keep good pickled five or six weeks. Fry them in lard. 

Veal. — The loin of veal is the best piece for roasting. The breast and 
rack are good roasted. The breast also is good made into a pot pie, and 
the rack cut into small pieces and broiled. The leg is nice for frying, and 
when several slices have been cut off for cutlets, the remainder is nice 
boiled witli a small piece of salt pork. Veal for roasting should be salted, 
peppered, and a little butter rubbed on it, and basted frequently. Put a 
little water in the dripping pan, and unless the meat is quite fat, a little 
butter should be put in. Tlie fillet is good baked ; the bone should be cut 
out, and the place filled with a dressing made of bread soaked soft in cold 
water, fi little salt, pepper, a couple of eggs, and a tablespoonful of butter 
put in — then sew it up, put it in your bake pan, with about a pint of water, 
cover the top of the meat with some of the dressing. When baked suffi- 
ciently, take it up, thicken the gravy with a little flour and water well mixed, 
put in a small piece of butter, and a little wine and catsup, if you like the 
gravy rich. 

Breast of Veal — Forced. — After taking out the tendons and all the rib 
bones, flatten and trim the veal; spread it all over with forcemeat, and 
sprinkle over it, if you have got it, a little chopped truffle or mushrooms, 
and a little pepper and salt: then roll it tightly up and tie it; after 
which put it into a cloth and stew it for several hours, then take it up, 
and take off the cloth and strings, dry it and glaze it, and put some good 
sauce. 

Shoulder of Veal. — Remove the knuckle, and roast what remains, as 
the fillet ; it may or may not be stuffed ; if not stuffed, serve with oyster or 
mushroom sauce ; if stuffed, with melted butter. 

Shoulder of Veal Boned and Stewed.— Bone the shoulder, and lay in 
the orifice a veal forcemeat ; roll and bind the shoulder ; roast it an hour, 
then put it into a stewpan with good white or brown gravy, and stew four or 
five hours, regulating the time to the size of the joint ; when it is done, 
strain the gravy to clear it of fat, and serve with forcemeat balls. 

Loin of Veal. — Divide the loin, roast the kidney, and place under the 
fat a toast, and serve swimming in melted butter. The chump end must 
be stuffed with the same stuffing as the fillet, and served with the same 
sauce ; those who object to putting the stuffing in the joint, may send it to 
table with balls of stuffing in the dish. 

Loin of Veal Boiled. — Take a loin of about eight pounds, skewer down 
the flap without disturbing the kidney, put the loin in the kettle with 
enough cold water to cover it, let it come gradually to aboil (it cannot boil 
too slowly), continue for two hours and a quarter, but it must boil ; remove 
the scum as it rises, send it to the table in bechamel or with parsley and 
melted butter. 



86 HOUSEHOLD. 

To HASH Calf's Head. — K this dish is to be made of the remains of a 
head already cooked, there is no necessity to reboil it before it is placed in 
the stewpan with the other ingredients ; if it is to be made witii one as yet 
uncooked, soak it thoroughly for two hours, parboil it, cut the meat in 
slices about one inch tliick and three inclies long, or smaller if preferred ; 
brown an onion sliced in flour and butter in a stew saucepan, add to the 
meat as much rich gravy as the quantity of meat will permit, season with 
pepper, salt, and cayenne ; let it boil, then skim clean, and simmer until the 
meat is quite tender ; a few minutes before serving throw in parsley in fine 
shreds and some finely chopped sweet herbs ; squeeze a little lemon in, and 
garnish with forcemeat balls, or thin slices of broiled ham rolled, if ex- 
pense is not an object you may add morels and truffles in the browning. 

Plaw. — Boil a piece of lean veal tender. Take it up, cut it into strips 
three or four inches long, put it back into the pot, with tlie liquor it was 
boiled in, with a teacup of rice to three pounds of veal. Put in a piece of 
butter the size of a lien's egg ; season it with salt, pepper, and sweet herbs 
if you like ; stew it gently till the rice is tender, and the water nearly stewed 
away. A little curry powder in this converts it into a curry disli. 

A Veal Stew. — Cut four pounds of veal into strips three inches long and 
one inch thick ; peel twelve large potatoes, and cut them into slices one 
inch thick ; spread a layer of veal on the bottom of the pot, sprinkle in a 
little salt and pepper, then a layer of potatoes, then a layer of veal seasoned 
as before. Use up the veal thus ; over the last layer of veal put a layer of 
slices of salt pork, and over tiie whole a layer of potatoes. Pour in water 
till it rises an inch over the whole ; cover it close, heat it fifteen minutes, 
and simmer it an hour. 

Calf's Head Baked. — Butter tlie head, and powder it witli seasoning 
composed of very fine bread crumbs, a few sweet herbs and sage, chopped 
very fine, and cayenne, white pepper and salt. Divide the brains into several 
pieces, not too small, sprinkle them with bread crumbs, and lay them in 
the dish with the head. Strew a quantity of small pieces of butter over the 
head and in the eyes, throw crumbs over all, pour in three parts of the dish 
full of water, and bake in a fast oven two hours. 

Calf's Head for Gkill. — When the head is boiled sufficiently, draw 
out all the bones, and put it to cool, and then cut it (if not required whole) 
into square long pieces ; egg and bread-crumb them as you would cutlets, 
only add some ciiopped sweet herbs, as well as parsley ; put it in your oven 
to brown. 

Calf's Head. — Let the head be thoroughly cleaned, the brain and 
tongue be taken out, and boil it in a cloth to keep it white (it is well to soak 
the head two or three hours previously to boiling, it helps to improve the 
color) ; wash, soak, and blanch the brains, then boil them, scald some sage, 
chop it fine, add pepper and salt, and a little milk, mix it with the brains ; 
the tongue, which should be soaked in salt and water for twenty-four 
hours, should be boiled, peeled and served on a separate dish. The head 
should boil until tender, and if intended to be sent plainly to the table 
should be served as taken up, with melted butter and parsley; if otherwise, 
when the head is boiled sufficiently tender, take it up, spread over a coat of 
the yolk of egg well beaten up, powder with bread crumbs, and brown be- 
fore the fire in a Dutch or American oven. 

Neck of Veal Braised. — This is done much in the same manner as 
the neck of veal stewed : it is larded with bacon, rolled in chopped parsley, 
pepper, salt, and nutmeg, placed with the scrag in a tosser, in which place 
lean bacon, celery, carrots, one onion, a glass of sherry, or Madeira, with 
sufficient water to cover it all ; stew over a quick fire until it is sufficiently 
tender, remove the veal, and strain the gravy, place the veal in a stewpan, 
in which some butter and flour has been browned, letting the bones be up- 
permost ; when the veal is nicely colored it is enough ; boil as much of the 
liquor as may be required, skim it clear, squeeze a lemon into it, pour it 
over the meat, and serve. 



HOUSEHOLD. 87 

Veal Cutlets. — The cutlet should be cut as handsomely as possible, 
and about three-quarters of an inch in thickness ; before cooking, tliey 
should be well beaten with the blade of a chopper, if a proper beater be not 
at hand ; then fry them a light brown, and send them up to table garnished 
with parsley, and rolls of thin-sliced, nicely fried bacon ; they are with ad- 
vantage coated, previous to cooking, with the yolk of an egg, and dredged 
with bread crumbs. 

Another Wat. — Procure your cutlets cut as in last receipt, coat them 
with the yolk of eggs well beaten, powdered bread crumbs, sweet herbs, 
grated lemon peel, and nutmeg; put some fresh butter in the pan^ and 
when boiling, put in your cutlets ; now make some good gravy ; when tlie 
cutlets are cooked, take them out, and keep them before the fire to keep 
hot, dredge into the pan a little flour, put in a piece of butter, a little white 
stock, juice of lemon to taste, season with pepper and salt, adding mush- 
room ketchup, boil quickly until a light brown, then pour it over the cut- 
lets, and serve, the cutlets being laid in a circle round the dish, and the 
gravy in the centre. 

Calf's Liver. — Lay the liver in vinegar for twelve hours, it will render 
it firm ; tlien dip it in cold spring water and wipe it dry, cut it in even 
slices, sprinkle sweet herbs, crumbled finely, over it, and add pepper and 
salt, dredge witli flour, and fry in boiling lard or butter, the last is prefer- 
able ; remove the liver wlien fried a nice brown, pour away a portion of 
tlie fat, and pour in a cupful of water with a lump of butter well rolled in 
flour, in which a spoonful of vinegar and cayenne or lemon juice has been 
stirred, boil it up, keeping it stirred all the while, and serve the liver up in 
it ; thin slices of hot fried bacon should be sent to table with it. 

CoLLOPS. — Cut part of a leg of veal into pieces, three or four inches 
broad — sprinkle flour on them, fry them in butter until brown, then turn 
in water enough to cover the veal. When it boils, take off the scum, put 
in two or three onions, a blade of mace, a little salt and pepper. When 
stewed tender, take up the meat, thicken the gravj^ with flour and water, 
mixed smoothly together, squeeze in the juice of half a lemon, then turn it 
over the collops. Garnish tliem with a lemon cut in thin slices. 

Sweetbreads. — Should be soaked in water, put for eight or ten min- 
utes in boiling water, and then into clear cold spring water, to blanch. 
They may be cut in slices, or in dice, and put into fricassees of meat or 
ragouts, or they may lie served as a separate dish. 

Sweetbreads as Cutlets. — If you cannot get heart sweetbreads, you 
must use the throat. Blanch them for about ten minutes, tlien put them to 
cool in cold water ; then take them out and dry them in a clotii, cut long- 
ways twelve or fourteen pieces for cutlets, making them a nice shape ; if 
you wish for them to be white saute cutlets, you must put some butter or 
lard in your cutlet-pan, juice of a lemon, a little white pepper, and salt ; do 
not color them, but take them up and lay them upon white paper to soak 
up the grease from them ; dish them round upon a tureen, and pour the 
sauce upon the middle of them. 

Force Meat Balls. — Chop a pound or two of veal fine — mix it with 
one or two eggs, a little butter, or raw pork chopped fine — season it with 
salt and pepper, or curry powder. Do them up into balls about the size of 
half an egg, and fry them brown. 

Sweetbreads, with Tomatoes. — Take four large sweetbreads, put 
them into scalding water ; after remaining five minutes take them out and 
put them into cold water ; skin but do not break tliem, put them into a 
stewpan witli water, season with pepjier and salt, place them over a slow 
fire, mix one large spoonful of flour with a good large piece of butter, stir 
the butter and gravy well together. After leaving a half hour take up 
and pour the gravy into a pint of stewed tomntoes ; thicken with flour to 
taste ; season with salt and popper; then strain through a small wire sieve 
into the stewpan; let it boil a few minutes; tiien pour it out over the 
sweetbreads. Send to table hot. 



88 HOUSEHOLD. 

Sweetbreads, French Style. — Take three dozen sweetbreads, put 
tliem into hot water and let them. boil ten or twelve minutes; when cold 
skin but do not break tliem ; take six egt^s and beat them well ; season 
well witli pepper and salt ; roll in bread crumbs ; fry them in salt pork to 
a nice lirown. Serve hot with butter and parsley sauce. 

Fritters of Cold Meat, &c. — Besides cold meat, fritters may be made 
of almost anything ; such as cheese, cold macaroni, rice, game, fish, vege- 
tables, poultry, hard-boiled eggs, &c. The cold meat, iisli, or fowl, may be 
merely minced, or else pounded to a paste in a mortar, or flaked — ;'. e., 
pulled asunder in shreds with two forks. Season nicely and mix with bat- 
ter in the proportion of equal parts of batter and meat. Make hot in a 
frying-pan some fresh lard ; place in it spoonfuls of the mixture ; fry 
beautifully brown ; drain the fritters and serve them on a damask cloth, or 
on a dish strewn over with powdered salt, and decorated with crisp parsley. 
A very small quantity of potted meat, tongue, ham, or preserved fish, &c., 
will thus make a pretty dish to eke out a scanty dinner. Mixed mustard 
or scraped horse-radish may be sent to table with fritters of beef, essence 
of shrimp or anchovy with fish, preserved tomato with pork, pickles with 
mutton, lemon with poultry, &c. 

Game Hash.— -Take tmderdressed or half-roasted game, and after having 
stripped the skin from the thighs, wings, and breast, arrange the joints 
evenly in a clean stewpan, and keep them covered till wanted. Cut into 
cubes four ounces of the lean of an tmboiled ham, and put it, with two ounces 
of butter, into a thick well-turned saucepan or stewpan, add three or four 
shallots minced, a carrot sliced, four cloves, two bay-leaves, a dozen pepper- 
corns, one blade of mace, a small sprig of tln'me, and two or three of 
parsley. Stew them over a gentle fire, stirring them frequently, until the 
sides of the saucepan appear of a reddish brown, them mix well with them 
a dessertspoonful of flour, and let it take a little color. Next, add by 
degrees, making the sauce boil as each portion is thrown in, three-quarters 
of a pint of strong veal stock or gravy, and half a pint of sherry or Madeira ; 
put in the bodies of the birds, well bruised, and boil them for from an hour 
to an hour and a half ; strain, and clear the sauce from fat; pour it on the 
joints of game, heat them in it slowly ; and when they are near the point of 
boiling, dish them immediately with sippets of toast arranged round the dish. 
Turkish Hash. — Cut the cold roast meat into small round pieces ; 
make some cream hot in a stewpan ; put in the meat ; add a teacupful of 
infusion of saffron : season with salt and cayenne pepper. When the whole 
is thoroughly hot, serve with a rim of boiled rice round the dish, decorated 
here and there with small pickled capsicums. 

To Fry Meat in Batter — Make a batter with beaten eggs, milk, 
flour, salt and pepper ; dip your pieces of cold meat in this, and fry quickly 
in plenty of hot lard or friture. The meat should not be cut too thin. When 
properly brown drain it from the fat, and either serve upon a folded napkin 
or in a dish decorateil with parsley fried green and crisp. 

Rechauffe aux Tomates. — Either simply toss in butter your sliced cold 
meat, and send it to table arranged in a dish of dressed tomatoes, or warm 
the meat in a small quantity of rich savorj"^ gravy, and thicken with 
tomato pulp ; serve meat and tomatoes together. 

Cold Meat Served a la Bretonne. — Have in readiness some blanched 
white haricot beans ; fry enough onions in butter ; when quite done add a 
little vinegar, loaf sugar, and preserved tomatoes ; reduce the whole till very 
thick ; moisten with good gravy ; add your haricot beans and a good piece 
of fresh butter; in this sauce make hot your pieces of cold meat, which you 
have first trimmed of an equal size. Serve the meat upon the sauce. 

Cold Meat Sanders. — Mince any kind of cold meat; season M-ell with 
pepper, salt, and shred onions ; place a little of the mixture in small 
buttered moulds ; fill them up with potatoes mashed and mixed with cream ; 
lay a piece of butter on the top of each and bake in an oven until the tops 
are browned. 



HOUSEHOLD. 89 

Meat Warmed up au Gratin. — Well butter a dish ; sprinkle it with 
rasped toast; lay in it cold meat nicely sliced; season well with salt, 
pepper, nutmeg, and minced mnslirooms ; strew more rasped toast on tiie 
top ; add a small teacupf til each of white wine and good gravy, and quickly 
make tlie wliole hot in a brisk oven. 

Meat Fried with Eggs. — Cut tiie meat into pieces rather larger than a 
fried egg would he : soak it in a marinade of lemon-juice, bruised shallot, and 
herbs ; at the end of an hour drain it, egg and bread-crumb it, and fry 
quickly in plenty of friture until beautifully browned ; fry the same number 
of eggs as you have pieces of meat, nicely trim them, and serve an 
egg upon each bit of meat, arranged cw couronne round the iimer rim of a dish ; 
pour a gravy or clear sauce in the middle, and send to table very liot. 

Game, &c., Warmed up in Orange Sauce. — Be provided with sufficient 
strong beef 'gravy ; reduce to almost a glaze ; place in it jour meat cut into 
long and rather thin slips, add the juice of two oranges, and when tiie whole 
is quite hot place the ragout in a dish, and strew upon it the orange-rind 
which you have pared off as thin as possible and cut up small. Meat for 
dishes of this description should be eittier very much under or over done, as 
in the first case the meat will answer as well as if it had been employed 
before being dressed ; and in the second it will be as lusciously tender and 
glutinous as bouillee when it is re-warmed in the form of a made. dish. 

Cold Meat Warmed up with Celery. — Boil some sliced celery in 
broth nicely seasoned ; when tender, put in your meat which you liave cut 
thin, and tiiicken with a good bit of fresh butter rubbed into a small quan- 
tity of flour ; garnish with sliced lemon. 

Chicken and Veal Pot Pie. — If the pie is to be made of chickens, 
joint them — boil the meat until about half done. Take the meat out of the 
liquor in which it was boiled, and put it in a pot, with a layer of 
crust to each layer of meat, having a layer of crust on the top. 
The meat should be seasoned with salt and pepper — cover the whole 
with the boiled meat liquor. If you wish to have the crust brown, keep the 
pot covered with a heated bake pan lid. Keep a teakettle of boiling water 
to turn in as the water boils away — cold water makes the crust heavy. The 
crust for the pie is good like that made for fruit pies, with less shortening, 
but raised pie crust is generally preferred to any other. It is made in the 
following manner — mix together three pints of flour, a teacup of melted 
butter, a teaspoonful of salt, then turn in half a teacup of 3'east — add cola 
water to make it sufficiently stiff to roll out. Set it in a warm place to rise, 
which will take seven or eight hours. 

Beef and Mutton Pie. — Take tender meat, pound it out thin, and broil 
it ten minutes — then cut off the bony and gristl}' parts, season it higldy with 
salt and pepper, butter it, and cut it into snmll pieces. Line a pudding dish 
with pastry, put in the meat, and to each layer add a teaspoonful of tomato 
catsup, together with a tablespoonful of water — sprinkle over flour, and 
cover it with pie crust, and ornament as you please with pastry. Cold roast, 
or boiled beef and mutton, make a good pie, by cutting them into bits, and 
seasoning them highly with salt and pepper. Put them into a pie disli, turn 
a little melted butter over them, or gravy, and pour in water till you can just 
see it at the top. 

Beef Steak Pie. — Take some good steaks, beat them with a rolling pin, 
season them with pepper and salt ; fill a dish with them, adding as much 
water as will half fill it, then cover it with a good crust, and bake it well. 

Cold Veal or Chicken Pie. — Lay a crust into a shallow tart dish, and 
fill it with the following mixture : shred cold veal or fowl, and half tlie quan- 
tity of ham, mostly lean, put to it a little cream, season witli white and 
cayenne pepper, salt, a little nutmeg, and a small piece of shallot chopped as 
fine as possible : cover with crust, and turn it out of the dish when baked, 
or bake the crust with a piece of bread to keep it hollow, and warm the 
mince with a little cream, and pour in. 

Mutton Pie. — Cut steaks from a neck or loin of mutton that has hung, 



90 HOUSEHOLD. 

beat tliem, and remove some of thp fat, season with salt and pepper, and a 
littl,' onion ; put a little water at the bottom of the dish and a little paste on 
the edge, then cover with a moilerately thick paste, or raise small pies, and 
break eacli bone in two to shorten it, season and cover it over, pinching the 
edge. When they come out of the oven, pour into each a little second stock. 

Chicken Pie. — Take one pair good young cliickens, cut in small pieces, 
season witli pepper and salt and small strips of salt pork, put in saucepan 
witli water to cover it, boil for half an hour, add flour and butter to thicken 
the gravy, have ready a large dish, served with paste, put all in the dish 
covered with a good rich paste. Bake for half an hour. 

Chicken Pie. — Boil two chickens tender ; season with butter, pepper and 
salt ; thicken the gravy a very little with flour ; make the dough as for short 
biscuit, and roll it out as tliick as your hand, large enough to line a small tin 
pan ; dip in the chicken and a part of the gravy ; put on a top crust and pinch 
it down well ; make an opening on the top, with a knife, an inch or two long, 
and prick it with a fork. Veal and beef answer every purpose for this kind 
of pie. The gravy left in the pot take to the table in a gravy dish. 

Veal Pot Pie. — Take two pounds of best of veal, cut in small pieces, half 
pound of salt pork, sliced tliin, four quarts of cold water ; pepper and salt 
all, put on the fire ; after boiling for one hour have three pounds of light 
bread dough, pick small pieces, say one ounce pieces, put in saucepan with 
tlie veal and pork and let it boil for twenty minutes. Serve as soon 
as taken from the fire. 

Pork Apple Pia. — Make your crust in the usual manner; spread it over 
a large deep plate ; cut some slices of fat pork very thin, also some slices of 
apple ; place a layer of apples, and then of pork, with a very little allspice 
and pepper ^and sugar between, — three or four layers of each, with crust over 
the top. Bake one Jiour. 

Veal Pie. — Cut your veal up in small pieces ; boil it an hour ; season it 
with salt and pepper, and a small piece of butter ; mix your flour with sour 
milk, saleratus, and a small piece of lard, and moidd it for the crust ; line tlie 
sides of a tin dish or basin with tlie ciust ; put the meat in, and fill up the 
basin with the gravy as full as you can handle it ; shake some flour in it, and 
cover it over with the crust, leaving a hole in the centre for a vent. Bake 
from one and a half to two hours. If preferred, cream-tartar crust may be 
used. 

Meat Pie. — Of whatever kind, let the pieces of meat be first fried brown 
over a quick fire, in a little fat or butter, and seasoned with pepper and salt ; 
put these into a pie-dish with chopped onions, a few slices of half-cooked 
potatoes, and enough water just to cover the meat. Cover the dish with 
crust, made with two pounds of flour and six ounces of butter, or lard, or fat 
dripping, and just enougli water to knead it into a stiff kind of dough or paste, 
and then bake it for about an hour and a half. 

lliCE Chicken Pie. — Cover the bottom of a pudding dish with slices of 
broiled ham ; cut up a broiled chicken and nearly fill the disli ; pour in gravy 
or melted butter to fill the dish ; add chopped onions if you like, or a little 
curry-powder, which is better; then add boiled rice to fill all interstices and 
to cover the toji thick. Bake it for one-half or three-quarters of an hour. 

Fish Pie. — One small codfish cut up in small pieces, five slices of nicj fat 
pork. Fry the pork ; boil about one and a half dozen potatoes, and mash 
them fine, and season with pepper, salt and butter. Fill the dish with a 
layer of fish and a laj'er of pork alternately, then put in water enougli to half 
fill the dish ; take the potatoes and spread over the top, leaving a space in 
the middle for the air to escape. Bake a little more than an hour. 

Game Pie. — If the birds are small, keep them whole ; if large, divide 
or qviarter them. Season them highh', and put plenty of butter into the 
dish above and below them, or put a beef-steak into the bottom of the 
dish ; cover it with good puff paste, and take care not to bake the pie too 
much ; a half pint of hot sauce made of melted butter, the juice of a 
lemon, and a glass of claret, poured into the dish when to be served hot is 



HOUSEHOLD. 91 

a great improvement. A very savory raised game pie is made of part- 
ridges, plieasants, and other kinds of game mixed, talking out the bones, 
and cutting up the flesh ; it is then mixed witli ciiopped liver, and placed 
underneath the raised crust ; after whicli, when cold, tlie top is taken off, 
and a strong jelly, made from the bones, and well spiced, then, after getting 
cold, mixed among the meat. 

Stuffed and Baked Fish. — Soak bread in cold water till soft — drain off 
the water, mash the bread fine, mix it with a tablespoonful of melted 
butter, a little pepper and salt — a couple of raw eggs makes the dressing cut 
smoother — add spices if you like. Fill the fish with tlie dressing, sew it up, 
put a tea cup of water in your bake pan, and a small piece of butter — lay in 
thefisli, bake it from forty to fifty minutes. Fresh cod, bass, and shad, are 
suitable fish for baking. 

Fish Baked. — Some kinds of fish are better baked than boiled, especially 
that class that furnishes the smallest amount of nutrition ; as the process of 
baking tends to the retention of the nutritive qualities of food while it is 
being dressed. In baking fish, generally, the oven employed should be of a 
very moderate heat ; the time is not of so much consequence as tlie 
temperature, so much so tliat fish may be left in a slow oven for hours without 
injury. 

Trout. — Trout are good boiled, broiled, or fried — tliey are also good 
stewed a few minutes, with bits of salt pork, butter, and a little water. 
Trout, as well as all other kinds of fresh water fish, are apt to have an 
earthy taste — to remove it, soak tliem in salt and water a few minutes after 
they are cleaned. 

To Bake a Shad, Rock-Fish, or Bass. — Clean the fish carefully, 
sprinkle it liglitly witii salt and let it lie a few minutes ; then wash it, season 
it sliglitly with caj'enne pepper and salt, and fry it gently a light brown. 
Prepare a seasoning of bread crumbs, pounded mace and cloves, marjoram, 
parsley, cayenne pepper and salt ; stew it over and in the fish ; let it stand 
an hour. Put it in a deep dish, and set it in the oven to bake ; to a large 
fish, put in the disii half pint of water, one pint of wine. Port and Madeira 
mixed, half teacupfuls of mushrooms or tomato ketchup ; to a small 
one allow in proportion the same ingredients ; baste frequently, and garnish 
with sliced lemon. 

Chowder. — Fry three or four slices of pork till brown — cut each of your 
fish into five or six slices, flour, and put a layer of them in your pork fat, 
sprinkle on pepper and a little salt — add cloves, mace, and sliced onions if 
3'ou like — lay on several bits of your fried pork, and crackers previously 
soaked soft in cold water. This process repeat till you get in all tlie fisli, 
tlien turn on water enough to just cover them. Put on a lieated bake pan lid. 
When the fish have stewed about twenty minutes, take tliem up, and mix a 
couple of teaspoonfuls of flour with a little water, and stir it into tiie gravy, 
also, a little butter and pepper. Half a pint of white wine, spices, and 
catsup, will improve it. Bass and cod make the best chowder — black fisli 
and clams make tolerably good ones. The hard part of the clams should 
be cut off, and thrown away. 

Baked Cod. — Cut a large fine piece out of the middle of the fish, and skin 
it carefully ; stuff it with a stuffing composed of the yolks of two eggs boiled 
hard, the roe half-boiled, bread crumbs, grated lemon-peel, butter, pepper, 
and salt to taste. Bind it with the undressed white of an egg, and sew in the 
stuffing with white thread, bake it in a Dutch oven before the fire, turn it 
frequently, and baste it with butter ; serve with shrimp sauce, plain butter, 
or oyster sauce. A tin baking-dish is preferable to any other for cooking 
this fish. 

Cod Scalloped. — Take enough cold dressed cod to nearly fill all the shells 
you purpose using, pound it, beat up the yolk of an egg and pour over it, add 
a few shrimps skinned, salt, pepper, and a little butter ; do not quite fill the 
shells, strew over them fine bread crumbs, and drop butter in a liquid state 
over them. Brown thera before the fire in a Dutch oven. 



92 HOUSEHOLD. 

Tail of a Cod. — Boil as previously directed and when sufficiently done, 
tliat tlie meat may be easily removed from the bones, divide it into mode- 
rate sized pieces, and in a liglit batter fry them brown. Send up crisped 
parsley with it as a garnish. 

It is sometimes cooked plainly with oyster sauce. 

Cod's Head. — Secure it well with strong string, not too thick ; put it into 
a fish-kettle, cover it with water, and put in a small handful of salt, a wine- 
glassful of vinegar, and a quantity of scraped horseradish. Place the fish 
upon a drainer, and when the water boils, put it into the kettle. Boil gentlj^; 
wjien the fish rises to the surface, it is enough ; drain it, and be very parti- 
cular in sliding the fish into the fish-plate that it is not broken. Garnish 
with scr;iped horseradish and lemon. Serve witli shrimp and oyster sauce. 

Cod Fish Pie. — Take a piece from the middle of a good sized fish, salt it 
well all night, then wash it, and season with salt, pepper, and a few grains 
of nutmeg, a little chopped parsley and some oysters, put all in your dish, 
with pieces of butter on the fish ; add a cup of good second white stock and 
cream ; cover it with a good crust, adding a little lemon juice in tlie gravy. 

Curry of Cod. — This a firm fisli if good ; when cold, you can separate 
the flakes, and proceed as before, adding two dozen of large oysters to your 
^6h. 

Salt Cod. — There are a variety of opinions upon the method of dressing 
this dish, many laboring so liard with soaking and brushing, to produce 
tenderness, and accomplisliing that one end at tlie expense of the flavor. It 
is doubtless an essential i>oint to remove the dry unwholesome hardness 
of the fish, but it is equally essential to retain tlie flavor, and experience 
has taught the autlior that the following process is tlie most successful of 
any he has hitiierto attempted : — 

Soak the fish for eiglit hours in clean cold water (not spring water,) let 
the water have enough vinegar in it to impregnate it with a slight flavor 
and no more ; after soaking the above time, take it out and let it drain three 
or four hours, then put it in soak again for four hours ; when this has been 
done, place it in a fish-kettle with plenty of cold soft water, let it come to a 
boil very slowly, place it on the side of the fire, and it will cook gradually 
until enough. Serve with parsnips and egg sauce. 

Fresh Herrings Boiled. — Clean them, wash them over with vinegar, 
fasten the heads to the tails, and put them in boiling water; they will take 
from ten to twelve minutes. Garnish with iiarsley, and serve melted butter, 
in which a tablespoonful of ketchup, a teaspoonful of Chili vinegar and one 
of made mustard has been mixed while making. 

Fresh Hepkings Broiled — To broil them, steep them first in vinegar 
and water into wliich a handful of salt has heen thrown ; let them remain 
ten minutes, then take tliem out and broil them over a clear fire (the bars 
of the gridiron should be rubbed with suet, to prevent the skin of the fish 
adhering to it.) Serve, garnished with parsley. They may bo eaten with 
melted butter, with a little mustard and vinegar in it, or lemon juice instead 
of the latter, being preferable. 

Fresh Herrings Fried. — Slice small onions, and lay in the pan with the 
fish, or fry separately, as judgment may dictate ; serve the fisli with the 
onions laid round them. The herrings are generally fried without the 
onions, but tliose who are partial to this strongly-flavored vegetable will pre- 
fer the addition. 

To Pot Herrings. — Take from one to two dozen herrings, according to 
the number you purpose potting ; choose them as large, fine, and fresh as 
you can. Take two ounces of salt, one of saltpetre, two of allspice, reduce 
them to an inqialpable powder, and rub them well into the herrings ; let 
them remain with the spice upon them eight hours to drain, wipe off the 
spice clean, and lay them on a pan on which the butter has been rubbed ; 
season with nutmeg, mace, pepper, salt, and one clove in powder, one ounce 
each, save the last; lay in two or three bay leaves, cover with butter and 
bake gently three hours. When cool, drain off the liquor, pack the fish in 



HOUSEHOLD. 93 

the pots intenderl for tlieir use ; cover to tlie depth of half an incli with clari- 
fied butter, sufficiently melted just to run, but do not permit it to be hot ; 
they will be reiuly for eating in two days. 

Pike, to boil. — Wash and clean the fish thoroughly ; unless you are very 
particular in this, you will not conquer an earthy taste, which, from a want 
of tlie proper application of the cook's art, too often appears. It is usual to 
stuff it with forcemeat, more for tlie purpose of destroying that peculiarity 
than from any additional flavor or zest it gives the fish. Having cleaned 
well and stuffed with forceme;it, skewer the head to the tail, lay it upon a 
drainer and put it in the fish-kettle, let it have plent}' of water, into winch 
you may throw a handful of salt and a glassful of vinegar ; when it boils, 
remove the scum as fast as it rises ; it will take three quarters of an hour 
dressing, if a tolerable size ; if very large, an hour ; if small, half an hour ; 
serve witli melted butter and lemon sliced or wliole. Anchovy sauce may 
be eaten witli the fish. It is always the best metliod, wliere a variety of 
fancies exist, to send the sauce-cruets to table, and permit every one to 
gratify his peculiar taste. 

Smelts Fried. — Scrape the fish clean, cut off the tails and fins, clean 
and wasli them, then replace the livers; slit them down the sides, flour and 
fry them of a pale brown color ; drain them and sprinkle salt over them ; 
serve them on a napkin. 

Smelts Potted. — Draw out the insides of the fish, season with salt and 
pounded mace and pepper, lay them in a pan with butter on the top, bake 
tliem ; when nearly cold, take them out, lay them u|)on a cloth ; put them 
into pots, clear off the butter from the gravy, clarify, and pour it over 
them. 

New England Chowder. — Have a good haddock, cod, or any other solid 
fish ; cut it in pieces three inches square ; put a pound of fat salt pork in 
strips into the pot, set it on liot coals and fry out tlie oil ; take out the pork 
and put in a layer of fish, over that a layer of onions in slices, then a layer 
of fish, with slips of fat salt pork, and tlien another layer of onions, and so 
on alternately until your fish is consumed ; mix some flour with as much 
water as will fill the pot; season with black pepper, and siut to your taste, 
and boil it for half an hour. Have ready some crackers (Philadelphia pilot 
bread, if you can get it), soaked in water till they are a little softened ; throw 
them into j'our chowder five minutes before you take it up. Serve in a 
tureen. 

Halibut Stewed. — Put in a stewpan half a pint of fish broth, a table- 
spoonful of vinegar, and one of musliroom ketchup ; add an anchovy, two 
good sized onions cut in quarters, a bunch of sweet herbs, and one clove of 
garlic, also add a pint and a half of water, and let it stew an hour and a 
quarter, then strain it off clear, and put into it the head and shoulders of 
a fine halibut and stew until tender; thicken with butter and flour, and 
serve. 

Herrings Baked. — Take off the lieads of the fish ; remove the entrails ; 
wash and dry them with a cloth ; sprinkle them with a seasoning of black 
pepper, cloves, and salt mixed ; tie paper over them ; put them in a pan 
with a few bay leaves, and bake in a moderate oven. They may be eaten 
either hot or cold, and will keep for many months. 

Sturgeon Broiled. — Cut a fine piece of the fish, and skinning it, divide 
it into slices. Beat up three eggs, and dip each of the slices into them; pow- 
der fine bread crumbs mixed with finely-chopped parsley, pepper and salt 
over them, fold them in paper, and broil them, being careful that the fire is 
clear. Send them to table with essence of anchovies and soy, accom- 
panied by cold butter. 

Before You Bake Sturgeon. — Let it lie several hours in salt and water; 
then boil it until the bones can be removed ; pour vinegar over your fish 
and in the water and salt. When done, take it out to cool, tlien egg and 
bread-crumb it, then sprinkle clarified butter over it, place it in a moderate 
hot oven to brown ; make a very thick sauce from your kidneys and good 



94 HOUSEHOLD. 

stock, with a tablespoonful of ess.ence of anchovies, season it with cayenne 
pepper, salt, dust of sugar, juice of lemon, and a glass of wine. 

Trout. — Scale, gut, clean, dr^' and flour, then fry them in butter until 
they are rich clear brown ; fry some green parsley crisp, and make some 
plain melted butter, put in one teaspoonful of essence of anchovy, and one 
glass of white wine; garnish when the trouts are dished, with the crisp pars- 
ley and lemon cut in slices ; tlie butter may be poured over the fish, but 
it is most advisable to send it in a butter tureen. 

Trout Stewed. — This is a pleasing and delicate dish when nicely stewed. 
It is dressed very much in the faslnon of other small fish stewed, only that it 
requires perhaps more care in the different processes. First wash and clean 
the fish, wipe it perfectly dry, put into a stewpan two oimces of butter, 
dredge in flour as it melts, and add grated nutmeg, a little mace, and a little 
cayenne. Stew well, and when fluid and thoroughly mixed, lay in the fisii, 
which having suffered to slightly brown, cover with a pint of veal gravy ; 
tlirow in a little salt, a small faggot of parsley, and a few rings of lemon 
peel ; stew slowly forty minutes, then take out the fish, strain the gravy 
clear, and pour it over the fish. 

Halibut's Head. — Put a pint of wine, a few anchovies, an onion stuck 
with cloves, a bunch of sweet herbs, and some pepper, into a stewpan ; fill 
it nearly with water, and stew it for an hour; then strain it, and put in the 
head of a halibut, stew it till tender; when done enough, thicken the gravy 
with butter and flour, add a little fish-sauce, and serve it up with forcemeat- 
balls made of a part of the fish, pounded, and rolled up witii crumbs of 
bread, thyme, marjoram, and nutmeg, bound together witii the yolk of an 
egg. If the fish has been stewed in plain water, a glass of wine should then 
be added to the sauce. 

To Boil Perch. — First wipe or wash off the slime, then scrape off the 
scales, which adhere rather tenaciously to this fisii ; empty and clean the 
insides perfectly, take out the gills, cut off the fins, and lay the perch into 
equal parts of cold and of boiling water, salted as for mackerel ; from eight 
to ten minutes will boil them unless they are very large. Dish them on a 
napkin, garnish them with curled parsley, and serve melted butter with 
them. 

To Bake Smelts. — Prepare as above, also strew forcemeat over them, 
bread crumbs, and moisten with clarified butter ; mix, in addition to the 
gravy, a glass of Madeira, with a dash of anchovies ; This must be added 
before the smelts are laid in. They will be done in ten minutes. 

Boiled Eel. — Choose tiie smallest, simmer in a small quantity of water, 
into wliich a quantity of parsley has been put. Garnish and serve with 
same sauce as the last. 

Eels Bread-Ckumbed. — Cut your fish the size as before, dry and flour 
them, and proceed as for other fried fish, dishing them on a napkin with 
fried parsley. 

Eels Fried. — Clean and skin the eels, cut off their heads, and divide 
them into pieces tliree or four inches long, and then score across in two or 
three places ; season them with pepper and salt, and dust them in flour, or 
dip them into an egg beaten up, and sprinkle them with finely-grated bread 
crumbs ; fry them in fresli lard or dripping ; let them drain and dry on the 
back of a sieve before the fire ; serve with melted butter and parsley. 

Eels Pickled. — Skin some eels, slit them up the middle, take out the 
bones, and rub the flesh over with salt ; let them lie three days, and turn 
them. every day ; then take them out of the brine, wash them in water, 
and wipe them dry with a cloth ; season them with nutmeg, cloves, mace, 
and a bay leaf ; roll them up, and tie them tightly in a cloth ; boil them 
in an equal quantity of white wine and vinegar ; when they are tender 
take them out of the liquor and set them to cool ; when quite cold put 
them into the same liquor again, and if there is not sufficient liquor, boil 
some more vinegar, white wine, and spices ; put by in jars. 
Eels Potted. — Clean, skin and bone them ; season them well on both 



HOUSEHOLD. ?5 

Sides with pepper, salt and mace; let them lie for six hours; then cut them 
into small pieces, and pack them closely into a dish ; cover them with a 
coarse paste and bake them ; when quite cold remove the paste, and pour 
over them clarified butter. 

Salmon Broiled. — Cut the fish in inch slices from the best part, season 
well with pepper and salt ; wrap eacli slice in white paper, which l:as been 
buttered with fresh butter ; fasten each end by twisting or tying ; broil over 
a very clear fire eight minutes. A coke fire, if kept clear and bright, is 
best. Serve witli butter, anchovy, or tomato sauce. 

Dried Salmon Broiled. — Cut and cook as above, save that when it is 
warmed tlirougli it is enough. Serve plain, if for breakfast, or with egg 
sauce, if for dinner. 

Salmon Eoasted. — Take a large piece of the middle of a very fine 
salmon, dredge well with flour, and while roasting baste it with butter. 
Serve, garnished witli lemon. 

Stewed Salmon. — Scrape the scales clean off, cut it in slices, stew them 
in rich white gravy, add, immediately previous to serving, one tablespoon- 
ful of essence of anchovies, a little parsley, chopped very fine, and a pinch 
of salt. 

Cod, Salt Boiled. — Before cooking, soak it for some hours in cold 
water, and then boil it gently imtil it is tender. It is usually eaten with 
melted butter and egg sauce, and served with boiled parsnips. 

Cod Broiled. — Having well cleaned the fisli, cut it into slices of about 
an inch thick ; dry them well witli a clean cloth, then rub them with thick 
melted butter, and sprinkle a little salt over them. Place them on a grid- 
iron over a clear fire, and when one side is done, turn tiiem carefully to 
broil the other. Serve with melted butter and anchovy sauce. 

Cod Crijiped. — Cut a fresh cod into slices, lay them for three hours in 
salt and water, with a glass of vinegar added ; the fish may then be either 
boiled, broiled, or fried. 

Cod Curried. — Slices of cold cod may be dressed in this way. Fry the 
slices with sliced onions in butter, then stew them in white gravy thickened 
with a dessertspoonful of curry powder and a teacupful of cream. 

Cod Fried. — Cut the middle or tail of the fish into slices an inch thick, 
season them with salt and pepper, and fry them of a light brown on both 
sides ; drain them on a sieve before the fire, and serve them on a well- 
heated napkin with plenty of crisped parsley round them. Serve with 
melted butter and anchovy sauce. 

Cod Pie. — Take dressed cod and cold oyster sauce ; put a little of the 
sauce at the bottom of a pie-dish, then a layer of flakes of cod, with a little 
of the liver cut in small pieces; season with pej)per, salt, and nutmeg; 
repeat the laj^ers until the dish is full, cover it with bread crumbs and 
pieces of fresh butter ; bake for three-quarters of an hour, and let the top 
be quite brown. A couple of sounds well soaked, boiled tender, and cut in 
small pieces, are a great improvement. 

Matelote of Fish. — Make a matelote sauce by tossing in butter in a 
stewpan over the fire, some small onions and button mushrooms, dredge in 
some flour, add a bunch of herbs, moisten with wine, and when the whole 
is hot, put in your cold fish, rewarm it quickly, and when sent to table, 
sprinkle it with a little brandy. 

Croquettes of Cold Fish. — The flesh of cold fish being nicely boned, 
mince it fine ; season it highly with herbs, spices, &c. ; moisten it with a 
little white sauce ; add bread crumbs soaked in beaten yolk of egg ; form 
this mixture into cakes, and fry them till browned. 

Fish Warmed a la Tartare. — Bone and trim pieces of cold fish, soak 
them in olive oil, then dip them in egg and bread crumbs, broil them quickly, 
and serve them upon a Tartar sauce highly seasoned. 

CuRRT OF Cold Fish. — This is one of the most excellent ways of warm- 
ing cold fish ; bone, skin, and cut up the large kinds, and do the smaller 
sorts in rather thick cutlets or whole ; put into a stewpan, a good lump of 



96 HOUSEHOLD. 

butter aiul a tablespoonful each of cliopped pickles and preserved tomatoes , 
when these are hot add a tablespoonful of curry which you have mixed 
with half a pint of nulk or cream and the beaten yolks of two eggs; make 
tiie whole quite hot, heing careful to stir it gentl}' ; add the fish, and when 
this has become hut, serve all together, with a good rim of boiled rice round 
the dish, and the juice of half a lemon squeezed over. 

Omelette of Cold Fish. — The cold flesh of any kind of fish answers 
admirahly for omelettes. Cut the boned fish pretty small, season it well, 
and to each tahlespoonful allow two eggs ; beat and strain the latter, and 
either mix the fish and eggs togetiier before frying the omelette, or first put 
the fish into a hot buttered frj'ingpan, and when sligiitly browned pour the 
eggs over it ; do not stir or turn the omelette while it is being dressed; a 
few teaspoonf uls of milk or anchovy liquor, &c., may be beaten in with the 
eggs. Fold the omelette properly to send to table. 

Hashed Fish. — Make a sauce by putting together in a saucepan over 
the fire, some white wine, butter rolled in flour, shred shallot, grated lemon 
rind, chopped anchovy, and enougii water to moisten with ; when this is 
quite hot, place in it sufficient boned and sliced fish ; keep the whole closely 
covered over the fire until it is made perfectly hot. Tiie flesii of shellfish 
is excellent warmed up in this way. Herbs may be introduced at dis- 
cretion. 

Hot Lobster or Crab. — Take the meat out of the main shell of the fish, 
divest it of the uneatable parts, and mix the remainder with a little shred 
anchovy, olive oil, lemon juice, and what seasoning you may fancy. Place 
the mixture in the shell, well butter it outside, and bake or broil until 
thoroughly hot. Serve with dry toast and crisp parsley. 

Branade de Poisson. — Finely mmce and mash some cold boiled fish ; 
melt some fresh butter in a stewpan, add to it a little shred parsley and a 
bruised garlic ; put in the fish, stir well graduallj^, while you are stirring 
drop in upon the fish enough olive oil to give the wliole the consistence of 
thick cream sauce ; reduce it somewhat, add pepper, and serve it in a dish 
garnished with sippets of toast and fine prawns or crayfish. 

Fish Fried in Batter. — Good-sized pieces cut from the larger kinds of 
cold fisli are usually warmed up, by first dipping them into a thick batter, 
and afterwards frying them in plenty of oil, lard, or friture. When they 
are well browned on the outside, drain, and serve hot. Salt cod is particu- 
larly nice done in this way for breakfast. 

Fish Chowder. — Fry a few slices of salt pork, dress and cut the fish in 
small pieces, pare and slice the potatoes and onions, then place them in the 
kettle, a layer of fish, then of the fried pork, potatoes, onions, &c., season- 
ing each layer with salt and pepper. Stew over a slow fire 30 minutes. 

Soft Shell Crabs. — Take one dozen fine, fresh, live crabs, wash well 
in cold water, then dry well; have six eggs well beaten, plenty of pepper 
and salt ; have one pound of good butter crackers pounded and well sifted, 
so that there will be no lumps in them ; dip the crabs in the eggs and then 
roll in the crackers, and have one pound of good fresh butter in frying-pan ; 
let it come to a good scorching heat, put the crabs in and fry to a light 
brown ; have them dry ; served hot. It is much looked for in the season 
by our guests. 

To Dress Crabs Cold. — Open the crabs, take out all the flesh and 
fat, and the white meat from the claws ; mix the meat well with half table- 
spoonful mustard, one half spoonful vinegar and half tablespoonful white 
pepper, and a pinch of cayenne. Then wash and clean the shells, fill with the 
meat thus prepared, and serve. Garnish with parsley. This is only the 
dressing for two crabs. It takes the meat of two crabs to fill one shell 
when prepared in this manner. Many use a larger proportion of seasoning, 
but this is quite sharp enough for most people. We think they are much 
better plain with no dressing, but this is a matter of taste. 

Crab Minced. — Extract the meat from the shell, mince small, and 
place it ill a saucepan with a gill of white wine, pepper, salt, nutmeg. 



HOUSEHOLD. 97 

cayenne pfepper, and two tablespoon fuls of vinegar; stew it for ten 
minutes ; melt two ounces of butter witli an ancliovy and tlie yolks of two 
eggs ; mix the wliole well together, and thicken with stale bread crumbs ; 
garnish with strips of thin toast and sprigs of parsley. 

Crab Potted. — Cut the meat of a crab, parboiled, into small pieces; 
put a layer of these into a potting can, or any deep tin dish ; sprinkle salt, 
pepper, cayenne, and pounded mace over; add a layer of the spawn and 
coral, then a layer of the cut meat, and so on, till all is used ; press it 
down, pour melted butter over it, and let it stand for half an hour in a 
slow oven ; take it out, leave it to cool, and then remove the butter, and 
turn the meat into small pots ; pour clarified butter over them, and put by 
for use. 

To Dress Crabs. — Scoop the meat from the sliell, mix the meat into a 
paste with a little vinegar, bread crumbs, grated nutmeg, and a little but- 
ter, or sweet oil ; return it into the shell, and serve. To serve tliis hot, it 
should be heated before the fire, and served up with dry toast cut into large 
squares or dice. 

Baked Crabs. — Remove the meat from the shell, mix it with bread 
crumbs — about one-fourth will be sufficient; add white pepper, salt, a little 
cayenne, grated nutmeg, and half a dozen small lumps of butter, each about 
tlie size of a nut ; this last ingredient should be added to the fish, after it 
has been returned to the shell. Squeeze lemon juice over it; lay a thick 
coat of bread crumbs over all, and bake. 

Lobster Salad. — Take inside of large lobster, mince fine ; take yolk of 
2 eggs boiled hard and mashed fine, with four tablespoonfuls of sweet oil ; 
pepper, salt, vinegar, and mustard to taste ; mix well ; add celery or lettuce 
to taste ; then when serving, garnish with hard-boiled eggs. 

Boiled Crabs. — Boil them in water and salt twenty-five minutes, take 
out, break claws, and wipe clean ; put large claws on plates, cracked, and 
sent to table buttered on shell, with sweet oil to beautifj' them. 

Lobsters, to Boil. — Set over the fire a sauce-pan containing water salt- 
ed in the proportion of a tablespoonf ul of salt to a quart of water ; when 
the water boils, put the lobster in, and keep boiling briskly from half an 
hour to an hour according to the size of the fish ; then take the lobster out, 
wipe all scum from it, and rub the shell with a very little oil or butter, to 
give it a gloss. 

Lobsters, to Choose — As a rule, it is better to buy lobsters alive. 
Choose those which are heavy and lively, and full of motion, which is an 
index of their health and freshness. Those of middle size are the best. 
Always reject them when the shell is encrusted, this being an infallible 
sign that they are old. The hen lobster is distinguished from the male by 
having a broader tail and less claws. When boited, the tail of the lobster 
preserve its elasticity if fresh, but loses it as soon as it becomes stale. 
The heaviest lobsters are the best; and when they are light and watery, 
they are unfit for eating. 

Lobster Sauce. — Choose a lobster that is well filled with spawn ; 
pull the flesh to pieces with a fork, and bruise it with the spawn with the 
back of a spoon ; break the shell, and boil it in a little water to extract its 
oloring matter; strain it off; melt some butter very smoothly on it, with 
a little horseradish ; after a few moments, take out the horseradish, mix the 
Dody of the lobster well with the butter; then add the flesh, and give it a 
joil, either with ketchup, or gravy, or butter. 

Lobster Stewed. — Extract from tiie shells of two lobsters, previously 
.oiled, all of tlie meat; take two-thirds of a quart of water, and stew the 
shells in it, with mace, unground pepper, and salt. Let it boil an hour or 
more, till you have obtained all that is to be got from them ; then strain. 
Add the richest portions of the lobster, and some of the best of the firm 
meat, to some thin melted butter ; squeeze a little lemon juice into it, add 
» tablespoonful of Madeira, pour this into the gravy, and when warmed it 
js ready to serve. 

5 



98 HOUSEHOLD. 

Lobster Butter. — The hen lobster sliould be selected, on account of 
the coral, take out the meat ami spawn, ami bruise it in a' mortar ; add to 
it a teaspoonful of white wine, season with jiejiper, salt, nutmeg, and a little 
grated lemon peel; add four ounces of butter, slightly dusted over with 
flour. Work this well together, and rub it through a hair sieve. It should 
be kept in a cool place till ready to serve. 

To Roast Lobsters. — Take a live lobster, half boil it, take it from the 
kettle in which it is boiling, dry it with a cloth, and while hot, rub it over 
with butter, and set it before a good fire, basting it with butter ; when it 
produces a fine froth, it is done. Serve with melted butter. 

Mackerel. — Clean the fish thoroughly, remove the roe, steep it in 
vinegar and water, and replace it ; place the fish in water from which the 
chill has been taken, and boil very slowly from fifteen to twenty minutes ; 
the best criterion is the starting of the eyes and splitting of the tail — when 
that takes place, the fish is done ; take it out instantly, or you will not pre- 
serve it whole. Garnisli with parsley, and chopped parsley in melted but- 
ter, serve np as sauce. 

To Bake IVLvckerel. — Open and clean thoroughly, wipe very dry, 
pepper and salt the inside, and put in a stuffing composed of powdered 
bread crumbs, the roe chopped small, parsley, and sweet herbs, but very 
few of the latter, work these together with the yolk of an egg, pepper and 
salt to taste, and sew it in the fish ; then place the latter in a deep baking 
dish, and dredge it with flour slightly, adding a little cold butter in small 
pieces, jmt the fish into an oven, and twenty-eight or thirty minutes will suf- 
fice to cook them. Send them in a hot dish to table, with parsley and butter. 

Oysters, Dietetic Properties of. — Few articles of food are more 
nourishing and digestible than the oyster when eaten raw or slightly 
cooked; with some persons, however, oysters even in a raw state disagree; 
in this case, each oyster should be dipped before it is eaten in a sauce 
composed of vinegar, pepper, and shallots or mild onions, chopped fine. 
Oysters shoulil be eaten the moment they are opened, for if not eaten 
wiien absolutely alive their flavor and spirit are lost. When too many 
03'sters have been incautiously eaten and are felt lying cold and heavy 
on the stomach, an infallible remedy will be found in hot milk, of 
wliich half a pint may be drunk, and it will quickly dissolve the oysters 
into a bland, creamy jelly. Weak and consimiptive persons should always 
take this after their meal of oysters. The drinking of wine or spirits 
immediately after eating 03^sters is injudicious, and calculated to make 
the oysters disagree. The best beverage is porter or stout. Oysters are 
especially well ailapted for supper, on account of their digestible proper- 
ties, but in order to afford the greatest amount of nutriment thej' should 
be taken fasting. 

Oysters Broiled. — Take them from the shells, beard them, and put 
them with their liquor into scollop tins with a little pepper and butter ; 
put the shells upon a gridiron over a good fire, and serve them when 
])lump and quite hot; squeeze a little lemon juice over them as they come 
from the fire. To be had to perfection, they should be cooked in the room 
in which they are eaten. 

To Fry Oysters. — Take those that are large, dip them in beaten eggs, 
and then in flour, or fine bread crumbs — fry them in lard, till of a light 
brown. They are a nice garnish for fish. They will keep good for several 
months if fried when first caught, salted and peppered, then put into a 
bottle, and corked tight. Whenever they are to be eaten, warrp them in a 
little water. 

Stewed Oysters. — Strain the oyster liquor, rinse the bits of shells ofiE 
the oysters, then turn the liquor back on to the oysters, and put them in a 
stew pan — set them where they will boil up, then turn them on to buttered 
toast — salt, pepper, and butter them to your taste. Some cooks add a little 
walnut catsup, or vinegar. The oysters should not be cooked till just be 
fore they are to be eaten. 



HOUSEHOLD. 99 

Oyster Pancakes. — Mix equal quantities of milk and oyster juice to- 
gether. To a pint of the liquor when mixed, put a pint of wlieat flour, a 
few oysters, a eouple of eggs, and a little salt. Drop Ly the large spoon- 
ful in hot lard. 

Roast Oysters. — Large oysters not opened, a few minutes before they 
are wanted, put them on a gridiron over a moderate fiie. Wlien done tliey 
will open ; do not lose the liquor that is in the shell with the oysters ; serve 
them hot upon a napkin. 

Oyster Pickle. — Open the 03'sters very carefully and remove every 
particle of shell adhering to the fish ; put the oysters into a little water, 
wash them in it, and strain the liquor; boil it witli a little vinegar, whole 

fepper, salt, and mace, till it tastes of the spices ; tlien put in the oysters- 
f they are large they must boil for eight minutes, if small, not so long. 
Put them into pickle jars, and when the liquor is cold, pour it upon the oys- 
ters. To four dozen oysters put six spoonfuls of water and four of very 
good vinegar, tie tlie jars securely down with bladder. 

Oyster Fritters. — Beard, dip them into an omelette, sprinkle well with 
crumbs of bread, and fry them brown. 

Scalloped Oysters. — Beard the oysters, wash in their own liquor, steep 
bread crumbs in the latter, put them with the oysters into scallop shells, 
with a bit of butter, and seasoning of salt, pepper, and a little grated nut- 
meg ; make a paste with bread crumbs and butter ; cover, and roast them 
before tlie fire, or in an oven. 

Scallops. — Are nice boiled, and then fried, or boiled and pickled, in 
the same manner as oysters. Take them out of the shells — when boiled, 
pick out the hearts, and throw the rest away as the heart is the only part 
that is healthy to eat. Dip the hearts in flour, and fry them in lard till 
brown. Hearts are good stewed, with a little water, butter, salt, and pepper. 

Potato Soup. — Put three pounds of shin of beef or any scraps of meat 
or poultry or bones 3'ou may have, with a small slice of ham or bacon, in a 
saucepan, with three quarts of cold water, some salt, some whole peppers, 
two onions, one carrot, one-half turnip, half a leek, some celery tops, and 
two sprigs of parsley, and let it simmer slowly for three or four hours, skim- 
ming occasionally ; tlien add eight or ten raw, peeled potatoes and when 
they are perfectly tender mash it all through a colander. Put it back on 
the fire, and when boiling, add a small tablespoonful of flour, wet with cold 
water. Let it boil a few minutes, and then strain through a sieve. This 
makes a delicious, smooth, rich soup. 

Rabbit Soup. — Take two full-grown or three young rabbits ; cut them 
into joints, flour, and fry them lightly ; add to them three onions of mod- 
erate size, also fried to a clear brown ; on these pour gradually seven pints 
of boiling water, throw in a large teaspoonful of salt, clear off all the scum 
carefully as it rises, and then put to the soup a bunch of parsley, four 
medium-sized carrots, and a small teaspoonful of peppercorns ; boil the 
whole very gently for five hours or five hours and a half; add more salt if 
needed, strain off the soup, let it cool sufficiently for the fat to be skimmed 
clear from it, heat it afresh, and send it to table with sippets of fried 
bread ; add a thickening of rice flour or of wheaten flour browned in the 
oven and mixed with a spoonful or two of ketchup. 

Game Soup. — Break the bones of cold cooked game, and cut the meat 
in pieces ; boil the bones and meat in broth for an hour or more, then 
thicken the soup with the yolks of eggs and with boiled cream, and season 
according to taste. Care must be taken not to boil the soup after the eggs 
are mixed in it, or it will curdle. 

Gravy — Clear. — Slice some beef thinly, broil a part of it over a clear, 
quick fire, just enough to give color to the gravy, but not to dress it ; put 
this with the raw remainder into a tinned stewpan with a couple of onions, 
one or two cloves, a whole black pepper, berries of allspice, and a few 
sweet herbs ; cover it with hot water, give it one boil, and skim it two or 
three times, then cover it, and let it simmer till quite strong. 



100 HOUSEHOLD. 

Pea Soup. — Beef 5 lbs., water 5 qts., 6 large carrots, 6 good turnips, 3 
large onions, salt sufficient, put it on a good slow fire, let it boil tliree hours, 
then strain all the brotli from meat and vegetables, and then add 3 lbs. of 
split peas to the brotli ; set it on a slow fire for 2 hours, stirring often, so 
that all tiie peas will dissolve ; take 1 lb. fresh sausage meat, fried to a crisp, 
and fried bread crumbs; put altogether, add a few fine herbs, and serve hot. 

Oyster Soup. — Separate the oysters from the liquor; to each quart of 
tlie liquor, put a pint of milk or water set it on the fire witli tiie oysters. 
Mix a heaping tablespoonful of flour witli a little water, anil stir it into the 
liquor as soon as it boils. Season it witli salt, pepper, and a little walnut, 
or butternut vinegar, if you have it, if not, common vinegar may be sub- 
stituted. Put in a small lump of butter, and turn it as soon as it boils up 
again on to buttered toast, cut into small pieces. 

Scotch Bkoth. — Take four pounds of mutton (part of the leg is best), 
add one gallon of water, one teacupful of pearl barley, two carrots sliced, 
two turnips sliced, two onions cut small, three carrots grated, the white 
part of a large cabbage, eliopped very small, and a small quantity of pars- 
ley. Season with salt and pepper. Let this boil very gently for three 
hours and a half, and at the dinner-table it will most likely, by all who are 
fond of soups, be pronounced excellent. 

Vegetable Soup. — Pare and slice five or six cucumbers ; and add to 
these the insides of as many lettuces, a sprig or two of young peas, and a 
little parsley. Put tliese witii half a pound of fresh butter, into a saucepan, 
to stew in their own liquor, near a gentle fire, half an hour ; then pour two 
quarts of boiling water to tlie vegetables, and stew them for two hours ; rub 
down a little fiour into a teacupful of water, boil it with the remainder of 
the ingredients for fifteen or twenty minutes, and serve it. 

Vermicelli Soup. — Take three quarts of common stock and one of 
the gravy, mixed together ; put a quarter of a pound of vermicelli, 
blanched in two quarts of water, into the soup, boil it up for ten minutes, 
and season it witli salt if requisite ; put it in a tureen with a crust of Trench 
roll baked. 

Mock Turtle Soup. — Procure a fresh calf's head with tlie skin on, take 
out the brains, wash tlie iiead several times in cold water, let it soak for 
about an hour in spring water, then lay it in a stewpan, and cover it with 
cold water, and half a gallon besides ; remove the scum as it rises ; let it 
boil gently for an liour, take it up, and when almost cold, cut the head in- 
to pieces about an inch and a half b}' an inch and a quarter, and tlie tongue 
into smaller pieces. When the head is taken out, put in the stock meat, 
about five pounds 'of knuckle of veal and as much beef ; add to the stock all 
the trimmings and bones of the head, skim it well, and then cover it close, 
and let it boil for five hours ; then strain it off and suffer it to stand till 
next morning, then take off the fat, set a large stewpan over the fire with 
half a pound of fresh butter, twelve ounces of onion sliced, and four ounces 
of green sage ; let them fry for an hour, then rub in half a pound of flour, 
and by degrees add the broth until the mixture is of the consistence of 
cream, season it with a quarter of a pound of ground allspice and half an 
ounce of black pepper ground very fine ; add salt to taste, and the rind of 
a lemon thinly pared ; let it simmer very gently for an hour and a half, 
then strain it through a hair-sieve ; do not rub the soup to hasten it through 
the sieve ; if it does not run easily, knock the wooden spoon against the 
side of the sieve ; put it into a clean stewpan with the head, and season it 
by adding to each gallon of soup half a pint of white wine and two table- 
spoonfuls of lemon-juice ; let it simmer gently till the meat is tender, which 
will be in about three-quarters of an hour; take care that it is not over- 
done ; stir it frequently, to prevent the meat sticking to the bottom of the 
stewpan. When the meat is quite tender, the soup is ready. 

Beef or Black Soup. — The shank of beef is the best part for soup — cold 
roast beef bones, and beef steak, make very good soup. Boil tlie shank four 
or five hours in water, enough to cover it. Half an hour before the soup is 



nOUSEHOLD. 101 

put on tlie table, take up tlie meat, thicken the soup with scorched flour, 
mixed with cold water, season it with salt, pepper, cloves, mace, a little 
walnut, or tomato catsup improves it, put in sweet iierbs or herb spirit if 
you like. Some cooks boil onions in the soup, but as they are very dis- 
agreeable to many persons, it is better to boil and serve them up in a dish 
by themselves. Make forcemeat balls of part of the beef and pork, season 
them with mace, cloves, pepper, and salt, and boil them in the soup fifteen 
minutes. 

Calf's Head Soup. — Parboil a calf's head, take off the skin and cut it 
into pieces of about an inch and a half square; mince the fleshy part into 
smaller pieces ; take out the back part of the eyes, and cut the remainder 
into rings ; skin the tongue, and cut it into slices ; turn the whole into 
three quarts of good stock, and season witii cayenne pepper, two or three 
blades of mace, and salt; add the peel of lialf a lemon, half a pint of white 
wine, and a dozen forcemeat balls ; stew the whole for an hour and a half. 
Rub down two tablespoonfuls pf flour with a little cold water, mix it well 
with half a pint of tlie soup, and then stir it into the pot ; add the juice of 
half a lemon, and the yolks of eight eggs, hard boiled ; let it simmer for ten 
minutes and serve in a tureen. 

Soup Herb Spirit. — Those who like a variety of herbs in soup will 
find it very convenient to liave the following mixture : Take, when in tlieir 
prime, thyme, sweet marjoram, sweet basil, and summer savory. AVhen 
tlioroughly dried pound and sift them. Steep them in brandy for a fort- 
night ; the spirit will then be fit for use. 

Chicken Broth. — Joint a chicken, wash the pieces, put them into a stew- 
pan with three pints of water, and add two ounces of rice, two or three 
blades of mace, some white pepper whole, and a pinch of salt ; let it come 
to a boil, skim frequently, and simmer for three hours ; boil for five minutes 
in the soup some vermicelli, and serve with it in the soup. 

Sheep's Head Broth. — Split the sheep's head, and well wash it, take 
out the brains, let the head soak for an hour in cold water ; boil three-quar- 
ters of a pound of Scotch barley in eight quarts of water, and when it boils, 
put in the head with a neck of mutton ; slice carrots thin, and cut turnips 
small and add them with some salt ; let it boil for three hours, and skim 
witli care and frequencj'. When it has boiled two hours and a half add 
some onions chopped very fine. In warming up this soup it must be stirred 
gently over a clear fire, and allowed to boil no longer than three minutes. 

Mulligatawny Soup. — A calf's head divided, well cleaned, and placed 
with a cow-heel in a well-tinned saucepan ; boil them till tender, let them 
cool, cut the meat from the bones in slices, and fry them in butter; stew 
the bones of the head and heel for some hours ; when well stewed, strain, 
let it get cold and remove the fat. When this is accomjilislied, cut four 
onions in slices, flour them, fry them in butter until brown, adi] a table- 
spoonful and a half of best curry powder obtainable, cayenne pepper one 
tea spoonful, with a little salt ; turmeric powder sufficient to fill a dessert- 
spoon is sometimes added, but the improvement is not manifest to a refined 
palate, the curry powder being deemed all that is necessary ; add these 
last ingredients to the soup, boil gently for about an hour and a half, then 
add two dessert-spoonfuls of Harvey's sauce, and serve. 

Beef Gravy. — Take three pounds of beef steak, a knuckle of veal, five 
carrots, six onions, two cloves, two bay leaves, a buncli of parsley, and seal- 
lions ; put all these into a stew pan, with two ladlefuls of broth, and set 
them over a good fire to reduce them, cover the stove, and let the stewpan 
stand over it nntil the meat begins to give out the gravy, and adheres 
slightly ; the jelly at the bottom of the stewpan ouglit to be nearly black, 
and wJien that is the case, take it from the stove, and let it stand for ten 
minutes ; then fill the stewjian with good broth or v.'ater (if the latter, not so 
large a quantity), let this simmer for three liours, skim and season it well ; 
if water is used instead of broth, the gravy must be strained first. 

Gravy Soup. — Take a leg of beef, well-wash and soak it, break the 



102 HOUSEHOLD. 

bone, put it into a saucepan with a gallon of water, a large bunch of sweet 
lierhs, two large onions sliced and fried to a nice brown, taking great care 
they are not burnt, two blades of mace, three cloves, twenty berries of all- 
spice, and forty of black pepper, and stew till the soup is as ricli as you wish 
it to be, tlien take out the meat ; when it is cold, take off tlie fat, heat the 
soup witli vermicelli, and the nicest part of a head of celery boiled and cut to 
pieces, cayenne, and a little salt; carrot may be added, with turnip cut up 
into small pieces, and boiled with spinach and endive, or the herbs without 
the vermicelli, or vermicelli only ; add also a large spoonful of so}'^, and one 
of mushroom ketchup ; a French roll should be made hot and put into the 
soup. 

Venison Soup. — Take four pounds of freshly-killed venison cut off from 
tlie bones, and one pound of ham in small slices. Add an onion minced, and 
black pepper to your taste. Put only as much water as will cover it, and 
stew it gently for an hour, keeping tlie pot closely covered. Skim it well, 
and pour in a quart of boiling water. Add. a head of celery cut small, and 
three blades of mace. Boil it gently two hours and a half ; then put in a 
quarter of a jiound of butter, cut small and rolled in flour, and half-pint of 
Port, or Madeira. Let it boil a quarter of an hour longer, and send it to the 
table with the meat in it. 

Blood or Veal Gravy. — Put a few slices of ham into a thick stewpan, 
and lay over it some slices of lean veal, half cover the meat with jelly stock, 
stew it over a brisk fire, taking care that it does not burn ; when the broth 
is reduced, thrust a knife into the meat so that the gravy may run out, 
then stew it more gently till brown, and turn the meat frequently ; when of 
dark red color, moisten with hot stock, season with shred mushrooms, pars- 
ley, and green onions ; when it lias boiled an hour, skim and strain it through 
a tammy to clarif}' for use. 

Veal Broth. — Stew a knuckle of veal ; draw gravy as for stock, add 
four quarts of water, with celery, parsley, and an onion ; simmer till re- 
duced to half, then add two or three ounces of rice, but not imtil the soup is 
nearly cooked, so that when served the rice may be no more th.an done. 
Vermicelli may be used in preference, or for change. 

Mutton Broth. — Three pounds of scrag of mutton, put into two quarts 
of cold water, add onion, turnips, pepper, and salt, a few sweet herbs, and a 
little pearl barley ; skim well, and boil four hours. These ingredients chiefly 
de[)end upon whether the dish is made for an invalid ; if so, the omission of 
any of the ingredients will be regulated according to the advice of the med- 
ical attendant. 

White Porta'ble Soup. — Procure as fine a leg of veal as can be ob- 
tained, bone it, remove the whole of the skin and fat, chop in pieces two 
dozen fowls' feet, wash them well, put them into a large iron kettle with 
tliree gallons of water, and stew until the meat is tender enough to separate, 
then cover down close and stew for eight hours ; take a tea-cup and fill it 
with the soup, set it where it can quickly cool, if when cold it is hard 
enough to cut with a knife, strain through a sieve and remove all the fat, 
pour into cups the clear jelly, and put them into a stewpan with boiling 
water until they are like glue ; let them cool ; and when nearly cold, run a 
ring round them and turn them on to a piece of new flannel ; it will draw all 
the moisture out of them : turn them in seven hours, and continue until 
they are very hard ; put them in tin canisters in a dry place. When any 
is required, cut a piece about the size of a walnut, pour a pint of boiling 
water upon it, stir until the soup is dissolved, and season with salt, it will 
make a basin of strong broth ; if for soup, steep some vermicelli in water, 
and boil it ; then to one cake of the soup pour one pint of water ; if two 
quarts or four pints of soup are required, take four cakes of the soup, and 
when melted, set it over the fire and simmer; pour it into a soup tureen, 
add thin slices of bread very lightly toasted, and upon them the vermicelli, 
season to palate. 

Calves' Tail Soup. — Get three calves' tails, let them be cut in joints, 



HOUSEHOLD. 103 

and, after bleaching, put them into some good white stock, and stew lliem 
well for several liours. 

Lambs' Tail Soup. — Four lambs' tails, cut in joints, will make this 
soup, proceeding the same way as the former, leaving out sweet herbs ; 
add cream, as to the former, and one glass of white wine. 

Mutton Soup. — Cut a neck of mutton into four pieces, and put it aside, 
then take a slice of the gammon of bacon and put it in a saucepan with a 
quart of peas and enough water to boil them; let the peas boil to a pulp; 
then strain them through a cloth, and put them aside ; add enough water 
to that in which the bacon is to boil the mutton, slice three turnips, as many 
carrots, and boil for an hour slowly, adding sweet herbs, onions, cabbage, 
and lettuces chopped small ; then stew a quarter of an hour longer, suffi- 
cient to cook the mutton, then take it out, and take some fresh green 
peas, add them, with some chopped parsley and the peas first boiled, to the 
soup, put in a lump of butter rolled in flour, and stew till the green peas 
are done. 

Lamb Soup. — May be cooked as mutton, save that beef may be substi- 
tuted for the bacon. 

Leg of Beef Broth. — Take a leg of beef, break the bone in several 
places, place it in a pan with a gallon of water, remove the scum as it rises, 
and add three blades of mace, a crust of bread, and a small pinch of pars- 
ley ; boil till the beef is tender ; toast some bread, cut it in diamonds, 
lay it in the bottom of the tureen, put the meat on it, and pour the broth 
over all. 

Maccaroni Soup. — After you have blanched it, cut some pipe macca- 
roni, about an inch long ; do not boil it too much ; it will take longer than 
vermicelli ; keep the pieces in cold water until you require them for your 
soup, when you will strain them off, and add to your consomme ; season for 
Italian soup ; send up on a small plate or dish, on a napkin, some grated Par- 
mesan cheese. 

Maccaroni Soup.— Take a given weight of maccaroni in proportion to 
the quantity of soup required (say one pound), and boil it in a quart of 
white stock until it is tender; then take out one-half, and keep the other 
boiling until it is reduced to a pulp. Add sufficient stock until the whole, 
with half a pint of cream, boiling, make five pints ; grate eight ounces of 
Parmesan cheese, and add the half of the maccaroni which had only been 
boiled tender, warm it without boiling, and serve with toast. 

CuERY Soup. — Cut the meat from an ox-cheek, and soak it well, then 
put it in a stewpan, with four onions cut in slices, and a bunch of potherbs ; 
add three quarts of water ; remove the scum frcquentl)^ and strain ; add 
also half a pound of soaked rice, one teaspoonful of curry-powder, a little 
pepper and salt, and stew four hours. 

Ox Tail. — One tail will do for a tureen of soup ; cut it into joints, — 
your butcher will cut it for you ; blanch it a few minutes in water, then add 
some good clear second stock to the pieces, and let them gently boil until 
tender ; skim off all grease from them ; add sufficient consomme stock, also 
add exactly the same roots as for saute soup, in shape and size similar to the 
roots you woidd cut for a haricot, and use small button onions instead of 
cut onions ; season as before ; dish the pieces of tail into the soup tureen 
with a large ragout spoon, or you will smash them. 

Hare Soup. — An old hare is fitted only for soup or jugging. To render 
it into soup let it be cleaned, cut into pieces, and add a pound and a half or 
two pounds of beef, to which tliere is little or no fat ; place it at the bottom 
of the pan, then add two or three slices of ham or bacon, or a little of both, 
a couple of onions, and some sweet herbs ; add four quarts of boiling water, 
let it stew to shreds, strain off the soup, and take away the fat ; reboil it, 
add a spoonful of soy or Harvey's sauce, and send to table with a few force- 
meat balls. 

Partridge Soup. — When you have a brace of partridges which prove 
to be remarkably old, convert them into soup ; skin and cut them up, cut a 



104 HOUSEHOLD. 

liandsonie slice of liam as lean as possible, and divide it into four, or cut a« 
many thin slices, put tlieni into the pan, add the partridges with an onion 
sliced, some celery, and four ounces of butter, brown nicely without burn- 
ing, put them into the stewpan with three pints of water, throw in a few 
white peppers whole, a shank of mutton, salt it to palate, strain, add 
stewed celery, fried bread, and, previous to its boiling skim very clean, and 
serve up. 

Eel Soup. — Take any number of pounds of eels according to the quan- 
tit3' required ; add two-thirds water. If about tliree or four pounds of eels 
add one onion, a small quantity of mace, a little pepper whole, sweet herbs, 
a crust of the top side of bread, cover down close, and stew till the fish 
separates, then strain. Toast slices of bread deep brown, but not to burn, 
and cut into triangular pieces or squares a piece of carrot, two inches long, 
cut into four slices lengthways, put into a tureen with the toast, and pour 
the soup on ; boiling cream may be added, thickened with a little flour, but 
it should be rich enough without it. 

Cabbage Sodp. — Take four or six pounds of beef, boil with it some 
black pej)per wliole for three hours, cut three or four cabbages in quarters, 
let them boil until they are quite tender, then turn them into a dish and 
serve all together. 

Carrot Soup. — Take a proportionate number of carrots to the quantity 
of soup to bo made — if a small quantity, six will do ; they should be large 
and of a rich color ; cut them after being thoroughly scraped into thin 
slices, stew them in some ricli stock, say two quarts, until they are tender 
through, then force them through a sieve or tammy with a wooden spoon, 
until a red pulp is deposited, reboil it with the stock imtil it is rich and 
thick, and season with grated white sugar, cayenne pepper and salt. 

Celery Soup.— Stew fine white celery cut into small slips in gravy, 
then boil it in good gravy. 

Herb Soup. — Slice three large but young cucumbers, a handful of spring 
onions, and six lettuces ; cut the last small. Put into a stewpan eight ounces 
of butter, and witli it the above vegetables ; when the butter has melted, 
cover, and let it stand over a slow fire an hour and twenty minutes. Add 
as much stock as may be required for the quantity of soup intended to be 
served ; let it boil and simmer for an hour, then thicken with flour and but- 
ter, or three tablespoonfuls of cream. If desired to be colored, use spinach 
juice. 

Rice Soup. — Steep some fine rice in cold water for an hour, say four 
ounces, then boil it, add three quarts of gravy, a pinch of cayenne, a little 
salt, and boil five minutes. 

Maize Soup. — Melt half a pound of butter in a stew pan, and add four 
heads of celery, the outside stalks, if well cleaned, will be of service ; slice 
five onions, and tiirow in with twenty or thirty sprigs of spinach ; cut up 
four turnips, and add sweet herbs and parsley ; simmer for three-quarters 
of an hour, then pour in five pints of water, stew for half an hour, and 
serve with sippets of toasted bread. 

Onion Soup.- — In two quarts of weak mutton broth slice two turnips 
and as many carrots ; then strain it. Fry six onions cut in slices, when 
nicely browned add them to the broth ; simmer three hours, skim and 
serve. 

Soup of Spanish Onions. — Put in a stewpan with four Spanish onions 
four ounces of butter, a head of celery, a large turnip, a quart of white 
gravy, and stew until the onions are quite tender, then add another quart 
of gravy and strain. Pulp the vegetables, return them to the soup, and 
boil for half an hoiu'. Keep constantly stirring ; and immediately previous 
to serving, thicken with rice flour worked in butter. 

Pea Soup. — Boil to a pulp two quarts of peas, strain them, place in a 
stew])an four ounces of butter, add two anchovies, a tablespoonful of 
pounded pepper, twice that quantity of salt, a small handful of parsley and 
mint, a little beet-root and spinach, and stew until tender. Add pulped peas 



HOUSEHOLD. 105 

until tlie soup is of tlie proper consistency, then throw in a spoonful of loaf 
sugar, boil up and serve. 

Peppee Pot. — Put in a stew pan three quarts of water, to this add celery, 
turnips, carrots, lettuces, cut small, also add the bones of cold roast meat 
of nny description, half a j)ound of bacon, and the same weight of salted 
pork ; stew gently until the meat is tender, taking care to skim wlien it first 
boils. 

Boil half a peck of spinach and rub it through a colander, take the 
bones out of the soup and add tlie spinach, with it the meat of a lobster 
or crab minced, season with plenty of cayenne pepper, and salt to taste. 
Suet dumplings may be boiled with it, or a fowl, but tiiis is a matter of 
taste. Mutton or beef may be substituted for bacon or pork ; this will be 
obvious when it is understood that a ])epper pot is presumed to consist of 
an equal proportion of flesh, fish, fowl, and vegetables. 

Chowder. — Fry some slices cut from the fat part of pork, in a deep 
stewpan, mix sliced onions witli a variety of sweet herbs, and lay them on 
the pork ; bone and cut a fresh cod into tliick slices, and place tlieni on the 
pork, tlien put a layer of slices of pork, on that a layer of hard biscuit or 
crackers, then alternatel}', the pork, fish, and crackers, with the onions and 
herbs scattered through them till the pan is nearly full ; season, pepper and 
salt, put in about two quarts of water, cover the stewpan close, and let it 
stand with fire above and below it four hours ; then skim it well and serve 
it. 

HoTCH-PoTCH. — Put a pint of peas into a quart of water, and boil them 
until they are so tender as easily to be pulped through a sieve. Take of 
the leanest end of a loin of mutton three pounds, cut it into chops, put it into 
a saucepan with a gallon of water, four carrots, four turnips cut in small 
pieces, and season with pepper and sail. Boil until all the vegetables are 
quite tender, put in the pulped peas, a head of celery and an onion sliced ; 
boil fifteen minutes and serve. 

Apple Sauce, Baked. — Fill a quart basin v,-ith apples, pared, cored, and 
quartered ; add a tablespoonful of water, cover it over, and set it in a 
moderate oven until the apples are reduced to a pulp ; beat them vvitii a spoon 
till quite smooth, adding a small piece of fresh butter, and sugar in suffi- 
cient quantity. 

Apple Sauce, Brown. — Pare and core a pound of choice apples, and stew 
them in a teacupful of rich brown gravy until they have been become a 
thick and smooth marmalade ; season with black pepper or cayenne, and 
serve very hot. 

Apple Butter. — Peel, quarter, and core, one bushel of sweet ajiples ; put 
them into a stew-pan over a gentle fire. When the apples begin to get soft, 
add the juice of three lemons, one pint of rum, and one pound of loaf sugar 
dissolved in a quart of water. Boil the whole together, and pour into 
jars. 

Apples Baked. — Put the apples whole into an earthen pan, or jar, with 
a few cloves and a little lemon peel, some coarse sugar, and a glass of port 
wine ; bake them in a quick oven, and take them out in an hour. 

Apples Buttered. — Peel and core apples of the choicest kind, stew in 
their syrup as many as will fill the disli, and make a marmalade of the rest. 
Cover the dish witli a thin layer of marmalade. Place the apples on this, 
with a bit of butter in the heart of each, lay the rest of the marmalade into 
the vacancies. Bake in the oven to a pale brown color, and powder with 
sugar. ^ 

Apples Dried, — Choose apples having clear rinds and without blemishes, 
wipe them, and put them on a baking pan into a very slow oven, let them 
remain for four or five hours ; draw them out, rub them in the hand, and 
press them gently ; return tliem to tlie oven, and press them again to a 
nearly flat shape ; when cold, if they look dry, rub them over with a little 
clarified sugar. 

Apples Frosted. — Peel some pippins, stew them in a thin syrup till they 

5* 



106 HOUSEHOLD. 

become tender, dip them into the white of an egg that has been wliipped 
into a frotii, and sift pounded sugar over tliem tliickly ; put them in a cool 
oven to cand}', and serve in a glass dish. 

Apples in Butter. — Peel some small sized apples, and remove the cores 
without dividing them, place them in a pie disii upright and singly, and 
with a space between each ; fill the vacancies left by the cores with sugar 
and grated lemon-peel; pour butter round and upon the apples, and bake 
in a moderate oven. 

To Stew Cranberries. — To a pound of cranberries allow a pound of 
sugar; dissolve the sugar in a very little water, boil it for ten minutes, and 
skim it well ; put them with the sugar and boil them slowly till they are 
quite soft. 

New-England Apple-sauce or Butter. — Boil 2 brls. of new cider 
down to ^ a brl. Pare, core, and slice up 8 bushels of apples (sweet apples 
are preferable), and put them into the cider thus reduceil, and still kept 
boiling briskly. Stir the whole mass constantl}', to prevent burning, till of 
the consistence of soft butter. A small quantity of pulverized allspice, 
added during the boiling, is an improvement. 

Baked Apple Sauce. — Put a tablespoonful of water into a basin, and 
fill it with apples, pared, quartered, and cored ; put them into a moderate 
oven, until they are reduced to a pulp ; beat them with a wooden spoon, 
adding a little sugar, and fresh butter. 

Stewed Apple Sauce. — Pare and core some apples, put them into a 
preserve-pot, cover, and set it in a saucepan of water, to boil ; when soft, 
mix them with some butter, and sweeten with brown sugar. 

Apple Sauce. — Pare, core, and slice some apples, put them with a lit- 
tle water into the saucepan to prevent them from burning, and add a little 
lemon peel ; when sufficiently done, take out the latter, bruise the apples, 
put in a bit of butter, and sweeten it. 

Bread Sauce. — Cut in slices the crumb of a French roll, to which add 
a few peppercorns, one whole onion, a little salt, and boiling milk enough 
to cover it ; let it simmer gently by the side of the fire till the bread soaks 
up the milk, then add a little thick cream, take out the onion and rub 
the whole through a sieve, make it very hot, and serve with game or fowls. 

Lobster Sauce. — Pound the coral, pour upon it two spoonfuls of gravy, 
strain it into some melted butter, then put in the meat of the lobster, give 
it all one boil, and add the squeeze of a lemon ; you may, if you please, add 
two anchovies pounded. 

Mint Sauce. — Take some nice fresh mint, chop it very small, and mix 
it with vinegar and sugar. 

Mustard Sauce.— Put two glasses of stock, shallots shred small, salt and 
pepper, into a saucepan, let them boil for half an hour, then add a tea- 
spoonful of mustard, stir it in well, and use it when required. 

Onion Sauce. — The onions must be peeled, and boiled till thej"^ are ten- 
der, then squeeze the water from them, cliop them, and add butter that has 
been melted, rich and smooth, with a little good milk instead of water ; 
give it one boil, serve it with boiled rabbits, partridges, scrag or knuckle 
of veal, or roast mutton ; a turnip boiled with the onions draws out the 
strength. 

Horseradish Sauce, Hot. — Slice two onions, and fry them in oil, and 
when they begin to color, put them in a saucepan with a glass of white wine, 
the same of broth, two slices of lemon peeled, two cloves of garlic, a bay 
leaf, thyme, basil, and two cloves, boil these a quarter of an hour, and then 
strain it ; add capers and an anchovy chopped, pepper, salt, and a spoonful 
of horseradish boiled to a pulp, and warm the whole without boiling. 

Apple and Cranberry Sauce. — Pare and quarter the apples — if not 
tart, stew them in cider' — if tart enougli, stew them in water. When stewed 
soft, put in a small piece of butter, and sweeten it to the taste, with sugar. 
Anotlier way, which is very good, is to boil the apples, without paring 
them, with a few quinces and molasses, in new cider, till reduced to half the 



HOUSEnOLD. 107 

quantity. When cool, strain tlie sauce. Tliis kind of sauce will keep good 
several months. It makes very good plaiu pies, with the addition of a little 
cinnamon or cloves. To make cranberry sauce, nothing more is necessary 
than to stew the cranberries till soft, tlien stir in sugar and molasses to sweet- 
en it. Let the sugar scald in it a few minutes. Strain if you like — it is 
very good witliout straining, 

SuPERiOK Sauce yos Plum Pudding. — Mix six yolks of eggs with 
four spoonfuls of sifted sugar and butter mixed together; iiave a pint of 
boiling cream, which you will mix with your yolks, afterwards put it on tlie 
fire, and stir it until it is of tlie consistency of sauce, then add to it a wine- 
glass of brandy. 

Tomato Sauce. — Obtain fresh tomatoes and take out the stalk, press 
tliem all tiglitly down in a stewpan, cover tliem,put them on tiie fire, strain 
off the liquor tliat is drawn from tliem, and add to the tomatoes a slice of 
raw ham, a few shallots, a few spoonfuls of good stock, let it stew for an 
hour, then rub it througli a tammy sieve. Have in another stewpan a little 
good brown sauce, put j'our tomatoes into it, boil all together, season with 
cayenne, salt, sugar, and lemon juice. 

Sauce Italienne. — Put in some lemon thyme, parsley, and mushrooms, 
shred small and fine, into a stewpan, with a little butter and a clove of gar- 
lic, set it on a moderate fire, and as soon as tlie butter begins to fry pour in 
a little consomme, and let it stew till pretty tiiick, tlien take out tlie garlic, 
and add some butter sauce and a little lemon juice. 

Sweet Sauce. — Put some cinnamon into a saucepan with as much water 
as will cover it, set it on the fire, and when it has boiled up once or twice 
add two spoonfuls of pounded sugar, a quarter of a p'nt of white wine, and 
two ba.y leaves ; give the whole one boil, and then strain it for table. 

Shallot Sauce. — Put a few chopped shallots into a little gravy, boiled 
clear, and nearly half as much vinegar ; season with pepper and salt : boil 
for half an hour. 

Sauce for Turtle, or Calf's Head. — To half a pint of hot melted 
butter, or beef gravy, put the juice and grated rind of half a lemon, a little 
sage, basil, or sweet marjoram, a little caj'enne, or black pepper, and salt. 
Add a wine-glass of white wine just before you take it up. 

Rice Sauce. — Boil one onion and half a teacup of rice with a blade of 
mace, till very soft, in water just enough to cover it; then stir in half a 
pint of milk, a little salt, and strain it. This is a nice accompaniment to 
game. 

Brown Sauce. — Take a pound or two of beefsteak, two or three 
poimds of veal, some pickings of fowls, carrots, and onions ; put all these 
into a saucepan, with a glass of water, and set it on a brisk fire ; when very 
little moisture remains put it on a slow fire, that the jelly may take color 
without burning, and as soon as it is brown moisten it with stock or water, 
add a bunch of green onions, two bay leaves, and two cloves, salt it well, 
and set it on the lire for three hours, then strain ; dilute a little roux with 
your liquor, and let it boil an hour over a gentle fire, then take off all the 
fat and strain it through a bolting cloth. 

Caper Sauce for Fish. — Take some melted butter, into which throw 
a small bit of glaze, and when the sauce is in a state of readiness throw 
into it some choice capers, salt, and pepper, and a spoonful of essen(!e of 
anchovies. 

Caper Sauce, to Imitate. — Boil some parsley very slowly, to let it 
become of a bad color, then cut it up, but not fine, put it into melted but- 
ter, with a teaspoonful of salt and a dessertspoonful of vinegar; boil up, 
and then serve. 

Calves' Brains, with Different Sauces. — Brains braised in wine 
and broth may be used with what sauces or ragout you please ; such a,s fat 
livers, pigeons, sausages, onions, capers, fried bread. They take their name 
from the material with which they are mixed. 

Fish Sauce, Without Butter. — Simmer a quarter of a pint of vinegar 



108 HOUSEHOLD. 

and lialf a pint of soft water, together with an onion, half a sticlc of horse- 
radish scraped, four cloves, two blades of mace, and half a teaspoonful of 
black pepper. When tlie onion is quite tender chop it small, with a couple 
of anchovies, and set the whole to boil for a few minutes, with a table- 
spoonful of ketchup ; in the meantime have ready, well beaten, tlie j'olks 
of three egjjs ; strain them, mix the liquor by dejirees with tliem, and when 
the}' are well mixed set the saucepan over a moderate fire, liolding a basin 
in one hand, into which toss the sauce to and fro, and shake the saucepan 
over the fire to prevent the eggs from curdling. 

Fish Sauce. — To about four ounces of melted butter add three table- 
spoonfuls of musJiroom ketchup, a tablespoonful of essence of anchovies, a 
table-spoonful of white wine vinegar, some cayenne, and a tea-spoonful 
of soy. 

Milk Sauce. — Two teacupfuls of sugar and one of butter, creamed to- 
gether ; one wine-glassful of wine, a little nutmeg ; at the last moment pour 
a cupful of boiling milk over all, and stir well. 

Nice Pudding Sauce. — Three eggs and a white of one additional ; one 
hea])ing cup of sugar ; beat eggs and sugar well together. Take one cup of 
boiling water and a piece of butter the size of an egg ; let the butter melt 
in the water by setting it in tlie top of the teakettle. Just as you serve the 
sauce pour the liquid on to the sugar and eggs, stirring briskly. 

Pudding Sauce. — Three quarters of a cup of butter, one and a half 
cup of sugar, one egg, juice and grated rind of a lemon ; all beaten well 
together. Just before serving pour on the beaten mixture one pint of boiling 
water. Tiiis is good for all sorts of puddings. 

Drawn Butter. — Rub two teaspoonfuls of flour into one-quarter 
pound of butter ; add five tablespoonf uls of cold water. Set it into boiling 
water, let it melt, and heat till it begins to simmer, then it is done. If for 
fish, put in chopped boiled eggs and capers. If for boiled fowl, put in 
03'sters before it is melted, and let them cook through while it is itself 
simmering. 

Celery Sauce. — Cut three heads of fine wliite celery into two-inch 
lengths, keep them so, or shred them down as straws, then boil tliem a few 
minutes, strain them, return them into the stewpan, and. put either some 
brown or white stock, and boil it until tender ; if too mucli liquor reduce it 
by boiling ; then add either white or brown sauce to it, season it with sugar, 
cayenne pepper, and salt. 

Chervil Sauce. — Put a few muslirooms, parsley, chervils, shallots, two 
cloves, a bay leaf, and a few tarragon leaves, into some melted butter; let 
them soak for some time, tiien add a little broth, white wine, pepper, salt, 
then reduce it to'a proper thickness, but do not skim it; when done, put in 
some cliervil scalded and chopped ; warm it all up together. 

Egg Sauce. — Boil three eggs hard, cut them in small squares, and mix 
them in good butter sauce ; make it very hot, and squeeze in some lemon 
juice before you serve it. 

Fresh Pork Sauce. — Cut two or three good-sized onions into slices, 
and fry them liglitly, then add a little broth, a few mushrooms chopped, a 
clove of garlic, vinegar, and spice ; let it boil half an hour, reduce to a 
proper consistency, then skim and strain it. 

Garlic Sauce. — Three or four garlics, divided, and boiled in a little 
white vinegar and white stock, with a small piece of lean ham ; when re- 
duced strain it off, and add either white or brown sauce to the liquor ; 
season with salt, pepper, and sugar ; but leave out the vinegar. 

Brown Coloring for Made Dishes. — Take four ounces of sugar, 
beat it fine, put it into an iron frying-pan or earthen pipkin, set it over a 
clear fire, and when tlie sugar is melted it will be frothy, put it higlier from 
the fire until it is a fine brown, keep stirring it all the time ; fill the pan up 
with red wine, and take care that it does not boil over; add a little salt and 
lemon, put a little cloves and mace, a siiallot or two, boil it gently for ten 
minutes, pour it in a basin till it is cold, then bottle it for use. 



HOUSEHOLD. 109 

Mushroom White Sauce. — Have ready some cream sauce rather 
thinner than usual, to this put a few white mushrooms, reduce it to the 
proper consistence, and it is then ready. 

Anchovy Sauce. — To about half a pint of melted butter put two table- 
spoonfuls of good essence of anchovies, with tiie juice of half a lemon. 
Serve very liot. 

Wine Sauce. — Make thin a few ounces of melted butter, then add a 
tablespoonful or two of coarsely-pounded loaf sugar, and a glass of sherry 
witli half a gla.ss of brandy ; a little grated lemon peel or nutmeg, or both 
together, are improvements. 

To Boil Eggs. — They should be put into boiling water, and if you wish 
to have them soft boil them only three minutes. If you wish to have them 
hard enough to cut in slices, boil them five minutes. Another way, whicli 
is very nice, is to break the shells and drop the eggs into a pan of scalding 
hot water; let it stand till tlie wliite has set, then put the pan on a moder- 
ate fire, whien the water boils up the eggs are cooked sufficiently. Eggs 
look very prettily cooked in tiiis way, the yolk being just visible througli 
the white. If you do not use the eggs for a garnisii, serve them up witli 
burnt butter. 

Eggs Fricasseed. — Boil eggs hard, take out a portion of the yolks 
whole, cut the remainder into quarters with the whites. Make some good 
gravy boiling hot, put in minced thyme and parsley, and add it to the eggs 
with a little grated nutmeg ; shake the whole up with a piece of butter until 
it is of the proper consistence. Garnish with eggs boiled hard, and chopped 
up fine. 

Omelette. — A culinary preparation of French origin, sometliing re- 
sembling a pancake or fritter. As omelettes are quickly and easily made, 
and afford an agreeable addition to a repast, the following general obser- 
vations respecting tliem will be found worthy of notice : — The pan used for 
frying should be quite small, for if the omelette be composed of four or five 
eggs only, and then put into a large pan, it will necessarily spread over it 
and be thin ; the only partial remedy, wlien the pan is not of the proper 
size, is to raise the handle of it liigli, and to keep the opposite end close 
down upon the fire, which will confine the eggs into a smaller space. No 
gravy shoiJd be poured into the dish witli tlie omelette, for if it be properly 
done it will require none. Should the slight rawness, which is sometimes 
found in the middle of the inside, when tlie omelette is made tlie French 
way, be objected to, a heated shovel or a salamander may be held over it 
for an instant before it is folded on the dish. Omelettes may be made in 
a variety of ways as follows : — Ordinari/ Omelette .--Beat the yolks and 
whites of four eggs together, with a table-spoonful of milk and a little salt 
and pepper ; put two ounces of butter into a frying pan, and let it remain 
until it begins to brown ; then pour in the batter, and leave it undisturbed 
for a minute ; turn up the edges of the omelette gently from the bottom of 
the pan witli a fork ; sliake it to prevent it burning at the bottom, and fry 
it till of a light brown. It will not take more than five minutes frying. 
Sweet. Omektt€:-T\ns is nothing more tlian the ordinary omelette, upon whicli 
powdered sugar is put before it is turned ; when it is turned powder the 
outside also with white sugar, and press upon it a red-hot iron ; the iron 
should be about half an inch square, and pressed in streaks from one end 
to the other. Friar's Omelette .--Boil a <lozen apples, as for sauce ; stir in a 
quarter of a pound of butter, and a quarter of a pound of powdered loaf 
sugar ; when cold add four eggs, well beaten ; put it into a baking dish, 
thickly strewed over with crumbs of bread, so as to adhere to the bottom 
and sides ; then put in the apple mixture ; strew crumbs of bread over the 
top ; when baked turn it out, and grate loaf sugar over it. Omelette Souffle :- 
Put into a stewpan an ounce of butter; when melted add two tablespoon- 
fuls of flour ; stir them well over the fire, so that the flour be thorouglily 
done, but not colored ; add by degrees a wineglassful of boiling cream, and 
four times the quantity of boiling milk ; work it quite smooth, take it oQ 



110 HOUSEHOLD. 

the fire, add four yolks of eggs, siigar to taste, a few grains of salt, and a 
tablespoonful of orange-flower water ; whip up strongly tlie whites of eight 
eggs, mix tlieni lightly in the batter; put the whole in a souffle dish, and 
bake for an lu)ur. Omelette loith fine herbs .-After having well beaten up 
any number of eggs required, and mixed them witli a little salt and a 
sprinkling of fine herbs, throw the whole into a frying-pan, in which a little 
butter has been previously melted ; when fried sufficiently brown, turn the 
omelette over on tlie dish in wliich it is to be served. 

Poached Eggs. — Break the eggs into a pan, beat them to a froth, tlien 
put them into a buttered tin pan ; set tlie pan on a few coals, put in a small 
lump of butter, a little salt ; let tliem cook very slowly, stirring tliem con- 
stantly till they become quite thick, then turn them on to buttered 
toast. 

Eggs Fried. — Have ready a frying-pan containing hot fat, drop the eggs 
in separately, let them fry for one minute, then drop some more hot fat over 
them ; three minutes will cook them. They do not require to be turned. 

Oyster Omelette. — Whisk six eggs to a thick froth, then add by de- 
grees a gill of cream, beat them well together, season the eggs with pepper 
and salt to taste ; have ready one dozen fine oysters, cut tliem in half, pour 
the eggs into a pan of hot butter, and drop the oysters over it as equally as 
possible ; fry it a light brown, and serve as an omelette. Should never be 
turned. 

Omelette, with Ham. — Take one dozen eggs, two gills of cream, tliree 
tablespoonfuls of grated liam ; beat the eggs very tliick ; add gradually the 
cream and ham ; pepper and salt to your taste ; have ready a pan of butter 
boiling hot, pour the omelette into it, and fry a light brown ; the moment 
it is done it should be put on the table. Garnish with curled parsley. 

Crab Omelette. — Take two dozen fine live crabs, that are taken from 
oysters when open ; put in a frying pan one ounce of good fresli butter, 
and let it come to a good boil ; put the crabs in and let them fry a light 
brown ; drain them well ; have three eggs now beaten together ; put in 
omelette pan, and when half done put the crabs in, and roll up the omelette 
and serve hot. 

To Preserve Eggs. — Take equal quantity of gum arable and water ; 
when the gum is dissolved coat the eggs with a brUsh ; when the coating 
is dry add anotlier coat, and the eggs will keep fresh till wanted. 

To Tell Good Eggs. — If you desire to be certain that your eggs are 
good and fresh, put tliem in water; if the butts turn up they are not fresh. 
This is an infallible rule to distinguish a good egg from a bad one. 

Green Peas. — A delicious vegetable, a grateful accessor}' to many dishes 
of a more substantial nature. Green peas should be sent to table green, no 
dish looks less tempting than peas if they wear an autumnal aspect. Peas 
sliould also be young, and as short a time as possible should be suffered to 
elapse between the periods of shelling and boiling. If it is a matter of con- 
sequence to send them to table in perfection, these rules must be strictly 
observed. Tliey should be as near of a size as a discriminating eye can 
arrange them ; they should then be put in a cullender, and sotne cold water 
suffered to run through them in order to wash them ; tlien having the water 
in which they are to be boiled slightly salted, and boiling rapidly, pour in 
the peas ; keep tlie saucepan uncovered, and keep them boiling swiftly 
until tender ; they will take about twenty minutes, barely so long, unless 
older tlian they should be; drain completely, pour them into the tureen 
in which they are to be served, and in the centre put a slice of butter, and 
when it has melted, stir round the peas gently, adding pepper and salt; 
serve as quickly and as hot as possible. 

How to Cook Potatoes. — Potatoes should always be boiled in their 
"jackets ;" peeling a potato before boiling is offering a premium for water 
to run through it and making them waxy and unpalatable; they should be 
thoroughly washed and put into cold water. 

To Boil New Potatoes. — The sooner the new potatoes are cooked; 



HOUSEHOLD. Ill 

after being dug, the better'tliey will eat ; clear off all the loose skins with 
a coarse towel and cold water ; when tliey are thoroughly clean, put them 
into scalding water, a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes will be found 
sufficient to cook them ; strain off the water dry, sprinkle a little salt over 
the potatoes, and send them to table. If very young, melted butter should 
accompany them. 

Roasted Potatoes. — Clean thoroughlj'^ ; nick a small piece out of the 
skin, and roast in tlie oven of tlie range ; a little butter is sometimes rubbed 
over the skin to make them crisp. 

Fried Potatoes. — Remove tlie peel from an uncooked potato. After it 
has been thoroughly washed, cut the potato into thin slices, and lay tliem 
in a pan with some fresh butter ; fry gently a clear brown, then lay tliem 
one upon the otiier in a small dish, and send to table as an entremet. 

Spinach. — Tiie leaves of the spinach should be picked from the stems ; 
it should tlien be well washed in clean cold water, until the whole of tlie 
dirt and grit is removed ; tliree or four waters should be employed ; it will 
not otherwise be got thoroughly clean ; let it drain in a sieve, or shake it 
in a cloth, to remove the clinging water. Place it in a saucepan with boil- 
ing water; there should be very little; it will be done in ten minutes; 
squeeze out the water, chop the spinach finely, seasoning well with pepper 
and salt; pour three or four large spoonfuls of gravy over it, place it before 
the fire until much of the moisture has evaporated, and then serve. 

Lettuces and Endives. — Are better, I tliink, only cut into pieces or 
into quarters, and dished neatly round, but they must be done in some 
good stock, and not put into thick sauce ; buTwhen you take them out after 
being done, you will press and form them, then boil down their liquor to a 
glaze, which will, when added to your already thick sauce, give the desired 
flavor ; glaze the quarters before dishing them, pour the sauce under and 
round. 

Beets. — Beets should not be cut or scraped before they are boiled, or 
the juice will run out, and make tiieni insipid. In summer, they will boil 
in an hour — in winter, it takes three liours to boil them tender. The tops 
in summer are good boiled for greens. Boiled beets cut in slices, and put 
in cold spiced vinegar for several days, are very nice. 

Leeks Boiled. — Wash them carefully, cut away all the green, slit eacli 
almost in two, tie them in bunches ; boil them for twenty minutes in salted 
water; drain them, and serve upon a moistened toast, and any sauce you 
may prefer. 

Hashed Leeks. — After boiling them as above, chop them up ; toss them 
in some butter in a stewpan ; add enough rich gravy, and simmer till this 
is pretty thick ; serve surrounded with sippets. 

Fried Leeks, &c. — Wash them thoroughly, and cut away all the green ; 
slice the white tender part as thin as possible ; make a good deal of butter 
hot in a frying-pan, put in the leeks, and continue stirring till they are 
nicely browned ; drain off the superfluous fat, add rasped bread crumbs, 
and serve. 

Leeks are famous in porridge ; they are also put into a pie with fish ; 
and are useful to replace onions when the latter are too strong flavored. 

Parsnips Boiled. — Wash and brush them very carefully, and either 
peel and quarter them, or do them whole as they are, and peel them after- 
wards. They require plenty of water, and take from twenty minutes to 
an hour to boil. You may send them to table simply quartered or sliced, 
or mashed and tossed in enough butter. They are mostlj' served with salt 
fish or boiled salt pork; in the latter case they are to be boiled with the 
meat. 

Fricassee of Parsnips. — When boiled beautifully white, cut them 
lengthwise into pieces two inches long, and make them hot in a sauce 
made of a few spoonfuls of wliite gravy and sufficient cream ; add a bit of 
butter rolled in flour; season and serve. 

Parsnips Fried. — Boil the parsnips until they are half done, lift them 



112 HOUSEHOLD. 

out, and let them cool ; slice them rather thickly, sprinkle them with salt 
and pepper, and fry tliem a pale brown in good butter. Serve them with 
roast meat, and dish them under it. 

Peas Boiled. — Shell tiie peas, and as soon as possible place them in 
boiling water witii a small bit of butter, a bunch of green mint, and a little 
soda or salt ; boil them gently until they begin to sink, but never let tliem 
be done too soft; drain them in a colander; chop tlie leaves of the mint; 
place it round the dish with the peas, stir a piece of butter in with tiiem, 
and serve directly. A dessertspoonful of loaf sugar added to the water in 
which tliey are boiled, makes the peas more mellow. 

Petits Pois au Ghas. — Sliell a puit of young green peas ; put them into 
a stewpan together with four ounces of veal fat finely minced, a dessert- 
spoonful of loaf sugar, the juice of half a lemon, a little salt, half a pint of 
water, and an ounce of butter rolled in flour; bring it to boil quickly ; shake 
well ; and when the peas are done, serve all together with verj' small sip- 
pets of fried bread. 

Stuffed Potatoes. — Peel some large raw potatoes ; make them hollow 
by cutting them out with a knife ; butter the insides and fill them with a 
white forcemeat ; arrange them in a baking dish, and bake till brown. They 
may be buttered on the outside or dipped into egg and bread crumbs at 
fancy. 

Potatoes with White Sauce. — Immediately you have boiled your 
potatoes, slice, season, and mask them with a rich white sauce. A sprinkling 
of capers may be added. 

Cabbage, Boiled. Wash and pick it carefully, and if very large, 
quarter it. Put it into a saucepan with plenty of boiling water and a table- 
spoonful of salt; if any scum arises, take it off ; boil till the stalk is tender. 
Keep the vegetable well covered with water all the time of boiling, and shut 
out any smoke or dirt arising from stirring the fire. The flavor of an old 
cabbage may be much improved by taking it up when half done, and put- 
ting it directly into another saucepan of fresh boiling water. When taken 
up, drain it in a cullender. It may either be served plain, or chopped up 
and seasoned with butter, pepper, and salt. 

Red Cabbage Stewed. — Although most commonly served as a pickle, 
red cabbage is excellent stewed. Quarter a medium-sized cabbage, slice 
it thin ; put it into a stewpan with half a pint of stock and a cupful of 
vinegar ; add a slice of ham ; cover it close and let it stew two or three 
hours ; add pepper and salt, a tablespoonful of powdered loaf sugar, and a 
little gravy ; reduce the latter, take out the ham, and serve the cabbage 
garnished witli^ tossed sausages. 

Fricassee of Red Cabbage. — Quarter and slice the cabbage ; add two 
onions similarly sliced ; simmer in a very little white gravy. When tender, 
pour in with it sufficient white sauce and a tablespoonful of strong vinegar. 

Tomatoes Boiled. — Put them into plain boiling water, withdraw the 
saucepan from the fire somewhat ; let the tomatoes merely simmer for ten 
minutes. Take them up and either serve them whole witli a white sauce 
highly seasoned with cayenne pepper, or mash, season, and add to them 
some fresh butter. They may, if preferred, be dipped into dissolved butter 
and placed in an oven until thoroughly hot ; serve with beef gravy poured 
into the dish with them. Tomatoes are frequently sent to table au naturel—' 
that is to say, raw and sliced at table. 

To Stew Peas. — Put your peas into a stewpan, toss them in a little 
butter; when hot add sufficient veal or chicken stock to moisten them with; 
simmer slowly, thicken slightly with flour and butter ; place fried sippets 
round a dish, and serve the peas in the middle. 

Dried Peas Stewed. — These may be stewed in meat liquor, allowing 
a quart of the latter to each half pint of peas ; flavor to taste ; thicken 
with yolk of eggs, and add powdered dried mint as for pea-soup ; small 
pieces of broiled bacon may be introduced as a garnish. 

Savoys Stuffed. — Choose a freshly-cut medium-sized savoy very firm 



HOUSEHOLD. 113 

and wliite ; remove the outer leaves, and, with a pointed sharp knife, cut 
out from the root end the whole of the stem and leaf stalks ; fill witli a rich 
sausage meat the hollow you have made ; put the savoy into a deep stew- 
pan, keeping the stalk end upwards ; pour in with it a good deal of strong 
gravy ; cover it close, and place it for an hour and a lialf in a moderate 
oven ; reverse the savoy upon a clean dish, and pour round it some of the 
gravy first strained. 

Mashed Turnips. — After being plain boiled, drain, mash them quite 
smooth, and mix them with any tliickened sauce you may fancy ; put tlie 
whole into a deep disli ; add some bits of fresli butter, and bake for a few 
minutes ; or, if you have no oven, stir tliem in a saucepan over the fire 
till made perfectly hot. 

Radishes Boiled. — These are almost invariably served as a hors 
d'ceuvre to eat raw ; but tliey may be well cleaned and nearly all tlie green 
leaves trimmed off, and then boiled or stewed ; in the first case serve them 
upon a toast, and wlien stewed decorate the disli with fried sippets of 
bread. 

Potatoes Mashed. — After boiling, steaming, or baking enough potatoes, 
masli the pulp free from the skin and make it thoroughly hot in a saucepan, 
together with seasoning and sufficient butter, cream, white sauce, or milk 
to moisten it with ; or when properly prepared, the maslied potatoes may be 
put into a deep dish, bake until browned on the top, bread crumbs being 
strewn upon it or not, according to fancy. 

Baked Vegetable Marrow. — Have a medium-sized marrow, halve, 
peel, and remove the seeds, rub it inside with salt, and let it drain upon a 
cloth, fill it with any sort of forcemeat you fancy; fasten the halves to- 
gether ; put it into a buttered dish, bake till browned, basting and dredging 
it with flour; serve in a dish with stewed green peas. 

Vegetable Marrow and Cheese. — Plain boil tiie marrow, and prepare 
it in the usual way ; cut it in small dice, sprinkle rasped Parmesan cheese 
over tlie bottom of a dish, place the marrow upon tliis, strew over it more 
cheese ; mash the whole with a stiff white sauce ; sift upon it fine bread 
crumbs, and bake it for ten miiuites in a tolerably brisk oven. 

Vegetable marrows are excellent in curry ; they make a good preserve, 
and are converted into pies and puddings in the same way as pumpkins. 

Asparagus. — Let the stalks be lightl}' but well scraped, and as they are 
done, be thrown into cold water ; when all are finished, fasten them into 
bundles of equal size ; put them into boiling water, throw in a handful of 
salt, boil until the end of the stalk becoines tender, which will be about half 
an hour ; cut a round of bread, and toast it a clear brown, moisten it with 
the water in which the asparagus was boiled and arrange the stalks with 
the white ends outwards. A good melted butter must accompany it to table. 
Asparagus should be dressed as soon after it has been cut as practicable. 

French Beans. — When very young the ends and stalks only should be 
removed, and as they are done, thrown into cold spring water ; when to be 
dressed put them in boiling water which has been salted with a small quan- 
tity of common salt; in a quarter of an hour they will be done, the criterion 
for which is when they become tender ; the saucepan should be left uncov- 
ered, there should not be too much water, and they should be kept boiling 
rapidly. Wlien tliey are at their full growth, the ends and strings should 
be taken off, and the beans divided lengthways and across, or, according to 
the present fashion, slit diagonally or aslant. A small piece of soda, a iittle 
larger than a small-sized pea, if put into the boiling water with the beans 
or witli au}^ vegetables, will preserve that beautiful green which is so desir- 
able for them to possess when placed upon the table. 

French Beans, Salad. — Boil them simply, drain them and let them 
cool ; put them in a dish and garnish with parsley, pimpernel, and tarragon, 
and dress like other salads. 

Stewed Beans. — Boil them in water in which a lump of butter has been 
placed ; preserve tliem as white as you can ; chop a few sweet herbs with, 



114 HOUSEHOLD. 

some parsley very fine, then stew tlietn in a pint of the water in which tlie 
leaves have been boiled, and to which a quarter of a pint of cream has been 
added ; stew until quite tender, then add the beans, and stew five minutes, 
thickening with butter and flour. 

Parsnips and Carrots. — Wash them, and split them in two — lay them 
in a stew-pan, with the flat side down, turn on boiling water enough to cover 
them — boil them till tender, tlien take them up, and take off the skin and 
butter them. Many cooks boil them whole, but it is not a good plan, as the 
outside gets done too much before the inside is cooked sufficiently. Cold 
boiled parsnips are good cut in slices, and fried brown. 

Celeriac. — This is an excellent vegetable, but is little known. The 
stalks of it can hardly be distinguished from celery, and it is much easier 
cultivated. The roots are nice boiled tender, cut in thin slices, and put in 
soup or meat pies ; or cooked in the foliowing manner, and eaten with meat. 
Scrape and cut them in slices. Boil them till very tender-^then drain off 
the water. Sprinkle a little salt over them — turn in milk enough to cover 
them. When they have stewed about four or five minutes, turn them into 
a dish, and add a little butter. 

Egg Plant. — Boil them a few moments to extract the bitter taste — then 
cut them in thick slices ; sprinkle a little salt between each slice. Let 
tliem lie half an hour — tlien fry tliem till brown in lard. 

Broiled Mushrooms. — Choose them rather large ; cut out the stalks 
and soak the mushrooms in a marinade of olive oil seasoned with a bruised 
clove of garlic, salt, and pepper ; let them stay in this for an hour or so ; 
place them on a gridiron, the stalk side downwards ; before they begin to 
render any juice, turn them ; place a small piece of butter in each, and 
when they look done, carefully, without upsetting them, place them in a 
dish. Previously to being broiled, they may be dipped into batter and bread 
crumbs, and a pinch of dried herbs, &c., placed in each. 

To Stew Mushrooms White. — Make use of the small button mushrooms 
for this purpose ; rub off tlieir skins and trim them, put tliem into a stew- 
pan with milk sufficient to cover them ; season ; do the whole slowly ; 
thicken with a good piece of butter rolled in a little flour. 

Buttered Mushrooms. — Take large button mushrooms, peel them, and 
cut off the root end of the stalk ; put a good deal of butter into a stew-pan, 
add the mushrooms ; season with pepper, salt and beaten mace. Tossthein 
till nicely done ; serve all together. 

Laitues a L'Espagnole. — Blancli, braise, drain them, and glaze with a 
meat jelly ; arrange them in a circle round the dish, alternating ivitli sip- 
pets of toast similarly glazed ; add a sauce Espaqnole. 

Stewed Lettuces. — After washing and parboiling the lettuces, slightly 
toss them in fresh butter, and finish by stewing them gently in thick cream ; 
serve all together. 

Lettuce as a Salad, &c. — When required a lacreme, arrange the white 
lettuce leaves in a salad bowl, and dress tliem with good double cream and 
seasoning. If to be served aux ceiifs, tear up the lettuce leaves ; add minced 
hard-boiled whites of eggs, and the mashed yolks ; dress with an ordinary 
salad mixture. 

Slices of anchovy, tunny fish, sardines, flesh of shell fish, turbot, salmon, 
caviare, wliite meat of cold poultry, game flesh, cheese, &e., are all suita- 
ble additions to lettuces, in salad. Laitues a la Mayonnaise are lettuces sent 
to table with a Mayonnaise sauce instead of an ordinary salad dressing. 
Laitues au lard are lettuces prepared as for a salad in the usual way, but 
with bacon, tongue, &c., minced and poured over them, hot vinegar being 
added. 

Seakale Boiled. — Clean it thorouglily, tie it in medium-sized bunches, 
and do it exactly as you would asparagus, only tliat seakale sometimes re- 
quires more than half an hour's boiling. If quite fresh gathered, however, 
it will be done in twenty minutes ; serve it masked with wliite sauce, or 
placed simply on a moistened toast, or enveloped in a warm damask napkin. 



HOUSEHOLD. 115 

Salsify or Vegetable Oyster. — The best way to cook it is to parboil 

it (after scraping off tiie outside), tlien cut it in slices, dip it into a beaten 
egg, and fine bread crumbs, and fry it in lard. It is very good boiled, tlien 
stewed a few minutes in milk, with a little butter and salt. Another way 
which is very good, is to make a batter of wlieat flour, milk and eggs ; cut 
the salsify in thin slices, (after having been boiled tender,) put them into 
tlie butter with a little salt ; drop this mixture into hot fat, by the large 
spoonful. When a light brown they are cooked sufficiently. 

Greens. — White mustard, spinach, water cresses, dandelions, and the 
leaves and roots of very small beets, are the best greens. Boil them with a 
little salt and saleratus in the water. If not fresh and plump, soak them in 
salt and water half an hour before cooking them. When they are boiled 
enough they will sink to the bottom of the pot. 

Artichokes. — Scrape and put them in boiling water, with a tablespoon- 
ful of salt to a couple of dozen. When boiled tender, (which will be in 
about two hours,) take them up, salt and butter each one. 

Onions. — Peel and put them in boiling milk, (water will do, but it is not 
as good). When boiled tender take them up, salt them and turn a little 
melted butter over them. 

Turnips. — White turnips require about as much boiling as potatoes. 
When tender, take them up, peel and mash them — season them with a 
little salt and butter. Yellow turnips require about two hours boiling — 
if very large, split them in two. The tops of white turnips make a good 
salad. 

Salads. — To be in perfection, salads should be fresh gathered, and kept 
in cold water for an hour before they are put on the table. The water 
should be drained from them, and if you have not any salad oil, melt a lit- 
tle butter and put it in a separate dish — if turned over the salad, it will not 
be crispy. 

Salad, TO Mix. — This is a point of proficiency which it is easy to attain 
with care. The main point is to incorporate the several articles required 
for the sauce, and to serve up at a table as fresh as possible. The herbs 
should be morning-gathered, and they will be much refreshed by laying 
an liour or two in spring water. Careful picking, and washing and drying 
in a clotli, requires attention. The sauce may be thus prepared : — Boil two 
eggs for ten or twelve minutes, and then put them in cold water for a few 
minutes, so that the yolks may become quite cold and hard; rub them 
through a coarse sieve with a wooden spoon, and mix them with a table- 
spoonful of water or cream, and then add two tablespoonfuls of fine flask 
oil or melted butter ; mix, and add by degrees, a teaspoonful of salt and 
the same quantity of mustard; mix till smooth, then incorporate with 
the other ingredients about three tablespoonfuls of vinegar ; then pour this 
sauce down the side of the salad bowl, but do not stir up the salad till 
wanted to be eaten ; garnish the top of the salad with the white of the 
eggs cut in slices, or these may be arranged in such a manner as to be 
ornamental on the table. Some persons may fancy they are able to pre- 
pare a salad without previous instruction, but, like everything else, a 
little knowledge in this case may not be thrown away. 

Artichokes Scolloped. — Cut ready boiled artichokes into small pieces ; 
warm them up in a little white sauce flavored nicely with essence of an- 
chovy and cayenne pepper ; place tlie mixture in shells, sprinkle the tops 
with fine bread crumbs, and bake until beautifully brown. 

Fried Artichokes. — Take boiled artichokes, and when they are grown 
almost cold, dip them into beaten egg ; then roll them in sifted bread 
crumbs ; fry them in plenty of butter till they are of a nice brown ; and 
serve decorated witli crisped parsley. 

Tossed Artichokes. — After plain boiling them, slice, season, and toss 
them in a stewpan with some fresli butter. 

Water Cresses.— These with us are seldom served otherwise than raw 
as a relish j they are sometimes used as a sort of salad, garnish to roast 



116 HOUSEHOLD. 

game, pouLry, beefsteaks, &c. They are excellent in combination with 
otlier salad ingredients. 

Stewed Water-cresses. — Pick them over and wash them carefully ; 
blancli tliem in boiling water, drain and press them, then stew in either 
gravy or cream, and thicken the sauce with yolks of eggs; garnish the dish 
with slices of orange. 

Tomatoes Roast. — Select them nearly of the same size, take off the 
stalks, and roast them gently in a Dutch oven; or, if more convenient, 
place them at tlie edge of the dripping-pan, taking care that no fat from the 
joint shall fall upon them, and keeping them turned, that they may be 
equally done. From ten to fourteen minutes will roast them. 

Tomatoes Stewed. — Arrange them in a single layer, and pour to them 
as mucli gravy as will reach to half their height ; stew them very softly 
mitil the under sides are done; then turn, and finisli stewing them ; thicken 
the gravy with a little arrowroot and cream, or with flour and butter, and 
serve it round them. 

Tomatoes Forced. — Cut the stem quite close, slice off the tops of eight 
fine tomatoes, and scoop out tlie inside ; press the pulp through a sieve, and 
mix with it one ounce of fine crumbs of bread, one of butter broken very 
small, some pepper, or cayenne, and salt. Fill the tomatoes with the mix- 
ture, and bake them for ten minutes in a moderate oven ; serve them with 
brown gravy in a dish. A few small muslirooms stewed tender in a little 
butter, then mixed and added to the tomatoes' pulp, will very much im- 
prove tliis receipt. Bake for ten minutes. 

Stewed Cucdmbers. — Peel, slice, and put them into a stewpan with 
some onion, one anchovy, equal parts of red wine, mushroom ketchup, and 
gravy ; simmer till the anchovy is done to pieces ; thicken with butter and 
flour. 

Cucumber, to Dress. — Pare cucumbers, and slice them into a dish as 
thinly as possible ; this is best performed by passing the surface dexterously 
over the edge of a sharp knife ; sprinkle cayenne and salt over them, and 
leave tliem to drain for a quarter of an hour ; then pour off the water that is 
thus drawn from them, and dress them with vinegar, oil and pepper. Onions 
shred finely may be added or not at pleasure. 

Fried Cucumbers. — Prepare the cucumbers as for a dish a la poulette; 
drain them after you have plain boiled them, dip the pieces into beaten egg, 
fry them nicely, and serve with plenty of lemon juice. 

CoNCOMBRES A LA Maitre d'Hotel. — Peel and quarter the cucumbers, 
remove the seeds, cut eacli quarter in half across ; blanch, and afterwards 
toss the pieces in a maitre d'liotel sauce. 

Celery Boiled. — Tender young heads of white celery may be trimmed 
till only about eight inches in length, then put into salted boiling water; 
and when tender served upon a moistened toast and masked with a good 
white sauce. 

Apple Biscuits. — Boil a dozen fine apples until they become pulpy, then 
take tliem outand rub them into a mortar through a hairsieve; add twopounds 
of powdered loaf sugar, and two or three drops of oil of lemon or cloves ; 
mix thoroughly together, then roll the mixture into separate masses of the 
size and thickness of a bun, and cut them into any shape desired ; they may 
then be dried in a very slow oven, care being taken that the sugar does not 
melt. 

Apple Bread. — Take a quantity of fresh gathered apples and boil them 
to a pulp, which mix with double its weight of flour ; little or no water is re- 
quired ; yeast is employed in the same proportion as in ordinary bakings, 
and after being allowed to rise for about ten hours, it is then baked in long 
loaves. This bread is much eaten in France, and is to be recommended for 
its light and agreeable properties. 

Healthy Mixed Bread. — Boil 3 lbs. of rice to a soft pulp in water ; pare 
and cook by steam 6 lbs. of your best potatoes, mash your potatoes and rub 
them up with rice pulp ; add to the whole 6 lbs, flour; make all into a dough , 



HOUSEHOLD. 117 

with water, ferment witli yenst, let it stand a proper length of time, and then 
place it in tlie oven to Ijiike. 

Aerated Bread, Without Yeast. — 1. Dissolve 1 oz. of sesquicarbonate 
of annnonia in water, sufficient to make 7 lbs. of flour into a dough, wliicli 
must be formed into loaves, and baked inunediately. 2. Divide 3 lbs. flour 
into two portions ; mix up the first witli water, holding in solution 2 ozs. 
bicarbonate of soda ; tlien mix tlie second portion of flour witli water, to 
wliich 1 oz. of muriatic acid has been added ; knead eacli mass of the dougli 
thoroughly. Wlien this is done, mix botii portions togetlier as rapidly and 
as perfectly as possible, form tiie mass into loaves, and bake immediately. 
This bread contains no yeast, and is very wholesome. 

Note. — Bicarbonate of soda and muriatic acid when chemically combined, 
form common salt. 

Brown Bread. — Take equal quantities of Indian meal and rje flour, scald 
the meal, and when lukewarm add tlie flour, adding one-half pint of good 
yeast to four quarts of the mixture, a tablespoon, even full, of salt, and half 
a cup of molasses, kneading tlie mixture well. This kind of bread should 
be softer than wheat flour bread. All tlie water added after scalding the 
meal should be lukewarm. When it has risen well, put it to bake in a brick 
oven or stove — the former should be hotter than for flour bread ; if a stove 
oven, it should be steamed two liours then baked one hour or more ; when, 
done it is a dark brown. The best article for baking this kind of bread is 
brown earthenware — say pans eight or ten inches in lieight, and diameter 
about the same; grease or butter the pans ; put in the mixture ; then dip 
your liand in cold water and smooth the loaf; after this slash the loaf both 
ways witli a knife, quite deep. Some let it rise a little before they put it 
to bake. Many people prefer this bread made of one-third rye flour instead 
of one-half. When it is diflScidt to get rye, wheat flour will answer as a 
substitute. It adds very much to the richness and flavor of this kind of 
bread to let it remain in the oven over night. 

Indian Bread, — Beat two eggs very light, mix them with one pint of 
sour milk (or butter with swe^t milk will do), then add a teaspoonful of 
soda or saleratus ; then stir in slowly one pint of Indian mesil, and one 
tablespoonful of melted butter ; beat these well together ; bake in a com- 
mon cake-pan in a quick oven. The bread can be made very good with- 
out eggs. 

Wiieat-and-Indian-Bread. —To two quarts of sifted Indian meal add 
hot water enough to wet the same ; when sufiiciently cooled, add one tea- 
spoonful or more of salt, half a pint of yeast and one-half teaspoonful of 
molasses ; then add wheat flour enough to make it into loaves ; (it should 
be kneaded well,) and when risen light, bake or steam it three or more hours ; 
if this should get sour while rising, add a teaspoonful of sugar and a little 
saleratus, dissolved in water. 

Potato Bread. — Boil the potatoes very soft, then peel and mash them 
fine. Put in salt, and very little butter — then rub them with the flour — wet 
the flour with lukewarm water — then work in the yeast, and flour till stiff to 
mould up. It will rise quicker than common wheat bread, and should be 
baked as soon as risen, as it turns sour very soon. The potatoes that the 
bread is made of should be mealy, and mixed with the flour in the propor- 
tion of one third of potatoes to two-thirds of flour. 

Rye and Indian I3read. — Two quarts rye meal, two quarts Indian meal, 
one teacup molasses, one teacup yeast, two teaspoons salt. Mix with warm 
water, soft so as to run into a pan ; let it rise three hours; stir in one tea- 
spoon dissolved saleratus. Steam or bake four or five hours. 

Corn Bread. — Take two quarts of milk, five eggs, half ounce salt, one 
teaspoonful saleratus, one tablespoonful of cream tartar, two ounces butter, 
and take Indian meal sufficient to make a thick batter; put into pans well 
greased, and then bake in a quick oven. 

French Bread.— Take nice rice, j{ lb. ; tie it up in a thick linen bag giv- 
ing enough room for it to swell ; boil from three to four hours till it becomes 



118 HOUSEHOLD. 

a perfect paste; mix while warm witli 7 lbs. flour; adding the usual quantitiea 
of yeast, salt, and water. Allow the dough to work a proper time near the 
fire, then divide intoloaves, dust them in, and knead vigorously. This quan- 
tity will make 13 lbs. 7 oz. of very nutritious bread. 

How To Know Good Flouk. — When flour is genuine or of the best kind, 
it holds together in a mass wiien squeezed by the hand, and shows tiie im- 
pressions of the fingers, and even of the marks of the skin much longer 
than when it is bad or adulterated ; and tlie dough made with it is very 
gluey, ductile, and elastic, easy to be kneaded ; and may be elongated, flat- 
tened, and drawn in every duection without breaking. 

Dyspepsia Bread. — The following receipt for making bread has proved 
highly salutary to persons afflicted with dyspepsia, viz : — 3 quarts unbolted 
wheat meal'; 1 quart soft water, warm but not hot ; 1 gill of fresh yeast ; 1 
gill molasses, or not, as may suit the taste ; 1 teaspoonful of saleratus. 

Corn-meal bread No. 1. — Take 2 qts. of corn meal witli about a pint of 
(thin) bi'ead sponge, and water enougli to wet it ; mix in al^out half a pint 
of wheat flour, and a tablespoonf ul of salt ; let it rise, and then knead well 
the second time ; bake 1^ hours. 

Corn-meal Bread No. 2. — Mix 2 qts. of new corn-meal with three pints 
of warm water ; add 1 tablespoonful of salt, 2 tablespoonfuls of sugar, and 
1 large tablespoonful of hop jeast ; let it stand in a warm place five hours 
to rise ; then add 1^ teacupfu! of wheat flour, and half a pint of warm 
water. Let it rise again 1^ hours, then pour it into a pan well greased with 
sweet lard and let it rise a few minutes. Then bake, in a moderately hot 
oven, 1 hour and 30 minutes. 

Sponge Bread. — For four loaves of bread, take three quarts of wheat 
flour and the same quantity of boiling water — mix them well together. Let 
it remain till lukewarm, then add a tea-cup full of family, or half a tea-cup 
of distillery yeast. Set it in a warm place to rise. When light, knead in 
flour till stiff enough to mould up, then let it stand till risen again before 
moulding it up. 

Making Yeast and Bread. — The best results can be obtained from the 
following modus operandi. First get a package of yeast cakes — any of the 
different kinds are good provided they are fresh — grate in a pan one coffee- 
cupful of potato, add one coffeecupful of sugar, one half cupful of salt, one 
level teaspoonful of ginger, and three quarts of boiling water ; set on the 
stove, stir constantly, and after boiling ten minutes, remove. When luke- 
warm, add two yeast cakes previously soaked in warm water, and set in a 
warm place to ferment. If made early in the morning, at night it will be 
ready to put in a clean, sweet jug, loosely corked ; after standing 24 hours, 
cork tightly, and in 24 hours more it will be ready for use. Before this is 
gone, make new again, adding two cups of the old to raise it with, and 
about every other time an additional yeast cake. 

After tea,at night — earlier in cold and later in warm weather — sift your 
flour, and to one coffeecupful of mashed potato, (we usually have them, either 
for breakfast or dinner, a good share of the year, and I cook enough for my 
bread,) add one quart of hot water, stirring to remove all lumps ; then add one 
pint of fresh, cold, sweet milk, put into your flour and stir, adding one coffee- 
cupful of the above yeast ; then mix thoroughly into a mass, care being taken 
against getting it too stifl" — but this is one of the things that cannot be de- 
scribed, but must be learned by experience. Cover the top with a little 
flour, and set in a warm place to rise. 

Early in the morning mix thoroughly again, and again set in a warm 
place to rise. When sufficiently light, mould hghtly into loaves. Now have 
your oven heated, as it rises quickly this time, and very much depends on 
the way you bake it. When even with the top of your tins, put in a hot 
oven. If it be so hot that in ten minutes your bread has commenc- 
ed to slightly brown, you may be sure of tine-grained, moist, spongy 
bread ; but if the oven is cool, the gas will escape, and your bread be coarse- 
grained and dry. After fifteen or twenty minutes, let your oven gradu- 



HOUSEHOLD. 119 

ally cool down. If you burn good hard wood, this can be easily regulated ; 
but with coal, it is far more difficult, but can be done. If your loaves are 
of small or medium size, forty-five or fifty minutes will bake theni ; if large, 
a longer time will be required. After taking them out of the oven, wrap 
them in a damp toAvel, and lay on their sides. 

Perhaps some may object to this plan as requiring too much labor but 
good white bread cannot be made without thorough mixing and attendance 
on the details ; for in making bread, as in everything else, the Utile thiiujs 
determine the difference between good and bad. With good wliite and 
brown bread, sweet butter, and plenty of canned fruit, no housewife need 
fear the unexpected visitor. 

New Method of Making Bread. — Tie up one pound and a half of the 
best American rice in a thick linen bag, allowing ample room to swell; boil 
it three or four hours until it becomes a smootli paste ; mix this while warm 
with fourteen pounds of the best flour, adding the usual quantities of yeast 
and salt ; allow the dough to work a certain time near the fire, after which 
divide it into loaves. The flour should be dusted in and most vigor- 
ously kneaded. This quantity of flour and rice has produced twenty-six 
poTinds thirteen ounces of this excellent bread, which kept moist and sweet 
longer than that made by the ordinary process. This is the new French 
viethod. 

Hop Yea8t. — Boil 5 gals, water and 10 ounces hops together from 10 to 
15 minutes ; put 6 lbs. flour in a tub, to which add as mucli of the boiling 
liquor as will be necessary to make a thick paste. When the remainder of 
the liquor is perfectly cool, add it, together with 1 gal. of stock yeast, to the 
paste, when the whole will be ready for use. 

Excellent Rolls. — Warm one ounce of butter in half a pint of milk ; 
put to it a spoonful and a half of yeast of small beer, and a little salt. Put two 
pounds of flour into a pan, and mix in the above. Let it rise an hour; 
knead it well; make into seven rolls, and bake in a quick oven. 

If made in cakes three inches thick, sliced and buttered, they resemble 
Sally Lunns. 

French Rolls. — One quart milk, one cup butter, two eggs, flour enough 
to knead. Let the dough rise twice in the dish, that is, after it rises once 
take it out, knead it over, let it rise again ; after this roll it out, cut it out 
■with a tumbler, double up roll fashion, and let them remain in the pan 
half an hour before baking. 

Delicate Breakfast Rolls. — Take one quart sifted flour.one measure 
Horsford's Preparation, one teaspoonful salt, three and a half gills water; 
drop with spoon into the " Gem" baking pans. Before mixing the above, 
set the " Gem" pan on the stove, butter it and let it get very hot before 
filling, so that the rolls will begin to bake as soon as they touch the pan. 

Graham Rolls. — As Graham flour cannot be sifted, take 1 % pints of 
Graham flour, 1 measure Horsford's Preparation. Roll the acid and soda 
separately, to free it from lumps, and with a spoon, mix each one thoroughly 
with the dry flour. Add one teaspoonful salt. To one pint of water, add 
half gill of molasses,with which wet the flour. A well-beaten egg improves 
these rolls. Bake like white rolls in " Gem" pans. 

Dutch Rusks. — Take three pounds of flour, half a pound of butter, a 
quarter of a pound of sugar ; mix half a pint of new milk with a quarter of a 
pint of yeast ; rub the flour, butter, and sugar together ; set sponge with 
the milk ; when risen, work up the dough, and make it into small balls ; 
bake on tins in a moderate oven for a quarter of an hour ; next day cut 
them in two, and dry them in the oven. 

Rolls. — Rub into a pound of flour half a teacupful of butter ; add half a 
teacup of sweet yeast, a little salt, and sufiicient warm milk to make a stiff 
dough, cover and put it where it will be kept warm, and it will rise in two 
hours. Then make into rolls or round cakes. They will bake in a quick 
oven in fifteen minutes. 

Biscuit. — Take one quart sifted flour (loosely put in), one "measure " 



120 HOUSEHOLD. 

Horsford's Bread Preparation, one'teaspoonful of salt, three gills of water. 
Sliape with a s})oon and the floured hand. 

Buttered Biscuits. — Rub one pound of butter into seven pounds of 
flour ; wet u}) witli one quart of warm water and lialf a pint of good yeast ; 
break down sniootii ; prove your dough well, and hake in a strong lieat. 

Brighton Biscuits. — Take one pound and a quarter of good moist su- 
gar, and roll it fine ; pass it tlirougli a sieve with two pounds and a half of 
flour ; rub in two ounces of butter ; make a liole in the middle, strew a few 
carraway-seeds, pour in half a pint of lioney water, and a quarter of a pint 
of milk ; beat it well witli your hand till about lialf the flour is incorporat- 
ed, then mix it together ; roll it out in thin sheets ; cut them out and 
place them on j'our buttered tins about two inches apart ; wash with a 
little beer, and bake them in a good steady heat. 

lliBBON Biscuit. — Take two and a quarter pounds of flour, lialf a pound 
of butter, one pound white sugar, three eggs, half a gill of milk ; flavor with 
a little mace and oil of lemon ; make dough and ])ut them through the pas- 
try syringe ; tlien cut them in any shape fancy dictates. Bake them in a 
moderate oven. 

Egg Biscuit. — Take eight pounds of flour, one pound of butter, mix 
the butter and flour together, and then take one pound and a quarter white 
sugar, and take twenty eggs to make dough, and then roll the paste out to 
the eighth of an inch in thickness, dot the sheet all over and then cut with 
a cutter the shape of an oak leaf ; then have a pot of boiling water and a 
pot of cold water, and let them remain in the boiling water until they come 
to the surface ; then take them out and put them into the cold water till 
they are properly cold, and take them out of the cold water and put them 
on tin pans, and bake them in a moderate oven. An invaluable and nutri- 
tious article for consumptives or invalids of any description. 

French Tea Biscuits. — Two pounds flour, two ounces butter, one-half 
pint milk, one egg, one-half cup sugar, one cup yeast. 

Shortened Biscuit. — To judge by the frequency of their appearance at 
most tables, no bread is more popular, yet none more easily or commonly 
spoiled by the carelessness of cooks, than biscuit. The rule for soda is to 
put only one teaspoonful to a gallon of flour ; hence, the small pinch required 
for the quart needed in a small family may be easily calculated. Soda 
should always be combined with some acid, so that if j'ou have no sour 
milk with wliich to make up your dough, nse a little tartaric acid, or even 
vinegar, to produce the desired fermentation. To one quart of flour a 
»mall tablespoonful of lard and a lump of butter the size of a hen's egg are 
iufRcient shortening to allow. If you make up your soda biscuit witli but- 
termilk instead of water, even a smaller quantity will sufiice. Biscuit to be 
good should be baked in a quick, well regulated oven, and be nicely browned. 
A teaspoonful of salt allow to a quart of flour. 

Travellers' Biscuit. — 2 lbs. of flour, ^ of a pound of sugar, ^ pound of 
butter, one teaspoonful of dissolved saleratus, milk sufficient to form a dough. 
Cut up the butter in the flour, add the sugar, and put in the saleratus and 
milk together, so as to form dough. Knead it till it becomes perfectly 
smooth and light. Roll it in sheets about % of an inch thick, cut the cakes 
with a cutter or the top of a tumbler. Bake in a moderate oven. 

Volatile Biscuits. — Mix one jiound of flour, lialf a pound of loaf 
sugar, and a quarter of a pound of butter into a paste, with two eggs and a 
teaspoonful of carbonate of ammonia dissolved in a little milk. 

Yorkshire Biscuits. — Mix a small teaspoonful of bi-carbonate of soda 
and a very little salt with a pound of flour ; rub in a quarter of a pound of 
butter; add one egg, well beaten, and as much buttermilk as will render 
the mass of a stiff paste ; knead till quite smootli ; roll it, cut out the bis- 
cuits ; prick them, and bake immediately in a moderately hot oven. 

Sponge Biscuit. — Stir into a pint of lukewarm milk half a tea-cup of 
melted butter, a teaspoonful of salt, lialf a tea-cup of family, or a table- 



HOUSEHOLD. 121 

spoonful of brewers' yeast, (the latter is the best ;) add fiom- till it is a very 
stiff batter. When light, drop tliis mixture by the large spoonful on to flat 
buttered tins, several inches apart. Let them remain a few minutes before 
baking. Bake them in a quick oven till they are a liglit brown. 

Abernethy Biscuit. — Take eight pounds of flour, 1^ lb. of butter, 1 quart 
of sweet milk, 12 ounces of sugar, 1 ounce of carawaj^ seeils, 6 eggs ; mix 
dough of the above, break them in pieces of about two ounces, mould them 
off, roll tliem out, prick tliem, and bake tliem in a moderate oven. 

Hard Biscuit. — Weigh out four pounds of flour, and rub three pounds 
and a lialf of it with four ounces of butter; four beaten eggs, and a couple of 
teaspoonfuls of salt. Moisten it witli milk, pound it out tiiin with a rolling- 
pin, sprinkle a little of tlie reserved flour over it liglitly — roll it up and pound 
it out again, sprinkle on more of the flour — this operation continue to re 
peat till you get in all the reserved flour — then roll it out thin, cut it into 
cakes with a tumbler, lay theni on flat buttered tins, cover them with a 
damp clotli, to prevent their drying. Bake them in a quick oven. 

Savoy Biscuit. — Take of sugar the weight of 14 eggs, of flour the 
weiglit of 6 eggs, beat the yolks and whites of 12 eggs, separate, grate in 
the rind of a lemon ; after being in the oven a few minutes grate on some 
sugar. You may add peach-water, or lemon juice, or any flavoring ex- 
tract. 

Lemon Biscuit. — Take 3^ lbs. white sugar, 4 lbs. flour, ^ ounce saleratus, 
i lb. suet, a little milk to wet the dough, cut them out about the size of mar- 
bles, put them on pans a little greased, and bake them in a hot oven and 
flavor them witli essence of lemon. 

Saleratus Biscuit. — Put a couple of teaspoonfuls of saleratus in a pint 
of sour milk. If you have not any sour milk, put a tablespoonful of vine- 
gar to a pint of sweet milk, set it in a warm place — as soon as it curdles, 
mix it with the saleratus — put in a couple of tablespoonfuls of melted but- 
ter, and flour to make them sufficiently stiff to roll out. Mould them up 
into small biscuits, and bake them inmiediately. 

York Biscuit. — 3 lbs. flour, |^lb. butter, ^Ibs. sugar; wet up, and raise 
with sour milk and saleratus. 

Butter-milk Biscuit. — Dissolve a couple of teaspoonfuls of saleratus in 
a teacup of sour milk — mix it witli a pint of buttermilk, and a couple of 
teaspoonfuls of salt. Stir in flour until stiff enough to mould up. Mould it 
up into small cakes, and bake themimmediatel}'. 

No. 1 Crackers. — Butter, 1 cup ; salt, 1 teaspoonful ; flour, 2 qts. Rub 
tlioroughly togetlier with the hand, and wet up with water ; beat well, and 
beat in flour to make quite brittle and hard ; then pinch off pieces and roll 
out each cracker by itself. 

Hard Crackers. — Warm two ounces of butter in as much skimmed milk 
as will make a pound of flour into a very stiff paste ; beat it with a rolling- 
pin, and work it very smooth. Roll it thin, and cut it into round biscuits ; 
prick tliem full of lioles with a fork. About six minutes will bake tliem. 

Sugar Crackers. — Flour, 4 lbs; loaf sugar and butter, of each -J lb; 
water, 1^ pts ; make as above. 

Crackers. — Rub six ounces of butter with two pounds of flour — dissolve 
a couple of teaspoonfuls of saleratus in a wineglass of milk, and strain it 
on to the flour — add a teaspoonful of salt, and milk enough to enable 3'ou 
to roll it out. Beat it with a rolling-pin for half an hour, pounding it out 
thin — cut it into cakes with a tumbler — bake them about fifteen minutes, 
then take them from the oven. When the rest of your things are bakeil 
sufiiciently, take them out, set in the crackers, and let them remain till 
baked hard and crispy. 

Soda Crackers. — Seven teacups flour, one-half tea-cup butter, two tea- 
spoonfuls cream tartar, one teaspoonful soda ; rub them thoroughly into 
the flour ; add one and a half cups of water ; work thoroughly ; pound the 
dough till it snaps. Bake quickly. 

RiOE Pancaices. — To half a pound of rice put two-thirds of a pint of wa- 

6 



122 HOUSEHOLD. 

ter, boil it to a jelly ; when cold, add to it eight eggs,a pint of cream, a little 
salt and nutmep;, and a half a pound of butter melted ; mix well, adding 
the butter last, and working it only so mncli as will make the batter suffi- 
ciently thick. Fry them in lard, but employ as little as it is possible to fry 
them with. 

FiiiTTKRS. — Are made of batter the same as pancakes. Drop a small 
quantity into the pan, have ready apples pared, sliced, and cored, lay them 
in the batter and fry them ; they may also be made with sliced lemon or 
currants ; the latter is particularly palatable. They should be sent to table 
upon a folded napkin in the dish ; any sweetmeat or ripe fruit will make 
fritters. 

Oyster Patties. — Put fine puff-paste into small patty-pans and cover 
them with paste, with a bit of bread in each ; bake them and by the time 
they are done have ready the following, to fill them with on taking out the 
bread : — Take off the beards of the oysters, cut the other parts into small 
bits, put them into a small tosser with a little nutmeg, a very little white 
pepper and salt, a shred of lemon-peel cut exceedingly small, a very little 
cream, and a small portion of the oyster liquor. Simmer this for a few 
minutes, then fill the patty pans and serve. 

CuEAM Fritters. — Mix a pint and a half of wheat flour with a pint of 
,i,ilk — beat six eggs to a froth, and stir them into the flour — grate in half a 
nutmeg, then adcl a pint of cream, a couple of teaspoonfuls of salt. Stir 
the whole just long enough to have the cream get well mixed in, then fry 
the mixture in small cakes. 

GoosEHERKY FRITTERS. — Make a thick batter, composed of six eggs well 
beaten, three-quarters of a pint of cream, a tablespoonful of yeast, a table- 
spoonful of orange-flower water, and a little grated nutmeg, adding as much 
flour as may be necessary to produce the proper consistence. Stew some 
gooseberries till quite tender ; mix them with the batter ; drop it into boil- 
ing lard, and fry to a good color. Strew sugar over them and serve. 

Cream Pancakes. — Mix two eggs, well beaten, with a pint of cream, two 
ounces of sifted sugar, six ounces of flour, a teaspoonful mixed of cinnamon, 
nutmeg, and mace. Fry the pancakes thin with a piece of butter. 

Indian Muffins. — One quart of Indian meal, one quart of wheat flour, 
eight eggs, two gills of yeast, a little salt, as much warm milk as will make 
the whoie into a thick batter, mix the Indian and wheat flour together, stir 
in the milk, then the yeast, and lastly the eggs ; after they have been well 
beaten : when the batter is light, grease the griddle and muffin rings, place 
the rings on the griddle, pour in the batter, bake them brown on 
both sides and serve hot. If for breakfast, set to rise the night previous ; 
if for tea, about 1 o'clock. 

Muffins. — One quart flour, prepared as above, one egg, one pint milk 
or water, so as to make a thick smooth batter ; bake in muffin rings. (If 
rich food is desired, add more eggs.) 

Rice Muffins. — One pint of rice, one cupful of milk, three eggs, and as 
much flour as will make a batter the consistence of pound-cake batter. 

Pancakes. — Beat up three eggs and a quart of milk ; make it up into a 
batter with flour, a little salt, a spoonful of ground ginger, and a little 
grated lemon-peel ; let it be of a fine thickness and perfectly smooth. 
Clean your frying-pan thoroughly, and put into it a good lump of dripping 
or butter. When it is hot, j)our in a cupful of batter, and let it run all 
over of an equal thickness. Shake the pan frequently, that the batter may 
not stick : and when you think it is done on one side, toss it over ; if you 
cannot, turn it with a slice; and when both are of a nice light brown, lay 
it on a dish before the fire ; strew sugar over it, and so do the rest. They 
should he eaten directly, or they will become heavy. 

Muffins —A quart of milk, 2 eggs, 2 spoonfuls of yeast, 2 lbs. of flour, 
a lump of butter size of an egg— which is to be melted in the milk — and a 
little salt ; the milk is to be warmed, find the ingredients added. Let it 
rise, and then turn the mixture into buttered pans, and bake to a light brown. 



HOUSEHOLD. 123 

Corn Griddle Cakes with Yeast. — Three coffeecnps sifted Inclian 
meal, one coffeec-up flour, two tablespoons yeast, one saltspoon salt. Wet 
nt night with water as thick as pancakes. In the morning add one teaspoon 
soda dissolveci. 

Flapjacks. — One quart of milk, four eggs, two tablespoons rye meal, 
two tablespoons yeast. 

Butter Cakes for Tea. — Beat two eggs, put them in lialf pint of milk 
and a teacup of cream, with half a teaspoonful of saleratus dissolved in 
the cream, a little salt, cinnamon and rose-water if you like, stir in sifted 
flour till the batter is smooth and thick. Bake them on a griddle or in a 
pan. Butter the pan well ; drop the batter in small round cakes and quite 
thin; they must be turned and nicely browned. Lay them on a plate 
with a little butter between each layer. 

Apple Fritters. — Peel, core, and slice one dozen fine apples, put tliem 
into a basin, and add a wineghassful of brandy and six drops of essence of 
lemon ; let them remain in this for some liours before use. When required 
take them out and strew them lightly in a frying pan prepared with heated 
lard; fry them until they arc of a light brown color, lay them on writing 
paper to drain, dust with powdered loaf sugar and then serve. 

Apple Fritters. — Tiiis is a favorite dish with many, and often prefer- 
reil to dumplings. We like them prepared tlius : Make a batter, not very 
stiff, with (me quart of milk, three eggs, and flour to bring it to a right 
consistence. I'are and core a "dozen large apples, and chop them to about 
the size of small peas, and mix them well in the batter. Fry them 
in lard, as you would doughnuts. For trimmings, we like powdered white 
sugar best, though good molasses answers very well ; tliey are good with 
either. 

Bread Fritters. — Strew half a pound of currants on a dish, and dredge 
them well with flour ; grate some bread into a pan until a pint of crumbs 
is produced ; pour over them a pint of boiling milk, in wliich two ounces of 
butter have been stirred ; cover the pan, and let it stand for an hour. Then 
beat the mixture thorougldy, and add half a nutmeg grated ; a quarter of a 
pound of white powdered sugar, and a wineglassfid of brandy. Beat six 
eggs till very light, and stir them by degrees into the mixture. Lastly add 
the currants, a few at a time, and mix the whole thoroughly. It should be 
brought to the consistence of a thin batter, and if it turns out too thin, add 
a little flour. Have ready over the fire a heated frying-pan with boiling 
lard. Put in the batter in large spoonfuls, and fry the fritters to a light 
brown.- Drain them on a perforated skimmer, or an inverted sieve, placed 
in a deep pan, and send them to table hot. Serve with wine and powdered sugar. 
Indian Slap Jacks. — Scald a quart of Indian meal — when lukewarm, 
turn, stir in half a ])int of flour, lialf a teacup of yeast, and a little salt. 
When light, fry them in just fat enougli to prevent their sticking to the 
fr^'ing pan. Another method of making tliem, which is very nice, is to 
turn boiling milk or water on to the Indian meal, in the proportion of a 
quart of the former to a pint of the latter — stir in three tablespoonfuls of 
flour, three eggs well beaten, and a couple of teaspoonfuls of salt. 

Crumpets. — Take three teacups of raised dough and work into it, with 
the hand, half a teacup of melted butter, three eggs, and milk to render it 
a thick batter. Turn it into a buttered bake-pan — let it remain fifteen 
minutes, then put on a bake-pan, heated so as to scorch flour. It will bake 
in half an hour. 

Rice Waffles. — Take a teacup and a half of boiled rice ; warm it with 
a pint of milk, mix it smooth ; tlien take it from the fire, stir in a pint of 
cold milk, and a teaspoonful of salt. Beat four eggs, and stir them in to- 
gether witli sufficient flour to make a thick batter. 

Quick Waffles. — Mix flour and cold milk together, to make a thick 
batter. To a quart of tlie flour put six beaten eggs, tablespoonful of 
melted butter, and a teaspoonful of salt. Some cooks add a quarter of a 
pound of sugar, and h.alf a nutmeg. Bake them immediately. 



124 HOUSEHOLD. 

Breakfast Butter Cakes. — One quart of sour milk, one teaspoonful 
saleratus, a little salt, one and a half cup sugar, a little ginger, and flour 
enough to make a stiff batter. 

Buckwheat Cakes. — Take one quart of buckwheat meal, half a cup 
of new yeast, a tea-spoonful of saleratus, a little salt and sufficient new 
milk or cold water to make a thick batter. Put it in a warm place to rise. 
When it has risen sufficiently, bake it on a griddle ; must be well buttered, 
and the cakes are better to be small and thin. 

Buckwheats with Yeast. — One quart buckwheat flour, one teaspoon 
ealt. Stir in warm water to make a thin batter ; beat throughly ; four 
tablespoons home-brewed yeast. Set the batter in a warm phice. Let 
it rise over night. Add one teaspoon soda in the morning ; two table- 
spoons molasses. 

Buckwheat Cakes without Yeast. — One quart buckwheat, one small 
cup Indian meal, one teaspoon soda, dissolved in water enough to make a 
batter, two teaspoons cream-tartar. Bake on a griddle. Yeast buckwheats 
are best. 

Potato Fritters. — Boil two large potatoes, scrape them fine ; beat four 
yolks and three whites of eggs, and add to the above one large spoonful 
of cream, another of sweet wine, a squeeze of lemon and a little nutmeg. 
Beat this batter half an hour at least: will be extremely light. 

Venetian Fritters. — Wash and drain three ounces of whole rice, put 
it into a full pint of cold milk, and bring it very slowly to boil ; stir it often 
and let it simmer gently until it is quite thick and dry. Wlien about three parts 
done, add to it two ounces of pounded sugar, and one of fresh butter ; 
a grain of salt, and the grated rind of half a small lemon; let it cool in the 
saucepan, and when only just warm, mix with it tlioroughly three ounces 
of currants, four of apples, chopped fine, a teaspoonful of flour and three 
large, or four small, well beaten eggs ; drop the mixture in small fritters ; 
fry them in butter, from five to seven minutes, and let them become quite 
firm on one side before they are turned ; do this with a slice, drain them as 
they are taken up, and sift white sugar over them after they are dished. 

Whole rice, three ounces ; milk, one pint ; sugar, two ounces ; but- 
ter, one ounce ; grated rind of one-half a lemon ; currants, tliree ounces ; 
minced apples, four ounces ; flour, one teaspoonful; a little salt ; eggs, three 
large or four small. 

Plain Indian Cakes. — Take a quart of sifted Indian meal, sprinkle a 
little salt over it, mix it with scalding water, stirring; bake on a tin stove 
oven. Indian cake is made with buttermilk, or sour milk, with a little 
cream or butter rribbed into the meal, and a teaspoonful of saleratus. 

Best New-England Johnnt-Cake. — Take one quart of buttermilk, one 
teacup of flour, two-thirds of a teacupful of molasses, a little salt, one tea- 
spoonful of saleratus, one egg (beat of course) ; then stir in Indian meal, 
but be sure and not put in too much. Leave it thin, so that it will almost 
run. Bake in a tin in any oven, and tolerably quick. If it is not first rate 
and light, it will be because you make it too thick with Indian meal. Some 
prefer it without the molasses. 

Green Corn Cake. — Mix a pint of grated green corn with three table- 
spoonfuls of milk, a teacup of flour, half a teacup of melted butter, one 
egg, a teaspoonful uf salt, and half a teaspoonful of pepper. Drop this 
mixture into hot butter by the spoonful, let the cakes fry eight or ten min- 
utes. These cakes are nice served up with meat for dinner. 

Cheesecake. — Beat eight eggs thoroughly while a quart of milk is boil- 
ing, and when it boils, put in the eggs and stir them till thej' come to a 
curd; then pour it out, and wlien it is cold, add a saltspoonful of salt, two 
teaspoonfuls of rose-water, and tliree-quarters of a pound of currants well 
washed ; put it into a puff paste and bake it. If tin patties are used for 
baking, they must be buttered ; but if they are baked in glass or china, 
only an upper crust will be necessary. 

Cheese Potted. — Add to a pound of grated Cheshire cheese, three 



HOUSEHOLD. • 125 

ounces of fresh butter, half a tablespoonfnl of sifteil mace, and a teaspoon- 
ful of mustard. Mix all thorouglilj' in a marble mortar, put it into small 
pots, cover it with clarified butter, and set the pots in a cold, dr^- place. 

Cheese Toasted. — Tliis preparation is po[)ularly known as IVelsh rabbit 
or rarebit. Cut some double or single Gloucester cheese into thin shavings, 
and put it with a bit of butter into a clieese-toaster; place it before the fire 
until the cheese dissolves, stirring it occasionally. Serve with a slice of 
toasted bread divided into four, and the crust pared off. It is generally 
eaten witli mustard, salt, and pepper. 

Cheesecake Bread. — Slice a half-quartern loaf as thin as possible, pour 
on it a pint of boiling cream, let it stand for two hours ; then take eight 
eggs, half a pound of butter, and a nutmeg grated, beat them well together, 
add lialf a pound of currants, and bake in pattypans. 

Cheese Sandwiches. — Take two parts of grated Parmesan or Cheshire 
cheese, one of butter, and a small proportion of made mustard ; pound 
them in a mortar ; cover slices of bread with a little of this, and lay over 
it slices of ham or any cured meat; cover with another slice of bread, 
press them together, and cut into mouthfuls that they may be lifted with 
a fork. 

Almond Cheesecake. — Take three or four bitter, and one ounce of 
sweet almonds ; boil and skin tliem ; put them into a mortar with two 
oimces of loaf sugar, and the yolks of two eggs ; pound them fine ; then 
rub two ounces of butter to a cream, and mix all together: put puff paste 
in the patties ; fill it tliree parts full with tlie batter ; lay a few cut almonds 
over tlie top ; sugar over, and bake tliem in a steady oven. 

Common Cheesecakes. — Take four ounces of butter, beat it with a 
wooden spoon in a warm pan or basin till it comes to a fine cream ; tiien 
add four ounces of powdered sugar, beat it well ; add the yolk of one egg ; 
beat again, tlien add one wliole egg ; beat all well together, and mix in 
four ounces of clean currants ; lay your puff paste in the patties, fill tiiera 
lialf full ; shake a little sugar over, and bake tliem in a good heat. 

CuKD Cheesecakes. — "Warm one pint of new milk ; stir in a bit of ren- 
net, keep it warm till a nice curd appears, break it to pieces, and strain the 
whey through a hair sieve ; then having your mixture prepared as for com- 
mon cheesecakes, but without any currants, put it into the sieve witli tlie 
curd, anil rub it all tlirough together ; then mix in your currants, fill them 
out ; bake tliem as in the last receipt. 

A Good Pound Cake. — Beat a pound of butter to a cream, and mix 
with it the whites and yolks of eight eggs beaten apart. Have ready, 
warm by the fire, a pound of flour, and tiie same of sifted sugar, mi.x them, 
and a few cloves, a little nutmeg and cinnamon in fine powder togetlier; 
then by degrees work the dry ingredients into tlie butter and eggs. When 
well beaten, add a glass of wine and some -araways. It must be beaten a 
full hour. Butter a pan, and bake it a full hour in a quick oven. 

The above proportions, leaving out four ounces of tlie butter, and the 
same of sugar, make a less luscious cake, and to most tastes a more pleas- 
ant one. 

Pound Cake. — Mix a pound of sugar with three-quarters of a pound of 
butter. When worked wliite, stir in the yolks of eight eggs, beaten to a 
froth, then the whites. Add a pound of sifted flour and mace or nutmeg 
to the taste. If you wish to have your cake particularly nice, stir in, just 
before j'ou put it into the pans, a quarter of a pound of citron, or almonds 
blanched and powdered fine in rosewater. 

IIalf-Pound Cake. — One pound of sugar, one pound of flour, one-half 
pound of butter, eight eggs ; dissolve one teaspoon of saleratus in the juice 
of a lemon. 

French Cake. — One pound of sugar, three-quarters of a pound of but- 
ter, a pound and a half of flour, twelve eggs, a gill each of wine, brandj^ 
and of milk. Mix the sugar and butter together — when white, add the 
eggs, beaten to a froth, (the whites and yolks should be separated) — then 



126 . HOUSEHOLD. 

stir in tlie flour, the milk and wine, find one-fourth of a grated nutmeg. 
Just before it is baked, add tliree-qiiarters of a pound of seeded raisins, a 
quarter of a pound of citron, and a quarter of a pound of ahiionds, blanched 
and pounded fine. 

Apple Cake. — Peel and core eight or ten good sized apples, add tlie peel 
of one lemon and lialf a stick of ciimanion. Make them into a marmalade 
with a half pint of water ; boil the whole witli one pound of loaf sugar, and 
keep stirring until it falls in masses from the spoon, when it will be done. 
Turn it out when cold into moulds or dishes, and add cream or custard. 

Centennial Cake. — Rub two pounds of dry fine flour, with one of but- 
ter, mix it with tliree spoonfuls of yeast in a little warm milk and water. 
Set it to rise an hour and a half before the fire; then beat into it two 
pounds of currants, one poimd of sugar sifted, four ounces of almonds, six 
ounces of stoned raisins, chopped fine, half a nutmeg, cinnamon, allspice, 
and a few cloves, tlie peel of a lemon chopped as fine as possible, twelve 
yolks and whites of eggs, beat separately and long. Beat exceedingly well, 
and butter the pan. A quick oven. 

Light Tea Cake. — One cup sugar, two eggs, one-half cup melted but- 
ter, one and one fourth cup of milk, two teaspoons cream-tartar, one tea- 
spoon soda, flour to make a stiff batter. It will bake in twenty minutes if 
the oven is hot. 

Mountain Cake. — 1 cup of sugar, 2 eggs, half cup of butter, half cup 
of milk or water, 2 cups of flour, teaspoonful of cream of tartar, half a tea- 
spoonful of soda, nutmeg. 

Corn Starch Cake. — J lb. of sugar, 4 oz. of butter, 5 eggs, 1 teaspoon- 
ful cream of tartar, | teaspoonful soda, |^ lb. of corn starch,^ a gill of sweet 
milk 

Poor Man's Cake. — 1 cup of sugar, ^ cup of butter, 1 cup sour creara, 
1 egg, flour enough to make a good batter, -J a teaspoonful of saleratus. 

Cup Cake. — Mix three tea-cups of sugar with one and a half of butter. 
When white, beat three eggs, and stir them into the butter and sugar, to- 
getlier with three tea-cups of sifted flour, and rosewater or essence of 
lemon to the taste. Dissolve a teaspoonful of saleratus in a tea-cup of 
milk, strain it into the cake, then add three more tea-cups of sifted flour. 
Bake the cake immediately, either in cups or pans. 

Scotch Cake. — Stir to a cream a pound of sugar, and three-quarters of 
a pound of butter — put in the juice and grated rind of a lemon, a wine 
glass of brandy. Separate the whites and yolks of nine eggs, beat them to 
a froth, and stir tliem into the cake — then add a pound of sifted flour, and 
just before it is put in the cake pans, a pound of seeded raisins. 

Spice Cake. — One cup sour milk, one cup sugar, half cup butter, one 
cup raisins, two and a half cups flour, one egg, one teaspoon soda. 

Buttermilk Cake. — One cup butter, two cups buttermilk, three cups 
sugar, four eggs, five cups flour, soda enough to sweeten the buttermilk. 

Loaf Cake. — Three cups of 3'east, three and a iialf cups of sugar, two 
cups of butter, one cup of sour milk, four eggs ; stir tiie butter, sugar, and 
eggs together ; two teaspoons of soda, nutmeg, cinnamon, and raisins. 

Silver Cake. — Two cups flour, one and one-half cups sugar, one-lialf 
cup sweet milk, half cup butter, whites of four eggs, one teaspoon cream 
tartar, scrtHf, one-half teaspoon soda,, scaiit ; spice with vanilla; bake in a 
slow oven. 

■ Gold Cake. — One cup butter, two cups sugar, three cups flour, one-half 
cuj) sweet milk, yolks of six eggs and one whole egg, on£ teaspoon cream- 
tartar, one-half teaspoon soda; flavor with lemon. Use the two whites left 
for frosting. 

Marble Cake. For the white cake. — One cup butter, three cups white 
sugar, five cups flour even full, one-half cup sweet milk, one-half teaspoon 
soda, whites of eight eggs ; flavor with lemon. 

Marble Cake. For the dark cake. — One cup butter, two cups brown 
sugar, one cup molasses, one cup sour milk, one teaspoon soda, four cups 



HOUSEHOLD. 127 

flour, yolks of eiglit eggs, and one whole egg ; spices of all sorts. Put in 
pans first a lajer of dark cake, then a layer of the white, and so on, finish- 
ing with a layer of dark cake. Bake in a hot oven. 

Cider Spiced Cake. — One-half cup butter, one cup and one-half sugar, 
one cup cider, one egg, two teaspoons of cinnamon, two of cloves, half a 
nutmeg, one teaspoon soda, flour enough to make a stiff batter. 

One-Egg Cake. — One and a half cup sugar, one egg, three cups flour, 
one cup milk, piece butter size of an egg, one even teaspoon cream tartar, 
one-half teaspoon soda. Lemon to taste. 

Luncheon- Cake. — One pound flour, one-half pound raisins, chopped, 
one-half pound sugar, one-half pound butter ; two eggs, one-half pint mo- 
lasses, dark spices, one-half teaspoon soda, dissolved in a teacup of warm 
milk. 

Coffee Cake without Eggs. — One cup and a half of cold coffee, one 
cup and a half of sugar, half a cup of molasses, nearly one cup of butter, 
one cup of chopped raisins mi.xed with flour, one cup of currants, one tea- 
spoonful of saleratus, little over ; one wineglass of wine or brandy, little 
citron, one nutmeg, cloves, cinnamon and spice ; stir with flour as stiff as 
fruit cake. 

Measure Cake. — Six cups sugar, eight eggs, three cups butter, two 
teaspoons cream-tartar, two cups milk, one teaspoon soda, ten cups flour, 
raisins and spices to taste. 

Loaf Cake. — Take 2 lbs. of flour, i lb. of sugar, X lb. of butter, 3 eggs, 
1 gill of milk, ^ teacupful of sweet yeast, cloves and nutmeg for spice. 

Delicate Cake. — One coffee cup of sugar, one coffee cup of flour, one- 
half cup of butter, whites of four eggs ; grate the rind of a lemon. 

Seed Cake. — Four cups of flour, one and a half cup of cream or milk, 
half a cup of butter, three eggs, half a teacupful of caraway seeds, a tea- 
spoonful of saleratus, the same of rosewater ; make it into a stiff paste, and 
cut them out with a tumbler or biscuit-cutter ; bake about twenty minutes. 

Puff Cake. — Two cups sugar, three cups flour, one cup butter, three 
eggs, one cup milk, one teaspoon soda, two teaspoons cream-tartar. 

Clove Cake. — One pound flour, one pound sugar, one-half pound but- 
ter, one pound raisins, four eggs, teacup sweet milk, teaspoon soda, table- 
spoon cloves, tablespoon nutmeg, tablespoon cinnamon. 

Cymbals. — Half a pound of sugar, a quarter of a pound of butter, a 
couple of eggs, half a nutmeg, a teaspoonful of saleratus, half a teacup of 
milk. Stir the butter and sugar together, then add the eggs and a little 
flour, stir in the milk and saleratus, which should be previously strained, 
tlien add enough flour to make it stiff enough to roll out — roll it out half 
an inch thick in pounded white sugar, cut it with a tumbler into cakes, 
and bake them on flat buttered tins. 

Mus. Brown's Cake. — One and a half cup butter, two and a half cups 
molasses, five cups flour, teaspoon saleratus. Citron, currants, raisins, 
cloves, allspice, and nutmeg to taste. 

Mock Lady Cake. — Three cups flour, two cups sugar, one-half cup but- 
ter, one cup sweet milk, whites of four eggs, one teaspoon cream tartar, 
one-half teaspoon soda. Flavor with peach, rose, or vanilla. 

White Citron Cake. — Beat one pound butter to a cream ; one pound 
flour, one pound sifted loaf sugar, eight well-beaten eggs, one-half pound 
almonds, blanched and cut in small pieces ; one-quarter pound citron ; beat 
well, and bake in greased tins, lined with paper. 

Washington Cake. — Stir together, till quite white, a pound of sugar, 
three-quarters of a pound of butter, then add four beaten eggs. Stir in 
gradual!}' a pound and a half of flour. Dissolve a teaspoonful of saleratus 
in a teacup of milk, strain and mix it with a glass of wine, then stir it into 
the cake, together with a teaspoonful of rosewater, and half a nutmeg. 
Just before it is baked, add a ])ound of seeded raisins. 

Whigs. — A kind of cake made in the following manner: Hub a quarter 
of a pound of butter into two pounds of flour ; with half a pint of warm 



128 irousEnoLD. 

creiUTi and a gill of ale yeast, make it up into a light paste, and set it before 
the fire to rise. Grate a nutmeg witii some beaten mace and cloves, a quar- 
ter of an ounce of carawa}" seeds, and a quarter of a pound of sugar; 
work all thoroughly together ; roll tiie dough out tolerably thin, and make 
the cakes up into any size and form desireil. The usual way is to make a 
large round cake, and to cross it so that it may be easily divided into quar- 
ters when made up ; put them on tin plates ; set them before the fire, or in 
front of the oven, till they rise again, then bake them in a quick oven. 

Doughnuts and Crullers. — One and a half teacups sugar sifted, one- 
lialf teacup butter, one-half teacup milk, three eggs, one nutmeg, teaspoon- 
ful saleratus. Flour stiff enough to roll. Boil in lard until well browned. 

Austin Cake. — Three cups sugar, one cup butter, five cups flour, one 
and a half cups milk or water, one and a half cup chopped raisins, two 
eggs, two tablespoonfuls molasses, one teaspoon soda dissolved in water. 
Salt and spice. 

Sugar Snaps. — One cup butter, two cups sugar, three eggs, one tea- 
spoon soda, one tablespoon ginger. Flour to roll. 

California Cake. — Two cups sugar, one cup water, one cup butter, 
tliree cups flour, two eggs, one teaspoon cream tartar, one-half teaspoon 
soda. Spice to taste. 

Railroad Cake. — One cup sugar, one cup flour, three eggs, — beat the 
whites separately, — two tablespoonfuls melted butter. Bake in one loaf. 

Light Tea Cake. — One cup sugar, two eggs, half cup melted butter, 
one and one-fourth cups milk, flour to make a stiff batter, two teaspoons 
cream-tartar, one teaspoon soda. Bake twenty minutes in a hot oven. 

CocoANUT Cakes. — Take equal weights of grated cocoanut and pow- 
dered white sugar, (the brown part of the cocoanut should be cut off before 
grating it) — add tlie whites of eggs beaten to a stiff froth in the proportion 
of half a dozen to a pound each of cocoanut and sugar. There should be 
just eggs enough to wet up the whole stiff. Drop tlie mixture on to but- 
tered plates, in parcels of the size of a cent, several inches apart. Bake 
them immediately in a moderately warm oven. 

Cocoanut Cake. — Two pounds sugar, one pound butter, one and three- 
quarter pounds flour, ten eggs, two grated cocoanuts, one cup milk, and the 
milk of the cocoanuts ; add one-half teaspoon soda last thing. This makes 
two loaves. 

Cocoanut Drops. — Half pound grated cocoanut, half pound white 
sugar, whites of three eggs. Mix and drop on greased and papered tins, 
and bake in a slow oven. 

Tea Cakes. ->— Rub fine four ounces of butter into eight ounces of flour; 
mix eight ounces of currants and six of fine sugar, two yolks and one white 
of eggs. Roll the paste the thickness of a cracker, and cut witli a wine 
glass. You may beat the other whites, and wash over them ; and either 
dust sugar or not, as you like. 

Common Cake. — Rub eight ounces of butter into two pounds of flour, 
mix it with three spoonfuls of yeast. Let it rise an hour and a half ; then 
mix in the j'olks and wliites of four eggs, beaten apart, one pound of sugar, 
some milk, to make it a proper thickness (about a pint will be sufficient), 
the rind of a lemon, and a teaspoonful of ginger. Add either a pound of 
currants, or some caraways, and beat well. 

Lemon Cake. — Stir together till very white, a pound of sugar, half a 
pound of butter — tiien add eight eggs, beaten to a froth (the whites and 
yolks should be beaten separately), the grated rind of two lemons, and the 
juice of half a lemon. Stir in gradually a pound of sifted flour. Line a 
couple of cake pans with white buttered paper, turn the cake into them, and 
bake it in a quick oven. 

Lemon Cake. — One-half cup butter, two cups sugar, two eggs, one cup 
milk, three cups flour, one teaspoon soda, two teaspoons cream tartar, the 
grated rind of one lemon. 

Victoria Cakes. — Mix well a quarter of an ounce of baking-powder 



HOUSKHOLD. 129 

with half a pound of flour ; beat a quarter of a pound of butter to a cream ; 
add to it two eggs, well beaten, and a quarter of a pound of pounded loaf 
sugar. Then gradually blend tliis mixture with the flour, and make it into 
a paste. Dredge a little flour on the board, and lay on it a piece of paste 
about the size of an egg ; roll it round very lightly, and make it shapely 
with the hand ; lay it on an iron baking-plate, and press it gently till it as- 
sumes the shape of a bun, about four inches in diameter. Leave a good 
space between each cake, as the}' spread in the baking. Let the oven be 
moderately hot; they will take about ten or twelve minutes. 

Macaroons. — Soak half a pound of sweet almonds in boiling-hot water, till 
the skin will rub off easily ; wipe them dry. Wiien you have rubbed off 
the skins pound them fine with rose-water. Beat the whites of three eggs 
to a stiff froth ; then stir in gradually half a pound of powdered white sugar ; 
then add the almonds. When the almonds are well nii.xed in, drop the mix- 
ture in small parcels on buttered baking-plates, several inches apart ; sift 
sugar over them, and bake them in a slow oven. 

New Year's Cookies. — Weigh out a pound of sugar, three-quarters of 
a pound of butter — stir them to a cream ; then add three beaten eggs, a gra- 
ted nutmeg, two table-spoonsful of caraway seed, and a pint of flour. Dis- 
solve a teaspoonful of saleratus in a tea-cup of milk, strain and mix it with 
half a tea-cup of cider, and stir it into the cookies — then add flour to make 
them sufficiently stiff to roll out. Bake them as soon as cut into cakes, in a 
quick oven, till a light brown. 

Jumbles. — Stir together till of a light color, a pound of sugar and half the 
weight of butter — then add eight eggs beaten to a froth, essence of lemon, 
or rosewater, to the taste, and flour to make them sufficiently stiff to roll 
out. KoU them out in powdered sugar, about half an inch thick ; cut it into 
strips about half an inch wide, and four inches long ; join the ends together, 
so as to form rings — lay them on flat tins that have been buttered. Bake 
them in a quick oven. 

Plain Cake. — Mix two pounds of dry flour with four ounces of clean 
dripping, melted in a pint of milk, three table-spoonsful of yeast, and two 
well beaten eggs ; mix well together, and set aside in a warm place to rise ; 
then knead well and make into cakes ; flour a tin, and place it in the oven 
in a tin ; caraway seeds or currants may be added. 

Sponge Cake. — Take six eggs, two teacupfuls of sugar, one and a half 
of flour, one teaspoonful of cream of tartar, one-half teaspoonful of soda, 
and one teaspoonful essence of lemon ; beat the whites of the eggs till very 
light; mix the yolks with the sugar ; beat till very smooth; mix the soda 
and cream of tartar with the flour ; then add to tlie former mixture ; then add 
the lemon. The whole sliould be stirred slowly till the top is covered with 
bubbles. Bake in a quick oven. 

Sponge Cake. — Sift one pound of flour and one pound of loaf sugar; 
take the juice of one lemon, beat ten eggs verj' light ; mix them well with 
the sugar ; then add the lemon and flour ; if baked in a pan, two hours is 
necessary. 

Almond Sponge Cake. — Eight ounces almonds blanched and pounded, 
two ounces flour, one-half pound of sugar, yolks of seven eggs, whites of 
five eggs. 

Queen Cakes. — Mix a pound of dried flour, the same of sifted sugar, 
and of washed clean currants. Wash a pound of butter in rose-water, beat 
it well, then mix it with eight eggs, yolks and whites beaten separately, and 
put in the dry ingredients by degrees ; beat the whole an hour ; butter lit- 
tle tins, teacups, or saucers, and bake the batter in ; filling only half. Sift a 
little fine sugar over just as you put into the oven. 

Frosting for Cake. — Ten teaspoonfuls powdered sugar to the white of 
an egg. Beat five minutes for each spoonful of sugar. 

Cream Cake. — One cup sour cream, one cup sugar, two and a half cups 
flour, two eggs, one teaspoon soda. 

Cream Cake Without Eggs. — Four cups flour, three cups sugar, one 

fi* - • 



130 HOUSEHOLD. 

cup butter, two cups sour cream, tliree teaspoons saleratus dissolved in a 
little cold water, one-half a o^rated nutnieg, and a teaspoon essence of lemon. 
Boston Cream Cakes — For the Outside. — One pint water, one-half 
pound butter, three-quarters pound floin*, ten eggs ; boil the water and but- 
ter together; stir in the flour wliiie boiling ; take it from tlie fire to cool ; 
wlien cold, add the eggs by breaking tiieni into the mixture one at a time; 
stir them in very tiiorougldy, but be sure not to beat them ; add a teaspoon- 
ful of cold water ; drop them into your pan ; form them with a spoon, as 
they do not rise mucli. Bake fifteen or twenty minutes in a hot oven, and 
do not open the door till they are done. 

Mixture for Inside. — Two cups sugar, one cup flour, one pint milk, 
four eggs ; boil the milk ; beat the eggs, sugar and flour together ; stir 
them into the milk, while boiling, until thickened ; next add essence of 
lemon, to flavor ; when the mixture is cool fill your cakes. 

Jelly Cake. — One heaping cup butter, two and a half cups sugar, five 
cups flour, one cup milk, teaspoon soda, four eggs, a little nutmeg. Bake 
on plates. For four cakes. 

Orange Jelly Cake. — Juice and rind of two oranges, thickened with 
powdered sugar, stir in one package of desiccated cocoanut, leaving enough 
to sprinkle on top layer ; four eggs, half a cup of butter, two cups sugar, 
one cup of water and flour, enough to make the butter bake as for jelly 
cake, spreading the dry cocoanut on top layer. 

Fruit Cake. — One pound of flour, one of sugar, three-quarters of a 
pound of butter, two pounds of seeded raisins, two of currants, one of cit- 
ron, a quarter of a pound of almonds, half an ounce of mace, a teaspoonful 
of rose-water, a wine-glass full of brandy, one of wine, and ten eggs ; stir 
the sugar and butter to a cream ; then add the whites and yolks of the eggs, 
beaten separately to a froth — stir in the flour gradually ; then the wine, 
brand}' and spice ; add the fruit just before it is put into the pans. It 
takes over two hours to bake it if the loaves are thick — if the loaves are 
thin, it will bake in less time. This kind of cake is the best after it 
has been made three or four weeks, and it will keep good five or six 
months. 

Fruit Cake. — One pound sugar, one pound flour, one pound butter, ten 
eggs, one cup molasses, saleratus to make it foam ; five pounds fruit, one 
pound citron, one glass brandy, two glasses wine ; cloves, cinnamon, and 
mace. Bake six hours in a slow oven. This is excellent. 

Cheap Fruit Cake. — To one quart of sifted flour add a teacup of sugar, 
a half a cup of butter, two teaspoonfuls of cream-tartar, one of soda ; rub 
them all thoroughly together into the flour; stir in cold water sufiicient to 
make a stiff batter ;■ pour it i:uo a small tin pan ; bake one hour — in a quick 
oven tlie first half hour, then quite slow; spice with any kind to suit the 
taste, and add a teacup of raisins. 

Fruit Cake Without Eggs. — Two pounds of flour, one and three- 
quarter pounds of sugar, one-half pound of butter, one pint of milk, one- 
half teaspoon salt, one and a half teaspoon soda dissolved in a little water, 
one nutmeg, one pound of raisins. This makes three loaves. Warm the 
milk, and add the butter and sugar beaten to a cream ; then add the other 
ingredients. 

Every-day Fruit Cake. — One cup butter, four eggs, two cups sugar, 
one grated nutmeg, one pint flour, one pound raisins, one cup boiled cider, 
or sour milk, one cup molasses, one-half teaspoon soda ; cloves, cinnamon, 
and mace to taste. 

Currant Cake. — One-half cup btitter, two cups sugar, one cup milk, 
one egg, one teaspoon soda, two teaspoons cream-tartar, flour for a good 
batter, large luindful of currants. 

IIaisin Cake. — One cup butter, one cup sour milk, one cup molasses, 
two cups sugar, three eggs, six cups flour, one teaspoon soda, one cup rais- 
ins. Spice to taste. 

Plum Cake. — Flour one pound, butter one-quarter pound, sugar one- 



HOUSEHOLD. 131 

quarter pound, currants one-quarter pound, three eggs, one-half pint of 
milk, carbonate of soda, a small teaspoonful. 

Ginger Biscuits. — Take three ounces of fresh butter, two pounds of 
flour, three ounces of pounded sugar, and two of ginger finely powdered; 
knead these ingredients into a stiff paste, with new milk; roll it thin; 
stamp out the biscuits witli a cutter, and bake them in a slow oven until they 
are crisp riglit through, b)it keep them of a pale color. 

Sponge Gingerbread. — Two tablespoons of butter, two cups of molas- 
ses, one cup of milk, teaspoon of soda, ilour to make a pretty stiff batter ; 
ginger to suit. 

Ginger Cookies. — One cup of sugar, one of butter, one of molasses, 
one tablespoonful of ginger, one of cinnamon, and two teaspoonfuls of sal- 
eratus dissolved in three tablespoonfuls of hot water. Bake quickly. 

Ginger Nuts. — 1. Flour dried and sifted, one pound ; treacle, one 
pound ; good moist sugar, three ounces ; fresh butter, one-quarter pound ; 
ground ginger, one and one-half ounces ; citron and candied orange peel, 
cut small, tliree-quarters of an ounce eacli ; melt the butter with the trea- 
cle, and wlien it is about milk-warm, add it to the flour and other ingredi- 
ents, and then mix all well togetiier; with a spoon drop tiie nuts upon but- 
tered tins, and bake them. 2. Dissolve one-quarter jiound of butter in 
three-quarters of a pound of treacle, put it into a pan large enough to con- 
tain the rest of the ingredients, and when almost cold stir one pound of dried 
and sifted flour, one-half pound of coarse, brown sugar, one-half ounce of 
caraway seeds, three-quarters of an ounce of ground ginger, and the peel of 
a lemon grated ; mix all of these well together, and let it remain till the 
following day ; tlien make it into nuts by pincliing it into pieces with the 
finger and thumb. Bake them upon buttered tins in a quick oven. 3. Flour, 
three pounds ; sugar, one pound ; butter, one and one-half pounds ; treacle, 
three and one-halt' pounds ; ginger, two ounces ; allspice, one ounce ; can- 
died orange and lemon peel, two ounces each, chopped fine ; one lemon peel 
grated; ancfone nutmeg ground, and a wine-glass full of brandy; rub the 
flour and butter togetiier, add the other ingredients, and mix the whole into 
a paste ; divide it into pieces the size of a nut and bake them on tins. 

Ginger Cakes. — Take three quarters of an ounce of powdered ginger, 
one pound of fine flour well-dried, three-quarters of a pound of the 
best Lisbon sugar, and half a pound of butter ; mix these ingredients with 
water to a stiff paste, roll it out, cut out the cakes, and bake them on a tin 
in a slow oven. 

Lapland Cakes. — These are the most delicate of all tea-cakes, and de- 
liglitful if made by a scrupulously careful cook. Take five eggs, beat the 
whites and yolks separately till both are as light as maybe ; then mix them 
together and add one pint of rich cream, with as much flour as will make it 
the consistency of pound-cake batter. This quantity we have ascertained 
by experiment to be about one pint of sifted flour ; half fill small tin 
shapes with the batter, and set it to bake in a well-heated oven. Ten nn"n- 
utes should suffice for the baking, and the cakes should be sent to table 
while piping hot. 

Plainer Lapland Cakes. — Beat two eggs very light ; add one quart 
of sweet milk, and stir it in sifted flour and a little saltimtil it is of the con- 
sistency of \yaffle batter ; bake them quickly in tin puff pans. Cakes 
made by this recipe are nice, but not equal, of course, to those made by the 
former directions. 

Shrewsbury Cake. — Stir together three-quarters of a pound of sugar, 
half a pound of butter. When wliite, add five beaten eggs, a teaspoonful of 
rose-water, or a nutmeg, and a pound of flour ; drop it with a large spoon 
on to flat tins that have been buttered — sift sugar over them. 

Bath Cakes. — Mix well together one pound flour, one-half pound but- 
ter, five eggs and a cup full of yeast ; set the whole before tiie fire to rise ; 
after it rises add one-quarter of a pound of white sugar, and one ounce cara- 
way seeds well mixed in, and roll the paste into little cakes. Bake them on tins. 



132 HOUSEHOLD. 

Plain Cream Cake. — Dissolve a teaspoonful of saleratus in a wine glass 
of milk; strain it on to a little sifted flour ; beat tliree eggs witli a tea-cup of 
rolled sugar ; mix them with the above ingredients, together with lialf a 
grated nutmeg ; add a tea-cup of thick cream and sifted flour, to render it 
of the consistency of imbaked pound cake. Bake it as soon as the 
cream and flour are well mi.xed in, as stirring the cream much decomposes 
it. 

Rich Cream Cake. — Stir togetlier till very white, half a pound of but- 
ter, three-quarters of a pound of sugar ; beat tiie whites and yolks of seven 
eggs separately to a frotli ; stir them into the cake — put in a wine-glass of 
brandy, a grated nutmeg, and a pound and a half of sifted flour. Just 
before it is baked, add half a pint of thick cream, and a pound of seeded 
raisins. 

White Cake. — Two cupfuls of sugar and half a cupful of butter ; three- 
fourtlis of a cupful of milk ; the whites of six eggs ; three cupfuls of 
sifted flour, with a teaspoonful of cream-tartar mixed througli it ; half a 
teaspoonful of soda, thoroughly dissolved in a little milk, vanilla or almond 
extract. 

Strawberry Siiort-Cake. — One teacupful of sour milk (not butter- 
milk), a piece of butter the size of a walnut, one-tliird of a teaspoonful of 
soda, one-quarter teaspoonful of salt ; mix very lightly and bake in a quick 
oven. While baking take one and one-half pints of strawberries, mashed 
fine in tlie hand ; when tlie cake is cooked enough cut in two, taking off 
about one-tliird, leaving two-thirds at the bottom ; spread each part thickly 
with batter; then put on the large portion a layer of sugar; then the berries, 
then sugar, and lastly, turn the other part over. Serve immediatel}'. 

TuNBRiDGE Cake. — Six ounces of butter, the same quantity of sugar, 
three-quarters of a pound of flour, a couple of eggs, and a teaspoonful of 
rose-water ; stir to a cream the butter and sugar, then add the eggs, flour, 
and spice. Roll it out thin, and cut in into small cakes. 

Delicate Tea Cake. — The whites of three eggs beaten to a froth, one 
cup of pulverized white sugar, one-half cup sweet milk, one teaspoonful of 
cream of tartar, one-lialf teaspoonful of soda, two and one-half cups of flour, 
a teaspoonful of almonds, one-half cup of melted butter. 

Chocolate Cake. — One cupful of butter, two cupfuls of sugar, the 
yolks of five eggs and whites of two, one cupful of milk, three and one-half 
cups of flour, one half a teaspoonful of soda, one teaspoonful of cream of 
tartar, sifted in the flour. Bake in jelly cake tins. 

Mixture for Filling. — Whites of three eggs, one and one-lialf cupfuls 
of sugar, tlirce tablespoonfulsof grated chocolate, one teaspoonful of vanilla; 
beat well together and spread between the layers and on top of the cake. 

Rich Soda Cake. — One pound of pulverized loaf-sugar mixed with 
three-quarters of a pound of sweet butter, the beaten whites of fourteen 
eggs, and two teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar, sifted with a pound of flour, 
and lastly, a teaspoonful of soda dissolved in half a teacupful of sweet 
milk, and strained. Bake immediately. 

Soft Molasses Gingerbread. — Melt a teacup of butter — mix it with a 
pint of molasses, a tablespoonful of ginger, a pint of flour, and a couple of 
beaten eggs. Fresh lemon peel cut into small strips improves it ; dissolve 
a couple of teapoonsfuls of saleratus in half a pint of milk, and stir it into 
the cake ; add flour to render it the consistency of unbaked pound cake. 
Bake it in deep pans about half an hour. 

Ginger Snaps. — Take seven pounds of flour, one quart of molasses, one 
pound of brown sugar, one pound of butter, two ounces ground ginger, and 
then take one gill oif water, three-quarters of an ounce of saleratus ; mix 
them all into dough, and cut them out something larger than marbles, and 
bake them in a moderate oven. 

Light Gingerbread (home recipe). — To three quarts of flour put one 
pound of butter and three eggs, three pints of molasses and three teaspoon- 
fuls of pearl ash, dissolved in half a teacupful of sour cream or buttermilk. 



nousEiiOLD. 133 

Unlike biscuit, gingerbread requires a good deal of soda to make it rise, and 
therefore pearl-ash is used, as being stronger. If soda is preferred, one des- 
sert-spoonful will not be found too much to allow to a quart of flour. This 
cake is better wlien the batter is poured in shallow pans tlian when made 
into dough, rolled out, and cut in shapes. Your success must, after all, 
depend ver}' much upon the kind of molasses used, for the connnoner sorts 
will not make cake any more than will syrup. Flavor with ginger, and add 
other spices to your taste. 

Gingerbread. — Mix together three and one-half pounds of flour, three- 
quarters of a pound of biUter, one pound sugar, one pint molasses, quarter 
pound ginger, and some ground orange-peel. 

Apple Pie. — Make a good puff paste and lay it round the inside of the 
dish you intend using ; peel, core, and slice a sufficient number of apples 
according to the size of tiie dish, and lay half of them in, cover these witli 
sugar, and add half a lemon peel grated, with a few drops of the juice, a 
sprinkling of cloves, and half a stick of bruised cinnamon ; tlien put in tlie 
rest of the apples and sprinkle again with sugar ; add the upper crust and 
bake. 

Cream Pie. — One tablespoonful of wliite sugar, one egg, one table- 
spoonful of flour, one tablespoonful melted butter ; add sweet milk enough 
to fill your pie plate, and lemon if preferred. This should be baked with 
but one crust. 

Mince Pie. — The best kind of meat for mince pies is neat's tongue and 
and feet. The shank of beef makes very good pies. Boil the meat till per- 
fectly tender — then take it up, clear it from the bones and gristle; chop it 
fine enough to strain through a sieve ; mix it with an equal weight of tart 
apples, chopped very fine ; moisten the wliole with cider — sweeten it to the 
taste with sugar, and very little molasses — add mace, cinnamon, cloves and 
salt to the taste. If you wish to make your pies ricli, put in wine or brandy 
to the taste, and raisins, citron, and Zante currants. The grated rind and 
juice of lemons improve the pie. Make the pies on sliallow plates, with 
apertures in the upper crust, and bake tliem from half to three-quarters of 
an liour, according to the heat of tiie oven. Meat prepared for pies in the 
following manner will keep good for several months, if kept in a cool, dry 
place : To a pound of finely chopped meat, a quarter of a pound of suet, 
put half an ounce of mace, one ounce of cinnamon, a quarter of an ounce 
of cloves, two teaspoonfuls of salt. Add if you like the following fruits : 
half a pound of seeded raisins, half a pound of Zante currants, a quarter of 
a pound of citron. 

Currant and Gooseberry Pie. — Currants and gooseberries are the 
best for pies when of a full growth, just before they begin to turn red ; they 
are tolerably good wlien ripe. Currants mixed with ripe raspberries or 
mulberries, make very nice pies. Green currants and gooseberries for pies 
are not apt to be sweet enougli unless the sugar is scalded in before they 
are baked, as the juice of tlie currants is apt to run out while they are bak- 
ing, and leave the fruit dry. Stew them on a moderate fire, with a teacup 
of water to a couple of quarts of currants ; as soon as tliey begin to break, 
add the sugar, and let it scald for a few minutes. Wlien baked without 
stewing, put to each layer of fruit a thick layer of sugar. There should be 
as much as a quarter of a pound of sugar to a pint of currants, to make 
them sufficientl}' sweet. Green currant pies are good sweetened with molas- 
ses and sugar mixed. 

Sweet JMarlborodgh Pie. — Procure sweet, mellow apples, pare and 
grate them, to a pint of tlie grated pulp put a pint of milk, a couple of eggs, 
two tablespoonfuls of melted butter, the grated peel of a lemon, and half 
a wine-glass of brandy ; sweeten it to the taste witli nice brown sugar. 
The eggs should be beaten to a froth; then the sugar stirred into them and 
mi.xed with the rest of the ingredients. A little stewed pumpkin, mixed 
with the apples, improves the pie. Bake the pie in deep plates, without an 
upper crust. 



134 HOUSEHOLD. 

Pumpkin Pie. — Halve the pumpkin; take out the seeds — rinse the pump- 
kin, and cut it into small strips ; stew them, over a moderate fire, in just 
sufficient water to prevent their burning to the bottom. 

CocoANUT Pie. — Cut off the brown part of tiie cocoanut; grate the 
wliite part, and mix it with milk, and set it on the fire, and let it boil slowly 
eight or ten minutes. To a pound of the grated cocoanut allow a quart of 
milk, eight eggs, four tablespoonf uls of sifted white sugar, a glass of wine, 
a small cracker, pounded fine, two tablespoonfuls of melted butter, and 
half a nutmeg. Tlie eggs and sugar should be beaten together to a froth, 
then the wine stirred in. Put them into the milk and cocoanut, which 
should be first allowed to get quite cool; add the cracker and nutmeg; 
turn the whole into deep pie plates, witli a lining and rim of puff paste. 
Bake them as soon as turned into tiie plates. 

Tart Pie. — Sour apples, cranberries, and peaclies, and all nice tarts. 
Stew, and strain them wlien soft. Peacli tarts require a little lemon-juice, 
without they are sour; grate in lemon peel, add brown sugar to tiie taste. 
Put in each pie one beaten egg to make it cut smooth. Bake the pies on 
shallow plates, with an under crust and rim of pastry ; ornament the pie 
with very small strips of pastry. Wlien.tlie crust is done, remove the pies 
from the oven. 

Prune Pie. — Prunes that are too dry to eat without stewing, can be 
made into good pies. Turn enougli boiling water on tlie prunes to cover 
tiiem ; set them on a few coals, and let them remain till swelled out plump. 
If tiiere is not water sufficient to make a nice syrup for tlie pies, add more, 
and season them with cinnamon or cloves. The juice and grated peel of a 
lemon gives tliem a fine flavor. Add sugar to the taste, and bake them in 
deep pie plates. 

Grape Pie. — Grapes make the best pies when very tender and green. 
If not very small, they should be stewed and strained, to get out the seeds, 
before they are made into pies. Sweeten them to the taste when stewed: 
they do not require any spice. If made into a pie without stewing, put to 
each layer of grapes a thick layer of sugar, and a tablespoonful of water. 

Rice Pie. — To a quart of boiling water, put a small teacup of rice ; 
boil it till very soft, then take it from the fire, and add a quart of cold milk ; 
put in a teaspoonful of salt, a grated nutmeg, five eggs beaten to a frotli ; 
add sugar to the taste, and strain it through a sieve. Bake it in deep pie 
plates, with an under crust and rim of pastry ; add if you like a few raisins. 

Peach Pie. — Take mellow, juicy peaches — wash and put them in a 
deep pie plate, lined with pie crust. Sprinkle a thick layer of sugar on each 
layer of peaches, put in about a tablespoonful of water, and sprinkle a 
little flour over>the top; cover it with a thick crust, and bake the pie from 
fifty to sixty minutes. Pies made in this manner are much better than with 
the stones taken out, as the prusslc acid of the stone gives the pie a fine 
flavor. If the peaches are not mellow, they will require stewing before 
being made into a pie. Dried peaches should be stewed soft, and sweetened, 
before tliey are made into a pie ; they do not require any spice. 

Mince Pies without Meat. — Take of currants, apples chopped fine, 
moist sugar, and suet well chopped, a pound of each ; a quarter of a pound 
of raisins stoned and chopped small, the juice of four Seville oranges, the 
juice of two lemons, the rind of one shred fine, nutmeg and mace to suit the 
palate, and a glass of brandy. Mix all together, put it in a pan, and keep it 
closely tied up. 

Apple Tart, with Quince. — Prepare the apples as for apple pie, and lay 
them in a dish ; then stew two quinces with a little water, sugar, and butter, 
and pour them on tlie apples ; then add a layer of pounded sugar, and the 
rind of a lemon grated ; cover with puff-paste, and bake to a light brown. 

Marlborough Tarts. — Take tart, juicy apples — quarter them, and stew 
them till soft enough to rub through a sieve. To twelve tablespoonfuls of 
the strained apple, put twelve of sugar, the same quantity of wine, six table- 
spoonfuls of melted butter, four beaten eggs, the juice and grated rind of a 



HOUSEHOLD. 135 

lemon, half a nutmeg:, and half a pint of milk. Turn this, when the ingre- 
dients are well mixed together, into deep pie plates that are lined with pastry, 
and a rim of puff ])aste round the edge. Bake the tarts about half an hour. 

Oxford Dumplings. — Take eight ounces of biscuit that is pounded tine, 
and soak it in just sufficient milk to cover it. When soft, stir in three beaten 
eggs, a tablespoonful of flour, and a quarter of a ])ound of Zante currants. 
Grate in half a nutmeg, and do up the mixture into balls of tiie size of an 
egg; fry them till a liy lit brown. 

Apple Dumplings. — Pare tart, mellow apples — take out the cores witli 
a small knife, and till the holes with sugar. Make good pie crust ; roll it out 
about two-thirds of an inch thick ; cut it into pieces just large enough to en- 
close one apple. Lay the apples on them, and close the crust tight over 
them ; tie them up in small pieces of thick cloth, that has been well floured ; 
put the dumplings in a pot of boiling water, and boil them an hour with- 
out any intermission ; if allowed to stop boiling, tliey will be heavy. Serve 
them up with pudding sauce, or butter and sugar. 

Lemon Mince Pies. — Take a large lemon, squeeze the juice from it, and 
boil the outside till it becomes soft enough to beat to a smash ; put to it three 
large apples, four ounces of suet, the same of sugar, and half a pound of 
currants ; add the juice of the lemon, and some candied fruit, the same as 
for other pies. Make a short crust, and fill tlie patty-pans in the usual way. 

Cherry Tart. — Line the sides of a dish with good crust, strew in sugar, 
fill it with picked cherries, and put sugar at the top ; red currants may be 
added if liked ; cover with crust, and bake. 

Currant Tart. — Line a dish with puff paste, strew powdered sugar over 
the bottom of it ; then put in alternate layers of currants carefully picked, 
and sugar, till the dish is full ; then cover and bake it. The addition of ras- 
berries or mulberries to currant tart is a great improvement. 

Quince Tart. — Take a few preserved quinces, put an equal weiglit of 
gyrup, made vvitii sugar and water and preserve, into a preserving pan ; boil, 
skim and put in the fruit ; when somewhat clear, place the quinces in a tart- 
dish with puff paste as usual. Cover, bake it, and when done lift the top 
gently, put in the syrup, ice it, and serve. 

Summer Mince Pies. — Four crackers, one cup and a half sugar, one 
cup molasses, one cup cider, one cup water, two-thirds cup butter, one cup 
chopped raisins, two eggs beaten and stirred in last thing. Brandy and 
spice to taste. 

Lemon Cream Pie. — One cup sugar, one cup water, one raw potato 
grated, juice and grated rind of one lemon. Bake in pastry top and bottom. 
This makes one pie. 

Ground Rice Pudding. — Mix a pint and a half of ground rice, smooth, 
with a quart of milk ; stir in a glass of wine, a quarter of a pound of melteil 
butter, a teaspoonful of salt, and spice to the taste. Beat eiglit eggs, and 
stir them in ; turn the whole into a buttered pudding dish, and when it has 
baked a few minutes, add half a pound of raisins, or Zante currants. 

A Baked Rice Pudding, without Eggs. — Pick over and wash two small 
teacups of rice, and put it into two quarts of milk. Melt a small teacup 
of butter, and put in, together with two of sugar, a grated nutmeg, and a 
couj)le of teaspoonfuls of salt, and bake the pudding about two hours. 
This pudding does not need any sauce, and is good either hot or cold. If 
you wish to have tlie pudding very rich, add, when it has been baking five 
or six minutes, half a pound of raisins. 

Sago Pudding. — Rinse half a pound of sago in hot water, till it is thor- 
ougldy cleansed; then drain off the water, and boil the sago in a quart of 
milk, with a stick of cinnamon or mace. Stir it constantly, or it will burn. 
Wlien soft, take it from the fire ; take out the stick of cinnamon, 
and put in a quarter of a pound of butter. Mix a wine glass of wine with 
four large spoonfuls of fine sugar, and stir it into the sago; add, when 
cold, five beaten eggs, and bake the pudding in a deep dish, with a lining 
and rim of pastry. Strew over the pudding a quarter of a pound of Zante 



136 HOUSEHOLD. 

currants, and bake it directly, in a quick oven. It is the best when 
cold. 

Tapioca Pudding. — To a quart of warm milk put eight tablespoonfuls 
of tapioca. Let it soak till it softens ; then stir it up, and put to it a couple 
of tal)lespoonf uh ot melted butter ; four beaten eggs, and cinnamon or mace 
to tlie taste. Mix four tablepoonfuls of white powdered sugar witli a wine 
glass of wine, and stir it into the rest of the ingredients. Turn the wliole 
into a pudding disii that lias a lining of pastry, and bake it immediately. 

Almond Pudding. — Turn boiling water on three-quarters of a pound of 
sweet almonds. Let them remain in it till the skins will slip off easily — rub 
tiie skins otf with a dry cloth. When they are perfectly dry, pound them 
fine, with a tablespoonful of rose-water. Beat six eggs to a froth, then mix 
them with four. 

Lemon Pudding. — Grate the rind of two fresh lemons, being careful not 
to grate any off tlie white part. Squeeze the juice out of the lemons, and 
strain it, to separate it from the seeds. Mi.x it with six large spoonsfuls of 
fine wliite sugar. Take a quart of milk, and mix it with the rind of the 
lemons, a couple of tablespoonfnls of pounde<l crackers, and a tablespoon- 
ful of melted butter. Beat six eggs to a froth, and stir them into the milk. 
Stir in the lemon-juice and sugar last, add then turn the whole into a pud- 
ding dish that has a lining and rim of puff paste. Bake it from twenty-five 
to thirty minutes. It should not be eaten till it is cold. 

English Plum Pudding. — This dish is prepared in a variety of ways, 
the following being the best receipts : L Take a pound of fresh beef-suet, 
very finely minced, a pound of raisins stoned and chopped, a pound of cur- 
rants cleaned and dried, a pound of flour, the grated peel of a lemon, half of 
a nutmeg, six well-beaten eggs, an ounce of candied orange-peel and half an 
ounce of candied lemon peel minced, half a pound of brown sugar, a wine- 
glassful of brandy and a teacupful of cream. Mix all the ingredients well 
with the flour. Boil the pudding in a clotli, put it into a copper of boiling 
water, and keep it boiling for seven hours. Before serving, strew grated 
loaf sugar over it. 2. A pound of raisins stoned, half a pound of currants 
well cleaned, a pound of fresh beef suet finely minced, five tabiespoonfuls of 
grated bread, three tabiespoonfuls of flour, two of brown sugar, one tea- 
spoonful of pounded ginger, one of cinnamon and one of salt ; six eggs well 
beaten, and a gill of rum : mix these thoroughly together the day before it 
is to be boiled ; boil it in a cloth or mould for four or five hours. 3. Take 
a pound of the best raisins stoned, and a pound of currants ; chop very small 
a pound of fresh beef-suet, blanch and pound two ounces of sweet almonds 
and half an ounce of bitter ones : mix the whole well together with a pound 
of sifted flour, and the same weight of crumb of bread soaked in milk, 
squeeze it dry and stir with a *poon until reduced to a mash, before it is 
mixed with the flour. Cut into small pieces two ounces each of preserved 
citron, orange, and lemon-peel, and add a quarter of an ounce of mixed 
spice ; put a quarter of a pound of moist sugar into a basin with eight eggs, 
well beaten ; stir this with the pudding, and make it of a proper consistence 
with milk. Pour a gill of brandy over the fruit and spice mixed together 
in a basin, and allow it to stand three or four hours before the pudding is 
made, stirring occasionally. Tie it in a cloth, and boil it for five hours. - 4. 
Take half a pound of grated bread, a quarter of a pound of finely-minced 
suet, a tablespoonful of flour, half a poimd of currants, two ounces of brown 
sugar, and a wineglassful of brandy : mix all altogether with a sufficient 
quantity of milk to make it into a stiff batter; boil it in a cloth for four 
liours. 

Rice Snow Balls. — Pare small, tart apples, and take out the cores with 
a small knife — fill the cavity witii a stick of cinnamon or mace. Put each 
one in a small floured bag, and fill the bags about half full of unground rice. 
Tie up the bags so as to leave a great deal of room for the rice to swell ; put 
them in a pot of water, with a tablespoonful of salt to a couple of quarts 
of water. 



HOUSEHOLD. 137 

A Quaker Pudding. — Slice up tliree quarters of a pound of bakers' 
bread ; beat eight eggs to a froth, stir in several large spoonfuls of sugar, 
and mix it witli a quart of milk, and a grated nutmeg. Turn it on to the sliced 
bread — let the wiiole remain till tlie bread lias soaked up most of tlie milk, 
then stir in a couple of tablespoonfuls of flour, a teaspoonful of salt, and 
turn it into a pudding bag, and boil it an hour. Serve it up with rich 
sauce. 

Rice Pudding, with Eggs. — Boil a quarter of a pound of unground rice 
in a quart of milk till soft, then stir in a quarter of a pound of butter. Take 
it from the fire, put in a pint of cold milk, a couple of teaspoonfuls of salt, 
and a grated nutmeg. When it is lukewarm, beat four eggs with a quarter 
of a pound of sugar, and stir it into the pudding — add half a pound of 
raisins, and turn the whole into a buttered pudding dish, and bake it tiiree 
quarters of an hour. 

Baked Indian Pudding. — Boil a quart of milk, and turn it on to a pint 
of sifted Indian meal. Stir it well, so as to scald tlie meal — then mix three 
table spoonfuls of wlieat flour with a pint of milk. 

Boiled Indian Pudding. — Stir enough sifted Indian meal into a quart of 
boiling milk or water.to make a very stiff batter; then stir in a couple of table- 
spoonfuls of flour, tliree of sugar or molasses, lialf a spoonful of ginger, or 
a couple of teaspoonfuls of cinnamon, and a couple of teaspoonfuls of salt. 
Two or three eggs improve the pudding, but are not essential : some people 
like a little chopped suet in them. The pudding will boil, so as to be very- 
good, in the course of three hours, but it is better for being boiled five or 
six hours. Some cooks boil tiiem eight or nine hours : wlien boiled so long, 
it is necessary to boil them several hours the day before they are to be 
eaten. 

Cracker Pudding. — Mix ten ounces of finely pounded crackers with a 
wineglass of wine, a little salt, and half a nutmeg, three or four table- 
spoonfuls of sugar, two of melted butter. Beat eight eggs to a froth — mix 
them with three pints of milk, and turn tliem on to the rest of the ingre- 
dients. Let it remain till the crackers begin to soften, tlien bake it. 

Corn Puddings. — Grate sweet green corn — to three teacups of it wlien 
grated put two quarts of milk, eiglit eggs, a couple of teaspoonfuls of salt, 
half a teacuj) of melted butter, and a grated nutmeg. Bake the pudding 
an hour ; serve it up with sauce. 

Cottage Pudding. — One teacuj)f ul of sugar and half a cupful of butter, 
creamed together ; yolks of three eggs, and wliite of one ; after tliey have 
been beaten, a cupful of milk (reserving out enough to dissolve half a tea- 
spoonful of soda); one pint of sifted flour, with a teaspoonful of cream-tartar 
mixed through it. At the last moment add the soda, thoronghly dissolved, 
bake in a buttered cake-pan. Make a frosting witii llie wliites of two eggs 
beaten to a stiff froth, with half a large cupful of sugar stirred in. As soon 
as it is baked, spread the frosting on. Set it on tiie ice ; then serve with 
wine sauce, made with two cupfuls of brown sugar, one cupful of butter, 
two eggs, and one cupful of sherry wine. Beat all together very light 
before you add tlie wine. Let it steam, not boil (put it into a tin bucket, and 
place it in a vessel of boiling water), stirring all the time until it scalds and 
thickens. Put a teaspoonful of vanilla into the sauce-bowl, and pour the 
sauce over it. 

Plum Pudding. — Pound 6 crackers, and soak them over night in milk 
enough to cover them, then add 3 pints of milk, 4 or 5 eggs, raisins ^ lb., 
spice with nutmeg and sweeten with sugar and molasses. Bake about 
2 hours. 

Hard Times Pudding. — i pint of molasses or syrup, J pint water, 2 tea- 
spoonfuls of soda, 1 teaspoonful of salt, flour enough to make a batter; 
boil in a bag three liours. Eat it with sauce. 

Apple Custard. — Take apples, pared, cored, and slightly stewed, suffici- 
ent to cover the dish, 8 eggs, 1 qt. of milk; spice to your taste ; bake it j^ of 
an hour. 



138 nOUSEHOLD. 

Apple Pudding, Baked. — Peel and core twelve large apples, and pnt 
tliein into a saucepan with a teacupful of water ; boil tlieni until very soft, 
beat tliem well, and stir in a quarter of a pound of butter, a pound of loaf 
sugar, tlie peel of two lemons cut into shreds, the juice of three ; the yolks 
of eight eggs, previous!}' beat up ; mix all well together, turn into a dish 
lined with puff-paste, and bake in a moderate oven. 

Apple Pudding, Boiled. — Peel, core, and slice apples in sufficient quanti- 
t}' for the size of the pudding intended, make a good puff-paste, roll it out 
to about half an inch in thickness, place the apples in, and close up the 
crust, tie it up in a cloth, and set it on the fire ; if it is a moderate sized 
pudding, two hours will be suflBcient to boil it ; if large, three hours will be 
required. 

Apple Pudding, Swiss. — Line a dish with tliin paste, put in a layer of 
sliced apples and sugar, then a thin layer of pounded rusks that have been 
soaked in milk, then another layer of apples, and another of rusks; add 
melted butter, and powdered sugar. 

Apple Puffs. — Peel and core a sufficient number of apples, and stew 
them in a stone jar in the oven ; then let then cool, and mix the pulp with 
sugar and lemon peel shred fine. Bake them in thin paste, and in a quick 
oven. 

Apple Snowballs. — Pick and wash well three quarters of a pound of 
rice, boil it in plenty of water for a quarter of an hour, then drain, and let 
cool. Pare and core (but without dividing them) half a dozen large apples, 
enclose them in the rice separately, and boil them for one hour. When 
eaten, a little butter and sugar, with powdered nutmeg or cinnamon, will 
improve their flavor. 

Cocoanut Pudding. — To a large grated cocoanut add the whites of 6 
eggs, ^ lb of sugar, 6 ounces of butter, -J- a wineglassful of rose-water, and 
bake in or out of paste. 

Winter Pudding. — Take tlie crust of baker's loaf of bread, and fill it 
with plums, boil it in milk and water. 

Rice Pudding. — Take 1 lb. of rice, boiled well with rich milk, stirring 
well until it is soft, and then add i lb. butter, 12 eggs, well beaten, and 
spice to your taste, and bake it. 

Snowdon Pudding. — Prepare one pound of sponge-cake batter in the 
following maimer, to be baked in a thin sheet ; To one pound of eggs, 
weighed in the shell, put one {)ound of pulverized white sugar, and ten oun- 
ces of flour. Flavor with the juice and grated rind of a fine fresh lemon, or, if 
that is not accessible, a teaspoonful of pure extract of lemon. When 
baked and while hot, spread over the cake a layer of some nice preserves, 
strawberry or' raspberry jam being especially nice for the purpose. Make 
it into a roll as neatly as possible, and strew with powdered sugar. Serve 
with sweet sauce, made in tiiese proportions: Allow one ounce of sugar 
(brown is best) to each person to be served, half that amount of butter 
creamed, tlie yolk of one egg, and a gill of white wine, flavoring highly alsit 
with a fresh lemon. Be sure, in preparing this sance, to let it simmer slowly 
until just boiling hot, when it will be sufficiently cooked. This pudding 
makes a suitable dessert throughout the cold season, and is very generally 
relished. 

Baked Potato Pudding. — Baked potatoes skimmed and mashed, 12 
oz., suet 1 oz., cheese grated fine, 1 oz., milk 1 gill. Mix the potatoes, suet 
milk, cheese and all together. If not of a proper consistence, add a little 
water. Bake in an earthen pot. 

Dandy Pudding. — Four eggs broken and beaten separately, five table- 
spoonfuls of hot sugar, to be added to the whites after they are well beaten 
so that they will stand alone. Four heaping tablespoonfuls of brown sugar 
must be beaten into the yolks with two tablespoonfuls of corn starch ; one 
quart of boiling milk ; pour over the yolks, stirring until well mixed. Any 
flavoring may be used that suits one's taste. The whites are to be put on 
top and nicely browned. 



HOUSEHOLD. 139 

Orange Pudding- — Take 1 lb. of butter, 1 lb. of sutjar, 10 egs^s, the 
juice of ii oranges, boil the peel, then pound it fine and mix it with the juice; 
add the juice of 1 lemon, a wineglassful of brandy, wine and rose-water. If 
you do not have the fruit add the extracts. 

Custard Pudding. — Take 1 pint of milk, 4 spoonfuls flom-, G eggs, spice 
to your taste and bake. 

Baked Pudding. — 5 tablespoonfuls of corn starch to one quart of milk, 
dissolve the starch in a part of the milk ; heat the remainder of the milk 
to nearly boiling, having salted it a little ; then add the dissolved starcli to 
the milk; boil 3 minutes, stirring it briskly ; allow it to cool, and then thor- 
oughly mix with it three eggs, well beaten, with 3 tablespoonfuls of sugar; 
flavor to taste, and bake it 5 an hour. This pudding ranks second to none. 

Almond Custards — Blanch and pound fine, with a table spoonful of rose- 
water, four ounces of almonds. Boil them four or five minutes in a quart 
of milk, with sufficient white sugar to sweeten the milk. Take it from the 
fire, and when lukewarm, stir in the beaten yolks of eight, and the whites 
of four eggs. Set the whole on the fire, and stir it constantly until it thick- 
ens ; then take it up, stir it till partly cooled, and turn it into cups. If you 
wish to have the custards cool quick, set the cups into a pan of cold water ; 
as fast as it gets warm, cliange it. Just before the custards are to be 
eaten, beat the reserved whites of the eggs to a froth, and cover the top of 
the custards with them. 

Cream Custards. — Sweeten a pint of cream with powdered white sugar; 
set it on a few coals : when hot, stir in white wine imtil it curdles — add 
rose-water or essence of lemon to the taste, and turn it into cups. Another 
way of making them, which is very nice, is to mix a pint of cream with 
one of milk, five beaten eggs, a tablcspoonful of flour, and three of sugar. 
Add nutmeg to the taste, and bake the custards in cups or pie plates in a 
quick oven. 

Mottled Custards. — Stir into a quart of milk, while boiling, the beaten 
yolks of six eggs. Beat the whites of the eggs with three tablespoonfuls 
of powdered white sugar, if the custards are liked very sweet — if not, a less 
quantity will answer. Stir in the whites of the'eggs a minute after the yolks 
have set, so as to be thick. Season the custard with essence of lemon or 
rosewater — stir it till it becomes thick and lumpy ; then turn it into cups. 

Custard. — This dish is usually partaken of cold, and is either poured 
over fruit tarts, confections, &c., or served separately in custards cups. The 
flavoring may be given according to taste. 

Custard, BaJced. — Mix a quart of new milk with eight eggs well beaten, 
strain the mixture through a fine sieve, and sweeten it with six ounces of 
sugar; add a quarter of a saltspoonful of salt, and po>ir the custard into a 
deep dish, with or without a lining or rim of paste ; grate nutmeg and lemon 
peel over the top, and bake it in a very slow oven from twenty to thirty 
minutes, or even longer, should it not be firm in the centre. A custard, if 
well made and properly baked, will appear quite smooth when cut, and there 
will be no whey in the dish. 

Custard, Boiled. — Boil a pint of milk with lemon-peel and cinnamon ; 
mix a pint of cream and the yolks of five eggs, or if cream be not used, 
more eggs must be added; strain the milk and sweeten it, and pour it on to 
the cream and eggs, stirring it well with a whisk ; then simmer it off till of 
a proper consistence, stirrincf it one ivay all the time, to prevent its curdling. 
When the custard is removed from the fire, keep stirring it till cool ; then 
put into glasses or cups. Rice flour, or arrowroot, rubbed to a smooth paste 
in a cup of cold milk, may be used for the thickening, if required. 

Custard Cream. — Boil in half a pint of milk, a stick of cinnamon, the 
rind of a lemon pared thin, and two or three laurel leaves : strain, and add 
to it three pints of cream ; stir into it the well-beaten yolks of eight eggs ; 
sweeten with powdered loaf sugar, put it into a saucepan, and stir it con- 
stantly till it thickens ; pour it into a deep dish, and stir it now and then till 
cold. Serve in glasses or cups. 



1 40 HOUSEHOLD. 

To Preserve Cream for Sea Voyages. — Take ricli, fresli cream, and 
mix it with half of its weiglit of white powdered sugar. When well mixed 
m, put it in bottles, and cork them tit^lit ; when used for tea or coffee, it 
will make them sufficiently sweet without any additional sugar. 

Substitute for Cream in Coffee. — Beat the wlute of an egg to a froth ; 
— put to it a small lump of butter, and turn the coffee to it gradually, so 
that it may not curdle. It is difficult to distinguish the taste from fresh 
cream. 

Custard Powders. — Sago meal and flour, 1 lb. each ; color with turmeric 
to a cream color. Flavor witli essence of almonds, 1 dr. ; ess. of lemon 
2 drs. Use with sweetened milk to form extemporaneous custards. 

Pineapple Preserve. — Pare and grate the pineapple ; Take an equal 
quantity of fruit and sugar. Boil slowly one hour. 

Preserved Pears. — Take out stems and cores, and pare them. Boil in 
water till tender ; do not break them in taking out. Make a syrup of a pound 
of sugar to a pound of fruit, and boil the fruit in the sj'rup till clear. 

Perserved Oranges. — Boil the oranges in water till jou can run a straw 
through the skin. Clarify three-quarters of a pound of sugar for each pound 
of fruit. Take the oranges from the water and j)our the hot syrup on 
them. Let tliem stand one night. Next day boil them in the syrup till it 
is thick and clear. 

Purple Plum Preserved. — Take an equal weight of fruit and nice su- 
gar ; take a clean stone jar and fill it with the fruit and sugar in layers. 
Cover them, and set the jar in a kettle of water over the fire. Let them 
stand in the boiling water all da}', filling up the kettle as the water boils 
away- If at any time they seem likely to ferment, repeat this process ; It 
is a simple and excellent way of preserving jylums. 

Preserved Pumpkin. — Cut a thick yellow pumpkin, peeled, into strips 
two inches wide and five or six long. Take one pound of sugar for each 
pound of pumpkin and scatter it over the fruit, pouring on two wine-glasses 
lemon -juice to each pound. Next day put the parings of two or three 
lemons in with the sugar and fruit, and boil the whole three-fourths of an 
liour, or long enough to make it tender and clear without breaking. Lay 
the pumpkin to cool, strain the syrup, and pour over the pumpkin. 

To Clarify Sugar for Preserving. — For each pound of sugar allow 
one-half pint water ; for every three pounds of sugar the white of one egg. 
Mix when cold, boil a few minutes, and skim it. Let it stand ten minutes, 
skim it again, and strain it. 

To Preserve Apples. — Weigh equal quantities of good brown sugar 
and of apples ; peel, core, and mince the apples small ; boil the sugar, al- 
lowing to every three pounds a pint of water. Skim it well and boil it 
pretty thick ; tiien add the apples, the grated peel of one or two lemons, 
and two or tliree pieces of white ginger. Boil till the apples fall, and look 
clear and yellow. Apples prepared in this way will keep for years. 

Citron Melon. — Two lemons to one pound melon, equal weight of su- 
gar for the fruit. Take out the pulp of the melon, cut it in thin slices, and 
boil in water till tender ; take it out, and boil the lemon in the same wa- 
ter twenty minutes ; take out the lemon, boil the sugar in the same water, 
adding a little more water if necessary. When the syrup is clear put in 
the melon and boil a few minutes. 

Raspherry Jam. — Allow a pound of sugar to one j)ound fruit. Boil tlie 
fruit half an hour ; strain one-quarter of the fruit and throw away the seeds ; 
add the sugar, and boil the whole ten minutes. 

Apple Preserve. — Peel and core two dozen apples, and place them in a 
jar with three pounds of powdered loaf sugar with a quarter of a pound of 
ground ginger distributed in layers. Let tliem remain two whole days, and 
during half that time let a quarter of a pound of bruised ginger infuse in a 
pint of boiling water ; strain and boil the liquor with the apples for about an 
hour, skim and take off the fire when quite clear. 

To Preserve Cucumbers. — Take firm, ripe cucumbers, as soon as they 



HOUSEHOLD. 141 

turn yello\v; pare them, take out tlie seeds, cut them in pieces two or three 
inches in length and about two in widtli ; let them lie in weak salt and 
water for eight hours. Tiien prepare a syrup of one gallon of cider vine- 
jjar, five pounds of sugar, one ounce of mixed spices (not ground spices), 
boil twenty minutes, tlien strain. After drying the cucumber with a soft 
cloth, put it in the syrup, and boil till soft and transparent; skim the pieces 
out carefully, lay them in a colander to drai« ; then boil the syrup to the 
consistency of molasses, pour it on the cucumber, and keep in a cool i)lace. 

Peeserved Peaches. — To six pounds peaches put six pounds sugar ; 
pare, stone, and quarter the fruit. Put the sugar with tlie peaches, and 
let them stand over night ; in the morning boil slowly in a preserving-kettle 
an hour and three-fourths, skimming well. 

Preserved Quinces. — Pare and core quinces ; take the cores and skins 
and lioil tliem an hour ; then strain the juice througli a coarse cloth; boil 
your quinces in this juice till tender; take them out; add the weight of tlie 
quinces in sugar to this syrup; boil and skim till clear; then put in the 
quinces and boil them three hours. 

Preserved Cherries. — Stone them ; allow one pound sugar to one 
pound fruit ; put a layer of fruit at the bottom of the preserving kettle ; 
tlien a layer of sugar, and repeat till all are in ; boil till clear. Put in 
bottles hot, and seal them ; keep them in dry sand. 

A Nice Dish or Apples FOR Tea. — Take good tart apples; pare and 
core them whole, and steam them until perfectly soft: when done, prepare 
some cream and sugar, flavored with lemon extract, and pour over them. 
To he eaten while warm. 

To Preserve Strawberries. — To one pound of strawberries, after they 
have been picked over,add one pound of clean sugar ; put them in a preserv- 
ing kettle, over a slow fire, until the sugar is melted, then boil them precisely 
twenty-five minutes as fast as possible; have your jar ready and put the 
fruit in boiling hot. The jars should be heated before the hot fruit is pour- 
ed into it otherwise the jar will break. Cover and seal the jars immediately; 
set in a cool place. 

Apple Charlotte. — Peel, core, and slice one dozen large sized apples, 
and stew them with half a pound of sugar, one ounce of butter, tlie peel of 
one lemon, half a stick of cinnamon, and half-pint of water ; continue boil- 
ing until the mixture becomes a thick paste. Line the bottom and sides of 
a mould with thin pieces of bread dipped in clarified butter. Fill the space 
with the apple marmalade, and cover the whole with apiece of bread dipped 
in clarified butter. Bake it in a hot oven till it is of a pale brown color, and 
when done, turn out, and serve in a dish. 

Apple Marmalade. — Peel and core two pounds of apples and put them 
into an enamelled saucepan with half a pint of white wine and one pound 
of powdered loaf sugar ; stew them over a slow fire until the fruit is very 
soft, and squeeze it through a hair sieve ; if not sufficiently sweetened add 
sugar to taste and put away in jars. It may afterwards be eaten with milk 
or with cream. 

Qdince Marmalade. — Rub the quinces with a cloth ; cut them in quar- 
ters ; stew them in a little water till they are tender enough to rub through 
a sieve : when strained put a pound of brown sugar to a pound of fruit ; set 
it on the fire and let it cook slowly till thick enough to cut smooth. 

Barberry Marmalade. — Pick from their stalks two pounds of the fin- 
est ripe barberries ; put them into an enamelled saucepan with a pint of wa- 
ter; boil them for a few minutes, then pour them out ; mash them well, and 
strain the pulp through a sieve ; place this upon the fire, and slowly reduce 
it: when it is pretty stiff, add sugar in the proportion of weiglit for weight of 
the fruit before being dressed ; simmer it for a short time, and put it by in 
glasses when it has grown sufficiently cool. 

Cherry Marmalade. — Choose the finest ripe red cherries you can get; 
stone them, strew sugar over them, mash them well, pass them through a 
tammy, and simmer them down with an equal weight of fine beaten and 



142 HOUSEHOLD. 

sifted loaf-sugar ; do them over a, slow fire, and stir tliem constantly ; when 
R beautiful stiff pulp is formed, turn it into glasses, and keep them carefully 
covered. 

Lemon Marmalade. — Halve the lemons, and squeeze out their juice; 
boil the remainder in water until soft ; take tiie lemons and remove the 
pulpy inside ; pound the rest, that is so say, the boiled rinds, until the}' are 
a paste; add the juice, and pas* all througli a sieve ; add to each pound of 
the lemons twelve ounces of fine loaf-sugar, beaten and sifted ; boil all to- 
gether for about half an hour, and pour it into jelly-glasses for use. If the 
lemons are very new and fresh, they may be treated as in orange marma- 
lade — whicli see. 

Preserved Crab-Apples. — Siberian crabs need only be wiped; French 
crabs should be pared. Make a syrup by boiling two pounds of loaf-sugar 
with a pint of good cider ; prick tiie apples with a needle, place them in 
the syrup, ami simmer as slowly as possible until you think the crabs are 
done ; place them carefully in jars or glasses ; reduce and skim the syrup 
until it is thick enough, and pour it upon the fruit; cover with wetted 
skins. 

Preserved Pippins. — Pare, core, slice and boil to a jelly a couple of 
pounds of pippins ; strain this ; then pare and scoop out the cores of a 
dozen pippins ; make a syrup of two pounds of sugar and a i)int of water; 
put in tlie apples, with the rind of an orange first blanched. Simmer till 
the syrup is very stiff ; add the pippin jelly, and simmer for some time 
longer, and when all looks beautifully clear, squeeze in the juice of a 
lemon. 

Apples in Imitation of Ginger. — Take Ribston or Newtown pippins 
before they are quite ripe ; pare, core, and cut them up ; pour boiling wa- 
ter over them, and cover them over; boil to a candy height a similar 
weight of clarified sugar ; put the apples into it, after draining them, and 
stand them by for half an hour, keeping them covered up ; then add enough 
tincture of ginger to make it sufficiently hot, and gently simmer the pre- 
serve till it looks clear. Keep it in jars well fastened down. 

Preserved Figs. — Get some unripe figs ; prick them with a pin ; place 
them on the fire in a saucepan of water witii a little alum in it; directly 
they boil withdraw them from the fire, and when they are somewhat cool- 
ed drain and pour upon them a boiling-hot syrup ; next da}' reboil the 
syrup, put the figs into jars or glasses, fill up with tlie cold syrup, and tie 
down securely with skins. 

Crab-Apple Marmalade. — When they are ripe, pare, core, and quarter 
the crab-appjes ; then slice each quarter as thinly as possible ; spread the 
apple slices upon a cloth, so as to shrivel tliem slightly ; melt down two- 
thirds their weight of clarified sugar: when this is boiling hot, add the 
apples ; withdraw the saucepan from the fire, and let it stand till its con- 
tents are cold ; place it over the fire again, and simmer very gently, but 
do not stir tlie apples; and when tiiey look nicely clear, pour them into 
pots, and cover as usual when the preserve is cold. A little cinnamon may 
be introduced if considered desirable. 

Peach Marmalade. — Weigh two pounds of sugar and three pounds 
and a half of sound ripe peaches; take the stones from the latter; place 
the fruit in a hair-sieve, and press out the pulp ; place this in a preserving- 
pan with tlie above quantity of sugar. Doit gently for fifteen minutes; 
blanch and slice the kernels, add them to the marmalade, give a boil up 
all together, and put the preserve into pots, moulds or glasses. 

Preserved Mulberries. — Put into a preserving-pan sufficient mulber- 
ries to yield a pint of juice; strain it; add to it three pounds of refined 
loaf-sugar in powder ; boil and skim it ; put into it two pounds of first-rate 
mulberries : when the syrup is nearly cold put it again upon the fire ; 
bring it slowly to a boil, pour it over tiie fruit; let it stand till the next 
day, and iigain slowly boil it until it will stand in round drops, and the mul- 
berries look beautifully clear. When cold, put them into small pots for use. 



HOUSEHOLD. 143 

Preserved Barberries. — Put into a bain-marie an equal weight of 
sugar and barberries picked from tiieir stalks : wlien the fruit is soft enough, 
put them aside till tlie following day ; tlien simmer them in a preserving 
pan for a quarter of an hour, and keep in small jars until wanted. 

Tomatoes. — Take them when quite small and green; put them in cold 
cl.arified syrup, with an orange, cut in slices, to every two pounds of the 
tomatoes; simmer them gently, on a slow tire, two or three hours. Tliere 
should be equal weights of sugar and tomatoes, and more than sufficient 
water to cover tlie tomatoes, used for the syrup. Another method of pre- 
serving them, which is very nice, is to allow a couple of fresh lemons to 
three pounds of the tomatoes ; pare thin the rind of tiie lemons, so as to get 
none of the white part, squeeze out tlie juice, mix them witii cold water 
sufficient to cover the tomatoes, and put in a few peach leaves, and powdered 
ginger, tied up in bags. Boil the whole togetlier gently, for three-quarters 
of an hour; then take up tlie tomatoes, strain the liquor, and put to a pound 
and a half of white sugar, for each pound of tomatoes. Putin the tomatoes, 
and boil them gently, till the syrup appears to have entered them. In tlie 
course of a week turn the syrup from tiiem, heat it scalding hot, and turn it 
on to the tomatoes. Tomatoes preserved in this manner appear like West 
Indian sweetmeats. 

Cherries — Procure cherries that are not quite dead ripe ; allow for each 
pound of cherries a pound of white sugar. Make a rich syrup of the sugar: 
wiien it boils, put in the cherries, with the stems on ; let them boil till 
transparent ; keep them in glass jars, or wide-moutiied bottles ; cork and 
seal tliem tight. If yon wish to preserve tliem witliout the stones, take those 
that are very ripe ; take out the stones carefully, save the juice. Make a 
syrup of the juice, white sugar, and a very little water ; then put in the 
cherries, and boil them to a thick consistency. 

Currants. — Take the currants when ri[)e and in their prime ; let them 
remain on the stalks, picking off the bad ones. Make a syrup of sugar 
and very little water, allowing a pound of sugar to eacii pound of currants, 
Clarify it ; then put in tlie currants and let them boil a few minutes. In the 
course of a few days turn the syrup from them, scald it, and turn it back, 
while iiot, on to the currants. Preserved currants mixed witli water, is an 
excellent drink in fevers. Dried currants are also good for the same purpose, 
if made into a tea. 

To Preserve Prunes. — Pour boiling water on the prunes, and set them 
where they will keep hot, with a lemon, cut in small pieces. When swelled 
out to nearly the original size, put to each pound of the prunes half a pound 
of brown sugar, a stick of cinnamon, or a tea-spoonful of powdered cloves, 
and if tliere is not sufficient water remaining to cover the prunes, add more, 
and stew them in the syrup a quarter of an hour. Add, when taken from 
the fire, a wineglass of wine to every three pounds of the prunes. 

Gages. — Allow equal weights of sugar and gages. Make a syrup of white 
sugar, and just water enough to cover the plums ; boil the plums slowly in 
the syrup ten minutes ; turn tliem into a dish, and let them remain four or 
five days ; then boil them again, till the sj'rup appears to have entered the 
plums. Put them in a china jar, and in the course of a week turn the syrup 
from them, scald it and turn it over them hot. 

To Preserve Raspberries. — Strain equal quantities of ripe currants and 
raspberries, to make a syrup to preserve the raspberries in. Dissolve 
white sugar in the syrup, by a gentle heat, using a pound of sugar to each 
pound of syrup and raspberries. When the sugar has dissolved, set the 
syrup where it will boil about ten minutes; then put it in the raspberries, 
and let them boil five minutes. In the course of four or five days, turn 
the syrup from the raspberries; boil it away, so that there will be just 
2nough of it to cover the berries ; turn it on them while hot ; keep them 
n wide-mouthed bottles, corked and sealed up tight. Preserved raspberries 
^re very nice to flavor ice creams and blanc mange. 

To Preserve Peacues in Brandy. — Procure peaches that are mellow 



144 HOUSEHOLD. 

but not (lead ripe ; draw a pin round tlie seam of the peaches, so as to pierce 
the skin ; cover them witli Frencli brandy, and let them remain a week ; 
then make a syrup, allowing three-quarters of a pound of brown sugar to a 
pound of the peaches. Clarify the syrup; then boil tlie peaches in it; 
when tender, take them out of the syrup, let it remain till cool ; then mix 
it with the brandy, and turn tiie whole on the peaches. 

Preserved Melon. — Take an unripe green melon, cut it into rather 
tliick slices ; peel them, and put them in salt and water for two days ; drain 
them ; throw tiiem into boiling water: when rather tender, freshen them by 
putting them into cold water; then pour boiling hot syrup upon tliem for 
four days following; and tiie last time you do this add more sugar to the 
syrup, squeeze in the juice of a lemon, and sprinkle the lemon with a little 
essence of ginger. 

Gooseberries Preserved Green. — Choose tlie largest unripe gooseber- 
ries you can find ; pick off the black ej'es, but leave the stalks; put them 
into a cold syrup of sugar and water; let them slowly come to a boil. Wlien 
tender enough, take them out, reduce the syrup until it is very stiff again; 
put the fruit into it, and do it gently until tlie syrup is quite ropy. Keep 
them carefully covered from the air. Tiie gooseberries may be split quar- 
terwise at the top, and the seeds removed if approved of; and instead of 
water being employed to form the syrup, a jelly may be made by boiling 
down some green gooseberries, and straining the liquor from them. 

Nectarine Marmalade. — Let the fruit be the best and ripest you can 
obtain. With a very sharj) knife first halve the fruit ; tlien remove tlie 
stones, and slice the nectarines (skin and all) as thin as possible ; sprinkle 
it with loaf-sugar, beaten and sifted ; twelve hours later drainthe juice ren- 
dered by the fruit, and, with twelve ounces of sugar to a pound of necta- 
rines, put it into a preserving pan : when the sugar is about boiling hot, add 
the sliced fruit, withdraw it from the fire ; and when cold, simmer it for ten 
minutes without stirring it, and put it into small jars for keeping. 

Pineapple Marmalade. — Make choice of a ripe, sound pineapple ; halve 
it and scrape the flesh off it with a knife until it is quite a pulp ; weigh this, 
and to each half-pound add the strained juice of a lemon and six ounces of 
loaf-sugar, beaten and sifted ; put all together into an enamelled saucepan, 
stir it over a clear but not fierce fire, and when it is well stiffened pour it 
into sweatmeat-glasses for serving. It requires to be done rather quickly, 
so as to preserve the color and the flavor of the fruit. 

Pear Marmalade. — To 6 lbs. of small pears, take 4 lbs. of sugar ; put 
the pears into a saucepan, with a little cold water; cover it, and set it over 
tlie fire until. the fruit is soft ; then put them into cold water, pare, quarter, 
and core them ; put to them three tea-cups of water, set them over the fire ; 
roll the sugar fine, mash the fruit fine and smooth, put the sugar to it, stir 
it well together until it is tliick, like jelly ; then put it in tumblers or jars, 
and vvlien cold secure it as jelly. 

Raspberry Jam. — Allow a pound of sugar to a pound of fruit ; mash the 
raspberries and put them, with the sugar, into your preserving-kettle. Boil 
it slowly for an hour, skimming it well ; tie it up with brandy paper. All 
jams are made in the same manner. 

Covering for Preserves.-To one part of mutton tallow, take two parts of 
beeswax ; melt them together ; dip a cotton cloth in the mixture and spread 
it quickly over the jar. 

Peach Jam. — Inferior peaches, and those that are not fully ripe, are best 
preserved in tlie following manner : Pare and halve them, and take out the 
stones ; lay tlie peaches in a deep dish, and to each layer of peaches put a 
layer of brown sugar; three-quarters of a pound of sugar to a pound of 
the peaches, is sufficient. Let the peaches remain until the next day ; then 
put them on a moderate fire, without any water, and let them stew slowly 
about twentj- minutes. Peaches preserved in this way, are very nice for puffs. 

To Clarify Syrup for Sweetmeats. — Put your sugar into the pre- 
serving-kettle ; turn in the quantity of cold water that you think will bo 



HOUSEHOLD. I'iij 

sufficient to cover the fruit tliat is to be preserved in it. Beat tlie wliites of 
eggs to a froth, allowing one white of an egg to tliree poujids of sugar; mix 
the whites of the eggs with the sugar and water, set it on a slow fire, and 
let the sugar dissolve ; then stir the whole up well together, and set it where 
it will boil. As soon as it boils up well, take it from the fire, let it remain 
for a minute ; then take off the scum ; let it back on the fire, and let it boil 
a minute; then take it off, and skim it again. This operation repeat till the 
syrup is clear ; put in the fruit when the syrup is cold. The fruit should 
not be crowded while preserving, and if there is not syrup enough to cover 
the fruit, take it out of the syrup, and put in more water, and boil it vvitii 
the syrup before putting back the fruit. 

French Honey. — White sugar 1 lb. ; 6 eggs, leaving out the whites of 2 ; 
the juice of 3 or 4 iemoiis, and the grated rind of 2, and ^ lb. of butter ; stir 
over a slow fire until it is of the consistency of honey. 

Imitation Apple Butter. — Vinegar 1 qt. , cheap molasses 1 qt. ; mi.K 
together, set over the fire till it commences to cook ; take it off, add 10 table- 
spoonfuls of wheat flour, and celd water to make a batter ; then add 1 qt. 
scalding water, stir atul cook for fifteen minutes. 

Molasses Preserves — Boil 1 qt. of molasses about ten or fifteen minutes 
to a thickish consistency ; then add 6 eggs well beaten, and a spoonful of flour. 
Boil a few minutes longer, stirring constantly ; then set off the fire, and flavor 
with lemon or allspice as desired. 

Strawberry, Raspberry, and Blackberry Jelly. — Jellies of these 
fruits are all made in the following manner : Take the berries when ripe, 
and in their prime, mash them, and let them drain through a flannel bag, 
witliout squeezing it. To each pint of juice, put a pound of white sugar, 
and the beaten white of an egg to three pounds of the sugar. Set it on 
the fire. Wlien it boils up well, take it from the fire, and skim it clear. 
Set it back on the fire ; if any more scum rises, take it from tiie fire, and 
skim it clear Boil it till it becomes a jelly, which is ascertained by 
taking a little of it up into a tumbler of cold water. If it falls to the bottom 
in a solid mass, it is sufficiently boiled. 

Cranberry, Grape, "and Currant Jelly. — They are all made in the same 
manner. Take the fruit in its prime, wash and drain it till nearly dry ; then 
put it in an earthen jar, or pot, and set the pot in a kettle of hot water. Set 
the kettle where the water will boil, taking care that none of it gets into 
the jar. When the fruit breaks, turn it into a flannel bag, and let it drain 
slowly through, into a deep dish, without squeezing ; when the juice has 
all passed througli the bag, put to each pint of it a pound and a half of 
white sugar. Put to each quart of the syrup the beaten white of an egg. 
Set the syrup wliere it will boil gently ; as fast as any scum rises, take tlie 
syrup from the fire, and skim it clear. When the jelly has boiled fifteen or 
twenty minutes, try a little of it in a tumbler of cold water ; if it sinks to 
the bottom of the tumbler in a solid lump, it is sufliciently boiled. Jellies 
are improved by being put in the sun for several days. Care must be taken 
that the dew does not fall on them. 

Quince Jelly. — Halve the quinces and take out the cores. Boil the 
quinces till very soft, in clear water, mash them, and let them drain througli 
a flannel bag, witliout squeezing them. Put to the quince liquor, when 
drained through the bag, white sugar, in the proportion of a pound to a 
pint of the liquor. Add the whites of eggs, and clarify it : when clear, 
boil it on a moderate fire, till it becomes a thick jelly : fill glasses with 
the jelly, and cover them tiglit. The quince pulp that remains in tlie jelly- 
bag can be made into marmalade. 

Hartshorn Jelly'. — Boil four ounce of hartshorn shavings in a couple 
of quarts of water, till it becomes a thick jelly; then strain and put to it the 
juice and rind of a couple of lemons, a wineglass of white wine, and a stick 
of cinnamon. Wash four fresh eggs, wipe them dry, separate the whites 
from the yolks, beat the whites to a froth, bruise the shells, and mix them 
with hartshorn. Set the whole on a moderate fire ; sweeten it to the taste 

7 



146 HOUSEHOLD. 

when hot. Boil it till it becomes quite thick; then let it drain through a 
jelly-bag till clear. 

Raspberry and Blackberrt Jam, — ^For each pound of berries, allow a 
pound of sugar. Put a layer of each alternately in a preserving dish; let 
them remain half an hour; tiien boil them slowl}^ stirring them frequently 
to keep tiiem from burning. When they have boiled half an hour, take a 
little up in a cup, and set it in a dish of cold water; if it appears of the 
consistency of thick jelly take the whole from the fire ; if not, boil till it 
becomes so. 

Apple Jellt. — Peel, core, and slice very thin six fine apples ; boil them 
in a quiirt of water, until a fourth part is consumed ; strain off and adtl one 
pound of sugar and half a stick of cinnamon ; boil the whole until moder- 
ately thick, add a quarter of a pound of isinglass, strain it off repeatedly 
until quite clear, and then put up in jars. Calf's foot jelly may be used in- 
stead of isinglass. 

Table Jellies. — Use at least two ounces of isinglass, which should be 
first soaked in cold water for two hours, drain off the water; then take two 
quarts of cold water, one and a half pounds of sugar, put in the white of three 
eggs, the juice of three good sized lemons, the peel of one stick of cinna- 
mon, a little nutmeg or an orange peel, or other spice to suit the taste ; stir 
all tlie ingredients well together while cold ; then boil the whole mass five or 
ten minutes, and then pour it through a jelly-bag, when it may be put into 
glasses or nunilds, and when cold will be fit for use. The moulds should be 
wet with a little white of egg and water just before the jelly is put in them 
in order to make it easy to turn out on plates. Add one pint of wine for 
wine jelly, or any liquor that is convenient to flavor with. 

Blackberry Jelly. — This preparation of the blackberry is more agree- 
able than the jam, as the seeds, though very wholesome, are not agreeable 
to all. It is made in tlie same way as currant jelly ; but the fruit is so 
sweet that it only requires half the weight of the juice in sugar. 

Wine Jelly. — Take 1 pt. water and 3 oz. isinglass,!^ lbs. sugar, the 
juice of 2 lemons, and dissolve that and let it come to a boil, then add wine, 
brandy and spice to your taste, and strain it through a cotton or flannel 
cloth and put it in moulds to cool. 

Ivory Jelly. — Put half a pound of ivory powder into three pints of cold 
water, let it simmer until reduced to a pint and a half; when cold, take the 
jelly carefully from the sediment ; add to it the juice of a lemon, half the 
peel, two or three cloves, and sugar to taste ; warm it till quite dissolved, 
then strain it. 

Currant J^lly without Cooking. — Press the juice from the currants, 
and strain it; to every pint put a pound of fine white sugar ; mix 
them together until the sugar is dissolved; then put it in jars, seal them 
and expose them to a hot sun for two or three days. 

Black-Currant Jelly. — Get your black currants when fully ripe, put 
them in a preserving-pan over a slow fire, mash them well till they are 
nearly boiling, take them off, and squeeze what juice you can through a 
sieve ; to every pint of juice put one pound and a quarter of loaf sugar 
powdered ; put it over a brisk fire in your preserving-pan : when it boils up 
skim it ; let it boil about ten minutes; try if it will jelly, by dropping a drop 
or two on a plate : if it will not, boil it till it will ; then pour it into your 
pots and glasses, let them stand till cold ; dip paper in brandy, and cover it 
over them ; tie another paper over the top ; keep it in a dry place. 

Red Currrant-Jelly. — The currants for this purpose should be gath- 
ered in the dry, when fully ripe ; pick and put them in a preserving-pan, 
over a slow fire, to draw the juice out, which you must pour away from them 
as it comes, or it will paste : when you have got what juice you can from 
them pass it through a flannel bag to take out the thickness : then, to every 
pint of juice, put one pound and a quarter of loaf sugar, broken small ; put it 
over a brisk fire in a preserving-pan : when the scum rises, take it off with 
a spoon, boil your jelly about ten minutes ; try if it will jelly by drojjping a 
little on a cold plate : if it will not, boil it till it will ; then pour it into your 



HOUSEHOLD. 147 

pots and glasses ; let it stand about two days ; then put paper dipped in 
brandy, on the top of the jelly and skin over the pots or glasses. Keep 
in a dry place. 

Calves'-foot Jelly. — Chop up two calves' feet, put them on with about 
four quarts of water to boil. This should be done the day before you require 
the jelly ; keep, it well skimmed and boil gently all day ; it will then be re- 
duced to about two quarts : the next morning take off all the grease and 
wash tlie top with a little warm water ; then rinse it with cold ; place the 
stock in the proper-sized stewpan to allow it to boil well ; then put in a paring 
of lemon, without any white adhering to it, two or three cloves, a piece of 
cinnamon, a few bruised coriander seeds, a bay leaf ; let it boil for a few 
minutes, and then take it off to get cool. Have ready broken in a bowl six 
or eight whites of eggs and the shells ; chop them up together, squeeze five 
or six lemons, strain the juice ; add sugar to the whites of eggs, and a glass 
of cold water, theli add the lemon juice; add all this well mixed to the 
calves'-foot stock, place it on the fire and let it rise to the top of your stew- 
pan, being careful it does not go over ; then take it from the fire, place on 
the cover, and put some hot coals upon it ; let it be still a few minutes, and 
then run it repeatedly through the jelly-bag till beautifully bright and clear. 
Flavor with whatever is desired. 

Cherry Jelly. — Having taken the stalks and stones from two pounds of 
dark red fleshy cherries; put them in a basin, pound the kernels, and squeeze 
the juice of four lemons through a tammy; mash tlie cherries with a wooden 
spoon, putting first in half a pot of currant jelly; then the kernels, lastly the 
lemon juice, and mix these well together; then having boiled and skimmed 
a pint of clarified sugar and isinglass, put the cherries into a jelly-bag, pour 
the sugar, &c., over them, and run it through till quite clear : if not sutfi- 
ciently sweet add more sugar, if the contrary, add more lemon-juice. Wet 
the mould, set it in ice, and fill it witli the jelly, but do not turn it out till 
the last minute. 

Lemon Jelly. — Set a pint and a half of clarified sugar on the fire, and 
dilute it with a little water : when it boils and has been well skimmed, put 
in two ounces of clarified isinglass with a little lemon peel cut very thin ; 
let these boil till you have squeezed through a sieve into a basin the juice 
of six lemons ; then pass your sugar and isinglass to it, and set it in a mould 
like other jellies. When turned out, garnish with dried jellies. 

KuM Jelly. — To a quart bottle of common white wine, add a pound of 
lump sugar reduced to syrup and clarified ; then take an ounce of isinglass, 
dissolve it thoroughly, strain it through a sieve, and mix it with the syrup 
milk warm : when this mixture is nearly cold, pour it into the white wine, 
mix it by stirring it well ; then add a spoonful, or more if desired, of old Ja- 
maica rum; stir it and pour it into a mould, or glasses, if intended for even- 
ing parties. 

Jellies. — Lemon Jelly. — Isinglass, 2 oz. ; water, 1 qt. ; boil; add sugar, 
1 lb. ; clarify, and when nearly cold add tlie juice of 5 lemons, and the gra- 
ted yellow rinds of 2 oranges and 2 lemons ; mix well, strain off the peel, 
and put it into glasses or bottles. Hartshorn JelUj. — Hartshorn, 1 lb.; water, 
1 gal. ; peel of 2 lemons; boil over a gentle fire till sufficiently thick; strain 
and add loaf sugar, ^ lb. ; whites of 10 eggs beaten to a froth ; juice of 6 
lemons: mix well together ; then bottle. Isinglass Jelly. — Put 4 oz. isinglass 
and 2 oz. cloves into 1 gal. water ; boil it down to half a gal. ; strain it upon 
4 lbs. of loaf sugar ; add, while cooling, a little wine ; then bottle. Apple 
Jelly from Cider. — Take of apple juice, strained, 4 lbs. ; sugar, 2 lbs. ; boil 
to a jelly, and bottle. Gooseberry Jelly. — Sugar, 4 lbs. ; water. 2 lbs. ; boil 
together: it will be nearly solid when cold; to this syrup, add an equal 
weight of gooseberry juice ; give it a short boil, cool ; then pot it. Currant 
Jelly. — Take the juice of red currants, and loaf sugar, equal quantities ; 
boil and stir gently for three hours ; put it into glasses, and in three days it 
will concentrate into a firm jelly. Tapioca Jelly. — Wash 8 oz. of tapioca 
well ; then soak it in 1 gal. fresh water, 5 or G hours ; add the peels of 8 lem- 



148 HOUSEHOLD. 

ons, and set all on to heat ; simmer till clear. Add the juice of the 8 lemons 
vvitli wine and sugar to taste ; then bottle. 

Moss Jelly. — Steep Carragua, or Irish moss, in cold water a few min- 
utes, to extract the bitter taste ; then drain off the water, and to half an 
ounce of moss put a quart of fresh water, and a stick of cinnamon. Boil it 
till it becomes a thick jelly ; then strain it, and season it to the taste with 
white wine and white sugar. This is very nourishing, and recommended 
for consumptive complaints. 

Sago Jelly. — Rinse four ounces of sago thoroughly ; then soak it in 
cold water half an hour ; turn off the water, and put to it a pint and a half of 
fresli cold water. Let it soak in it half an hour ; then set it whei'e it will boil 
slowly, stirring it constantly ; boil with it a stick of cinnamon. 

Isinglass Blanc Mange. — Pull an ounce of mild white isinglass into 
small pieces ; rinse them, and put to them a quart of milk if tlie weather 
is hot, and three pints if it is cold weather. Set it on a few coals ; stir it 
constantly till tlie isinglass dissolves; then sweeten it to the taste with double 
refined loaf sugar, put in a small stick of cinnamon, a vanilla bean, or blade 
of mace. Set it where it will boil five or six minutes, stirring it constantly. 
Strain it, and fill the moulds with it — let it remain in them till cold. The 
same bean will do to use several times. 

Rice Blanc Mange. — Boil a tea-cup of rice in a pint of water, with a 
blade of mace, and a tea-spoonful of salt : when it swells out and becomes 
drj^ add sufficient milk to prevent its burning. Let it boil till quite soft, 
stirring it constantly to keep it from burning ; sweeten it with white sugar. 
Dip your moulds in cold water : then turn in the rice, without drying the 
moulds ; let the rice remain in the moulds till it becomes quite cold. 

Calf's Feet Blanc Mange. — Boil four feet in five quarts of water, 
witliout any salt : when the liquor is reduced to one quart, strain and mix 
it with one quart of milk, several sticks of cinnamon, or a vanilla bean. 
Boil the whole ten minutes, sweeten it to the taste with white sugar, strain 
it, and fill your moulds with it. 

Rice Flour Blanc Mange. — Mix four tablespoonfuls of ground rice, 
smoothly, with half a pint of cold milk ; then stir it into a quart of boiling 
milk. Put in the grated rind of a lemon, and half the juice, a blade of mace ; 
sweeten to the taste with white sugar. Boil the whole seven or eight 
minutes, stirring it frequentlj' ; take it from the fire when cool, put in the 
beaten whites of three eggs, put it back on the fire, stir it constantly till 
nearly boiling hot ; then turn it into moulds, or deep cups, and let it remain 
till cold. This- is nice food for invalids. 

Almond Blanc Mange. — Take four ounces of almonds, six oz. sugar; 
boil together with a quart of water, melt in this two ounces of pure isinglass, 
strain in a small tin mould to stiffen it. When wanted, dip the mould in hot 
water, and turn it out. 

Lemon Blanc Mange. — Pour a pint of hot water upon half an ounce of 
isinglass : when it is dissolved, add the juice of three lemons, the peel of two 
lemons grated, six yolks of eggs beaten, and about a good wineglass of Ma- 
deira wine to it ; sweeten to j'our taste ; let it boil ; then strain it and put it 
in your moulds. 

New Jersey Blanc Mange. — In three pints of sweetened cream (or 
milk) put one ounce Russia isinglass until dissolved ; then boil it well : it 
will not taste so rich if only scalded ; flavor and strain into a pitcher ; stand 
the pitcher where it will keep hot, and all the sediment will settle ; pour 
carefully into forms, that the sediment may not darken tlie ornaments. If 
peach water or almond is used for flavoring put it in after boiling. The 
peel of a lemon and stick cinnamon, boiled togetlier in milk is very pleasant. 

Charlotte Russe. — One pint of milk, tliree-quarters pound sugar, one- 
half box gelatine : put tliese together ; set it on a kettle of boiling water ; 
After the gelatine is dissolved, beat four eggs and stir in ; leave it on the 
fire until it looks clear ; then let it cool. Beat to a stiff froth one pint of 
cream; season with vanilla; set it in a cool place, with snow or ice around 



HOUSEHOLD. ' 149 

it. When you add the eggs, stir thoroughly all the time ; after it is cool, 
gtve it a hard beat ; line a dish with cake ; pour in the mixture, and put cake 
over tlie top. 

Apple Cream. — Peel a dozen and a half large apples and boil tliem to a 
pulp, then add two pounds of powdered loaf sugar and the whites of three 
eggs ; mix thoroughly together and serve wlien cold in a dish. 

Orange Cream. — Beat tlie yolks of eight eggs, and the wliites of Uvo, to 
a froth ; then stir in half a pound of powdered vvliite sugar ; add half a pint 
of wine, and the juice of six fresh oranges, and the juice of one lemon. 
Flavor it witli orange-flower water ; strain it, and set it on a few coals; 
stir it till it thickens ; then add a piece of butter, of tlie size of a nutmeg. 
When the butter has melted, take it from the fire, continue to stir it till 
cool ; then fill your glasses with it. Beat up the whites of the eggs to a 
froth, and lay the frotli on top of the glasses of cream. 

Snow Cream. — Beat the wliites of four eggs to a stiff froth ; then stir in 
two table-spoonfuls of powdered wliite sugar, a table-spoonful of sweet wine, 
a teaspoonful of rose water. Beat the whole together ; then add a pint of 
thick cream. Tliis is a nice accompaniment to a dessert of sweetmeats. 

Ice Creams. — Sweeten thick rich cream with powdered white sugar : it 
should be made verj"^ sweet, as the process of freezing extracts a great deal 
of the saccharine matter. Essence of lemon, the juice of strawberries or 
pine-apples, are nice to flavor the cream with : the juice should be sweet- 
ened before. 

Ice Cream. — Take one quart of sweet milk and cream, two eggs, one 
teacupful of white sugar, one teaspoonful of flour stirred in a quarter teacupf ul 
of sweet milk. Flavor to your liking; put your milk into the freezer, or, if 
you Jiave uo freezer, a three-quart pail is as good, and set it into a kettle of 
boiling water, stirring the milk frequently, so that it will not burn ; beat the 
eggs, and when the milk boils, stir them into the milk ; take it out of the 
water; put into the milk the sugar, flour, and flavoring; put the ice into a 
bag and pound it into lumps the size of a hickory nut; put a Layer of ice 
into a small tub, or whatever you wish to freeze it in, and a thin layer of 
salt ; put your freezer or pail into the tub, and then put a layer of ice and 
layer of salt alternately around it ; stir the cream, wliich will freeze, from 
the sides with a spoon ; stir it frequently until it is frozen. If 3'ou make it 
as directed, you will not fail of liaving excellent ice-cream. 

Ice Cream with Fruit. — 1 pound of preserved fruit ; 2 lemons ; 1 quart 
of cream ; cochineal. 

Squeeze the juice of the lemons into some sugar to taste ; then pass all 
through a sieve, and if raspberr3% or strawberry, or any other ripe fruit, 
add a little coclTineal, to heighten the color. Have the freezing-pot nice and 
clean ; put the cream into it, and cover it ; then put the pot into the tub with 
the ice beat small, and some salt ; turn the freezing-pot quick, and as tlie 
cream sticks to the sides, scrape it down with an ice-spoon, and so on until 
it is frozen. The more the cream is worked to tlie side with a spoon, the 
smoother and better it will be flavored. After it is well frozen, take it out 
and put it into ice shapes with salt and ice ; then carefully wash the shapes 
with salt and ice ; then carefully wash the shapes for fear of any salt adher- 
ing to tliera ; dip them in lukewarm water, and send to the table. Fresh 
fruit, strawberries, or raspberries are nice, but more sugar will be neces- 
sary. 

Lemon Cream. — Take a pint of thick cream, and put to it the yolks of 
two eggs, well beaten, four ounces of fine sugar, and the thin rind of a lemon ; 
boil it up; then stir till almost cold; put the juice of a lemon in a dish or 
bowl and pour the cream upon it, stirring till quite cold. 

Fruit Creams. — Take a half an ounce of isinglass dissolved in a little 
water ; then put one pint of good cream, sweetened to the taste ; boil it : 
when nearly cold lay some apricot or raspberry jam on the bottom of a 
glass dish and pour it over. This is most excellent. 

Cream, Whipped. — Sweeten with powdered loaf sugar a quart of cream, 



150 HOUSEHOLD. 

and add to it a lump of sugar wliicli lias been rubbed upon the peels of two 
lemons, or flavor it witli oransj^e-fldwer water, or any otiier agreeable es- 
sence. Wliisk tlie cream thoroughly in a large pan, and as the froth rises, 
take it off, lay it upon a sieve placed over another pan, and return the cream 
which drains from the froth, till all is whisked ; then heap it upon a dish, 
or put it into glasses. Garnish with thitdy pared citron, cut into any fanci- 
ful shape, aud serve. 

Kaspberry Cream. — Whisk the white of an egg to a strong froth ; then 
add half a pint of cream, and a small piece of loaf sugar ; whisk all toge- 
ther, till the froth rises ; take it off with a spoon, laying it on a hair-sieve 
to drain ; tiien mix two or three tablespoonfuls of raspberry-jam with as 
much cream as you want ; pass it through a sieve to take the seeds out ; 
sweeten it toN'our ])alate ; fill your glasses three parts full ; then put on the 
froth as high as it will stand. Keep them in the cold. 

Gherkins. — I'ut them in strong brine ; keep them in a warm place. When 
they turn yellow, draiti off the brine, and turn liot vinegar on them. Let 
them remain in it till they turn green, keeping them in a warm place ; then 
turn off the vinegar. Add fresh scalding hot vinegar, spiced with mace, all- 
spice, and peppercorns , add alum and salt, in the same proportion as for 
cucumbers. 

To Pickle Oysters. — Take the oysters from the liquor, strain and boil 
it. Rinse the oysters, if there are any bits of the shells attached to them; 
put them into the liquor while boiling. Boil them one minute; then take 
them out of it, and *^o the liquor put a few peppercorns, cloves, and a blade 
or two of mace ; add a little salt, and the same quantity of vinegar as oyster 
juice. Let the whole boil fifteen minutes, then turn it on to the oysters. If 
you wish to keep the oysters for a number of weeks, bottle and cork them 
tight as soon as cold. 

To Pickle Mushrooms. — Peel and stew them, with just water enough to 
prevent their sticking at the bottom of the pan. Shake them occasionally, 
to prevent their burning. When tender, take them up, and put them in 
scalding hot vinegar, spiced with mace, cloves, and peppercorns ; add a lit- 
tle salt. Bottle and cork them tight if you wish to keep them long. 

Pickled Peaches. — Take a gallon of good vinegar, and add to it four 
pounds of sugar ; boil for a few minutes and remove any scum that may 
arise; then take cling-stone peaches that are fully ripe, rub them to get off 
the down, and stick three or four cloves in each peach ; put them into a 
stone jar, and pour the liquor, boiling hot, over them. Cover the jar closely, 
and set it in a cool place for a week or two ; then pour off the liquor anil 
boil it as before; after which return it to the peaches, boiling hot which 
should be caref^iUy covered and stored away for future use. 

Pickled Peaches. — Seven pounds peeled peaches stuck with cloves ; 
three and one-half pounds sugar, one-half gallon vinegar; scald and pour 
on the peaches. Let it stand nine days; then cook twenty minutes. 

Peaches and Apricots. — Take those of a full growth, but perfectly 
green ; put them in salt and water strong enough to bear up an egg. When 
they have been in a week, take them out, and wipe them carefully with a 
soft cloth. Lay them in a pickle jar. Put to a gallon of vinegar half an 
ounce of cloves, the same quantity of peppercorns, sliced ginger and mus- 
tard seed ; add salt, and boil the vinegar ; then turn it on to the peaches 
scalding hot. Turn the vinegar from them several times. Heat it scalding 
hot, and turn it back while hot. 

Chow-chow. — One peck green tomatoes, half a dozen peppers, one doz- 
en onions, grated horseradish if you please ; chop, and scald in salt and 
water ; drain in a sieve, put into jars, and then pour spiced vinegar over it. 

To Pickle Ripe Tomatoes. — To one gallon ripe tomatoes peeled add 
two tablespoonfuls mustard, two tablespoonfuls black pepper, two table- 
spoonfuls allspice, one tablespoonful salt, one tablespoonful cloves. All 
the seasoning must be ground; cover them with vinegar; let them scald, 
but not boil, three hours. 



HOUSEHOLD. 151 

Spiced Ccekants. — Five pounds ripe currants, four pounds brown su- 
gar, two tablespoons cloves, two tablespoons cinnamon, one pint vinegar. 
Boil two hours, or more, till quite tliiclc. 

To Pickle Bctteknuts and Walnuts. — The nuts for pickling should 
be gathered as early as Jul}', unless the season is very backward. When a 
pin will go tlirougii them easily, they are young enough to pickle. Soak 
them in salt and water a week ; then drain it off. Rub them with a cloth, to 
get off the roughness. To a gallon of vinegar put a teacup of salt, a table- 
spoonful of powdered cloves and mace, mixed together, half an ounce ol 
allspice and peppercorns. Boil the vinegar and spices, and turn it while 
hot on to the nuts. In the course of a week, scald the vinegar, and turn it 
back ontliem while hot. They will be fit to eat in tlie course of a fortnight. 

Pickled Cauliflowers. — Cook the cauliflower till tender ; put it in 
jars ; then pour vinegar and ground mustard, previously scalded together, 
over them. 

Pickled Plums. — For eight pounds of fruit take four pounds sugar, two 
quarts of vinegar, and one ounce of cloves. Boil the sugar, vinegar, and 
cloves ; skim aiul pour them, scalding hot, over the fruit, and let it set three 
days ; then pour off the syrup, and scald, skim, and pour over again. Con- 
tinue this process every three days, till you have scalded three times, after 
which it will be fit for use. 

Geeen Tomato Pickle. — One peck tomatoes, eight green peppers, to 
be chopi^ed fine and soaked twenty four hours in weak brine ; then skim 
out, and add one head of cabbage chopped fine ; scald in vinegar twenty 
minutes ; skim it out and put it into the jar, and add three pints of grated 
horseradish and spices as you please. Pour cold vinegar over tiie whole. 

Pickle Cherries. — To eight pounds of cherries (after the stones ami 
stems have been removed) take four pounds of clean sugar, a handful of 
cloves ; put into the preserving kettle and boil slow until the sugar is melt- 
ed, then boil fast until the juice is clear. Just before removing it from the 
fire, add lialf a pint of good vinegar. 

Pickle for Beef. — For one hundred pounds of beef take three quarts 
of salt, lialf a pound of brown sugar, and two ounces of ground black pep- 
per ; mix in water enough to cover the meat ; let it boil ; take off the scum ; 
when cool, pour it over the meat. Salted beef should be all used up by the 
first of May, as it does not keep well in warm weather. 

To Pickle Onions. — Put a sufficient quantity into salt and water, for 
nine days, observing to change the water everyday; next put them into 
jars, and pour fresh boiling salt and water over them ; cover them close up 
till they are cold ;then make a second decoction of salt and water, and pour 
it on boiling. When it is cold, drain the onions on a hair sieve, and put 
them into wide-mouthed bottles ; fill them up with distilled vinegar ; put into 
every bottle a slice or two of ginger, a blade of mace, and a teaspoonful of 
sweet oil, which will keep the onions white ; cork them up well in a dry 
place. 

Mushrooms. — Put the smallest that can be got into spring-water, and 
rub them with a piece of new flannel, dipped in salt. Throw them into cold 
water as they are cleaned, wliich will make them keep their color; next put 
them into a saucepan, with a handful of salt upon them. Cover them close 
and set them over the fire four or five minutes, or till the heat draws the 
liquor from them ; next lay tl.em betwixt two dry cloths till they are cold ; 
put them into glass-bottles, and fill them up with distilled vinegar, with a 
blade of mace and a teaspoonful of sweet oil into every bottle ; cork them 
up close, and place them in a dry, cool place. As a substitute for distilled 
vinegar, use white wine vinegar, or ale ; alegar will do, but it must be 
boiled with a little mace, salt, and a few slices of ginger, and it must be 
quite cold before it is poured upon the mushrooms. 

Curry Powder. — Mix an ounce of ginger, one of mustard, one of pep- 
per, three of coriander seed, the same quantity of turmeric, a quarter of an 
ounce of cayenne pepper, half an ounce of cardamums, and the same of 



152 HOUSEHOLD. 

cummin seed and cinnamon. Pound the vyhole fine, sift, and keep it in a 

bottle corked tight. 

Oyster Catsup. — Take fine fresh oysters, rinse them in their own li- 
quor, tlien pouiiil tliem in a marble mortar, and to a pint of oysters put a 
pint of sherry wine ; boil them up, add an ounce of salt, 2 drachms of cay- 
enne pepper, let it boil up once again; rub it through a sieve. When cold, 
put it in bottles and cork and seal tliem. 

Tomato Catsup. — Take one bushel of tomatoes and boil them 
until they are soft ; squeeze them through a fine wire sieve and add three 
half pints of salt, two ounces of cayenne pepper, three tablespoonfuls of 
black pepper and five heads of garlic, (or onions,) skinned and separated. 
Mix together and boil about three hours, or until reduced to about one-half j 
tlien bottle without straining. 

Worcestershire Sauce. — White vinegar 15 gals.; walnut catsup 10 gals.; 
Maderia wine 5 gals. ; mushroom catsup 10 gals. ; table salt 25 lbs. ; Can- 
ton soy, 4 gals. ; powdered capsicum 2 lbs. ; powdered allspice 1 lb. ; pow- 
dered coriander seeds, 1 lb.; cloves, mace, and cinnamon, of each -J lb. ; 
assafojtida % ^^ ! dissolved in brandy 1 gal. Boil 20 lbs. hogs' livers in 10 
gals, of water for 12 hours, renewing the water from time to time. Take 
out the liver, chop it, mix with water, work through a sieve, and mix with 
the sauce. 

A Quick Wat to Pickle Pepper. — Take one hundred peppers ; put 
three half pints of salt and as much scalding water as will cover them. It 
is best to put a v/eig!it over to keep them under the water. Let tiiem re- 
main in the salt and water two days, and then take them out and let them 
dry ; make a small opening in the side to let the water out ; wipe them, put 
them in a stone jar, with half an ounce of cloves, half an ounce of allspice, 
and a small lump of alum. Cover them with cold vinegar ; when done in 
this way they will not change color. 

Stewed Mushrooms. — Take off the skins and e»ls of the stalks ; wash 
clean ; i)ut tliem in a pan without water, except what adheres to them ; 
season with pepper and salt, place them over the fire to cook slowly. Add 
butter ; serve them hot. 

Cucumber, Properties of. — This esculent is chiefly characterized by 
its cooling and aperient qualities. For persons with strong stomachs they 
are not unwholesome; but where the organs of digestion are at all impaired, 
they are most injurious, as they lie cold and heavy on tlie stomach, and 
cause frequent and violent eructations and flatulency. In any case they 
should never be eaten without plenty of pepper, and an admixture of vinegar 
and oil. When cooked and stewed with gravy, they are much more whole- 
some than in tlleir raw state. 

Pickled Cucumbers. — Wash the cucumber clean ; make a pickle of 
water and salt strong enough to float an egg, pour it over them, put a 
weight on the top to keep the cucumbers under the brine, and let tliem 
stand eight or nine days ; then take them out, and wash in fresh water, 
milk-warm ; line your kettle with cabbage leaves, put in your pickles, and 
as much vinegar and water mixed, about half-and-half, as will cover them 
nicely ; cover the kettle up, hang them over a slow fire. Let the water get 
hot, but do not let it simmer, as that would soften them ; when they are 
perfectly green, take them and let them drain ; wipe dry, put in small jars 
with cloves and allspice, and a few small onions. A piece of alum in each 
jar will keep them hard ; then cover your pickles with strong cider vine- 
gar, tie them close nnd keep them in a dry place ; by adding some 
white sugar you will find a great improvement. 

Cold Slaw. — Get a fresh cabbage, take off the outside leaves, cut it in 
half, take a knife and cut it fine, put it in a dish, then put on the dressing 
prepared in the following manner : — 

Beat up three eggs, add to tliem one gill of good vinegar and one gill of 
water; when it begins to tliicken stir in a piece of butter the size of a hicko- 
ry nut, a teaspoon! ul of salt and a large spoonful of white sugar; when 



HOUSEHOLD. 153 

cold pour it over the cabbage and stir it together. Before sending to tabic 
sprinkle with blacli pepper. 



COOKERY FOR THE SICK. 

Barley Watek. — Boil a couple of ounces of barley in two quarts of water 
till soft ; pearl barley is the best, but the common barley answers very well, 
when soft, strain and mix it with a little currant jellj^ to give it a pleasant, acid 
taste. If tlie jelly is not liked, turn it, when boiled soft, on to a couple of 
ounces of figs or raisins, and boil it again till reduced to one quart ; then 
strain it for use. 

Rice Gruel. — Put a large spoonful of unground rice into six gills of 
boiling water, with a stick of cinnamon or mace. Strain it wlien boiled 
soft, and add half a pint of new milk ; put in a teaspoonful of salt, and 
boil it a few minutes longer. If you wish to make the gruel of rice flour, 
mix a tablespoonful of it, smoothly, with three of cold water, and stir it 
into a quart of boiling water ; let it boil five or six minutes, stirring it 
constantly. Season it with salt, a little butter, and add, if you like, nut- 
meg and white sugar to your taste. 

Water Gruel. — Mix a couple of tablespoonsful of Indian meal with 
one of wlieat flour, and sutBcieut cold water to make a thick batter. If 
the gruel is liked thick, stir it into a pint of boiling water ; if liked thin, 
more water will be necessary. Season the gruel with salt, and let it boil 
six or eight minutes, stirring it frequently ; then take it from the fire, put 
in a piece of butter of the size of a walnut, and pepper to the taste. Turn 
it on toasted bread, cut in small pieces. 

Caudle. — Make rice or water gruel, as above ; then strain it, and add 
half a wineglass of ale, wine, or brandy. Sweeten with loaf-sugar, and 
grate in a little nutmeg. 

Arrow'root Custards. — Boil a pint of milk, and stir into it while 
boiling a tablespoonful of arrowroot, mixed smooth, with a little cold 
milk. Stir it in well, and let the whole boil three or four minutes ; take 
it from the fire to cool: when so, stir in a couple of beaten eggs, sweeten 
it to the taste, and grate in a small piece of nutmeg ; set the whole where 
it will boil, stirring it constantly. As soon as it boils up, take it from the 
fire, and turn it into custard cups. The arrowroot is prepared in the same 
manner as for the custards, omitting the sugar, spice, and eggs: is excel- 
lent food for invalids, andean be eaten when the custards are too ricli for 
the stomach. 

Wine Whet. — Stir into a pint of boiling milk a couple of glasses of 
wine. Let it boil a minute ; then take it from the fire, and let it remain till 
the curd has settled ; then turn off the whej^ and sweeten it with white 
sugar. 

Stomachic Tincture. — Bruise a couple of ounces of Peruvian bark, 
one of bitter dried orange peel. Steep them in a pint of proof spirits a 
fortnight, shaking up tlie bottle tliat contains it once or twice every day. 
Let it remain untouched for a couple of davs. 

HoMiNT. — Take two pounds of fine liominj', wash it well, let it soak 
in cool water for one hour; strain the water off ; put in saucepan with water 
to cover it, set on the fire to boil for two hours. You can add good milk if 
you like, and salt to your taste. 

Tea. — Scald the tea-pot, and if the tea is a strong kind, a teaspoonful 
for a pint of water is sufficient — if it is a weak kind, more will be required. 
Pour on just enough boiling water to cover the tea and let it steep. Green 
tea should not steep more tlien fire or six minutes before drinking; if 
steeped longer, it will not be lively. Black tea requires steeping ten or 
twelve minutes to extract the strength. 

Chocolate. — Scrape the chocolate off fine, mix it smooth with water; if 

7* 



154 HOUSEHOLD. 

liked very rich, make the chocolate entirely of milk — if not, use half water. 
Boil water and milk togetlier ; then stir in the chocolate, previously mixed 
v/ith water ; stir it till it boils, then sweeten it to your taste, and take it up. 
If liked rich, grate in a little nutmeg- A tablespoonful of chocolate to a 
pint of water or milk, is about tlie riglit proportion. 

Egg Caudle. — Beat an egg up weil, first bj'^ itself, and then in a pint 
of thin, cold gruel. When well mixed, put it in a saucepan with a little 
wine or brandy, and a little of any spice preferred, and stir this over the 
fire till it thickens; be very careful, though, that it does not boil up. 

Water Arrowroot. — Mix in a breakfast cup or broth basin one large 
dessertspoonful of arrowroot, in two or three tablespoonfuls of cold water 
till quite smooth. Then pour quickly on it boiling water, stirring it raj)idly 
at the same time till the arrowroot is of the tliickness required ; after 
which, sweeten it with sifted sugar, and flavor it with a teaspoonful of 
brandy', or a glass of white wine. 

Egg Wine (Cold). — Beat an egg up well in a tumbler with a wineglass 
of cold water, and a glass of sherry. Add sifted sugar to your taste, and 
drink when all is thoroughly beaten up and frothy. 

Egg and Milk. — Beat up well the 3'olk of an egg in a breakfast cup; 
when quite frothy, stir into it a cup of hot milk, but not boiling. Sweetsn 
to 3'our taste, and grate a little nutmeg on the top. 

Lemonade. — Take three lemons. Pare off the rind very thinly, then 
cut them into slices, taking out the seeds, and cutting off most of the white 
pith. Put the slices, and peel into a jug with about two or three ounces of 
loaf sugar (more, if liked), and pour over them one pint of boiling water. 
Cover it closely till cold, and then strain for use. 

This may be made more or less acid, according to taste. 

Panada. — Put half a pint of water, a wineglass of sherry, a little loaf 
sugar and grated nutmeg in a clean saucepan on tlie fire, and let it boil up. 
As soon as it boils, put in just enough very finely-grated bread crumbs to 
thicken the whole to about the consistence of gruel. Keep it boiling very 
fast until it is of a proper thickness to drink. 

A little grated lemon-peel may be added also to flavor, if liked. 

Essence of Meat ( Very Strong). — Take one or two pounds of the very best 
part of a round of beef. Cut it up small, but do not mince it, throw a little 
salt over it, and then put it into a stone jar. Put this into a stewpan of water 
and let it simmer onlj' on the fire for twenty-four hours. At the end of this 
time the meat will be reduced to a liquid, with the exception of a few small 
strings. Strain and season it, and give a very small teacup of it hot once or 
twice a day. T'he cup should be set in a broth basin with a cover, with hot 
water round it to warm it. . 

This may be made also from mutton (the leg), veal, or chicken ; in which 
case it will be a fine clear jelly, and may be eaten cold with salt and a little toast. 

Beef Tea — Take one pound of lean fresh beef, cut it into very small 
pieces, and put it into a clean saucepan with one pint and a half of cold 
spring water. Boil it once up ; then throw in half a saltspoon of salt, skim 
it well, and let it simmer quietly for two or three hours. At the end of this 
time, if the tea seem strong enough, strain it through a bit of muslin into a 
basin, and then set it in a window or cellar to cool. When wanted, take 
off every particle of fat, if there is any, and warm up just as much as the 
sick person is likely to take. This tea should, if possible, be made the day 
before it is wanted ; and when warmed up, it is best to put the quantity re- 
quired into a cup and heat it on a stove or oven, rather than to put it again 
into a saucepan. 

For making very strong broth or tea, the proportions are ono pound of 
lean meat to one pint of water. 

Chicken Panada. — Clean and cut up a chicken, and boil it slowly, bones 
and all, in a quart of water till ncarl}' done. Then take of the skin : cut oif 
the wiiite meat, remove the fat if tliere is any, and pound it to a smooth 
paste witii some of the water it was boiled in. When quite smooth, flavor 



HOUSEHOLD. 155 

it with a little salt, and the least bit of grated nutmeg and fresh lemon peel- 
after which, boil it again gently for a few minutes, making it the consistency 
you like by adding more or less of the water it was boiled in. It should be 
stirred all the time, and is best when made about the thickness of cream or 
gruel. 

Fever Drink. — Put a large dessertspoonful of black currant jelly or pre- 
served tamarinds into a tumbler, and fill it up with boiling water. When 
cold, it is fit to drink. If too sweet, add a large quantity of water. 

A Good Mild Tonic— One ounce of gentian, lialf an ounce of dried 
orange peel, a quarter of an ounce of tlie lesser cardamon seeds, and >ne 
pennyworth of cochineal and saffron. Infuse these ingredients in a pint of 
good pale French brandy for a fortnight. Then strain it off. 

From a teaspoonful to half a wineglassful of the above may be taken 
every morning in water. 

Barley Wine. — To one pint of boiled barley water, nicely flavored, put 
half a pint of sherry. Boil it down till reduced one half. A wineglassful 
of this taken three or four times a day is both strengthening and nourishing 
to delicate people, or after an illness. 

Common Gruel. — Take one dessertspoonful of Robinson's patent groats, 
and mix it very smooth in a basin, in about a tablespoonful of cold water. 
Then add to it, stirring all the time, half a pint of boiling water. Pour this 
into a clean saucepan, and boil it for seven or eight minutes, or till it thick- 
ens, still stirring it all the time. Put it into a breakfast cup, sweeten with 
a little loaf sugar, and flavor with a little wine or brandy, and a few drops 
jf lemon juice. 

Egg Broth. — Beat an egg up liigh in a broth basin. When quite frothy, < 
stir into it half a pint of good, unflavored mutton or veal broth, quite hot; 
add a little salt, and serve with toast. 

Toast and Water. — Take a slice of stale bread, cut rather thick ; toast 
it thoroughly on both sides till it is quite hard and brown, but don't black- 
en it. Tiien put it into a jug, pour boiling water over it, and let it stand till 
cold. 

Port Wine Jelly. — Put into a pint of Tent or Port wine two ounces of 
isinglass, tuo ounces of white sugar candy, half an ounce of gum Arabic, 
and one nutmeg, grated. Let these ingredients stand in covered jar, for 
twelve hours, and then put the jar into a saucepan of water, whicli keep 
boiling till all is dissolved. Strain tlirough a muslin, and let it stand till 
cold. A piece the size of a walnut may be taken three or four times a day. 

If made with port wine, six ounces of sugar candy should be added in- 
stead of two. 

The Invalid's Jelly. — Boil one calf's foot in two pints and a half of 
water, till it is reduced to one pint and a half. Strain it through a sieve, and 
when cold take off the fat, add to it a quarter of a pint of milk or wine, the 
rind of a lemon, thinly pared, a little nutmeg or cinnamon, and sugar to the 
taste. Boil all this together for about five minutes, and then strain it 
through a sieve. 



^ppeutrix to i^ouisei^oltr. 

The following pages of the " Household Department," are designed to 
assist tlie wives of working men especially, and also to be a medium 
whereby young girls can be instructed in Simple Modes of Economical 
Cooker)/ — a want which there is every reason to believe is greatly felt. 
At the same time, it is hoped that it will be found useful in any household. 

Utensils Absoldtely Required in a Kitchen. — 1 iron pot, 1 fish- 
kettle, 2 large iron saucepans — one with a steamer, 1 stewpan, 2 small 
saucepans for vegetables, 2 butter saucepans, 1 small saucepan lined 
witli cliina, for boiling milk, 1 gridiron,! frying-pan,! roasting jack and 
stand, 1 buncli of skewers, ! basting ladle and slice, ! toasting fork. 

For a Poor Man's Cottage. — ! iron pot, 3 saucepans, ! gridiron, 1 
frying-pan, poor man's jack for toasting. 

Soups. — Ofichat they are made, and how they are made. — The water in 
whicli fresli meat has been boiled, the liquor left after boiling a calf's head, 
bones (especially fish bones), trimmings of meat, or ox cheek, will all make 
stock for soup. Keep a large saucepan or stock- pot by the side of the 
fire, and put into it all or any of the above materials, and let them stew and 
stew till they become a jelly. Tlien you have stock wliich you can make 
into soup ; or, if you have no stock-pot, you can make soup of fresh meat. 
Sliin of beef makes brown stock; veal makes white stock for white soups. 
' Old fowls too tough to eat make good soup ; a ham bone is a great addition 
to stock. If you make soup of fresh meat, put it in the stock-pot with very 
little water (and tliatcold) at first, and a piece of butter to keep it from burn- 
ing ; let it stew, very, very slowl.v, and add cold water to it by degrees. 
Take care tliat your soup-pot is clean ; wash it tlie moment you have done 
using it, with hot water and a piece of soda the size of a nutmeg. Skim 
often, but do not leave tlie lid off ; pour in now and then a cupful of cold 
water to make the scum rise. 

Always stir the soup with a wooden spoon. Do not put in the vegetables 
till all the scum is off. 

If you make soup of cooked meat, make it with hot, but not boiling, wa- 
ter; cut the meat for soup into small pieces. 

A stock-pot does not do for a small family, as the stock does not keep 
unless you make soup every day. 

The poor man's wife can make good and nourishing soup from cuttings 
or hits of meaf bought at the butcher's. 

She must add the water by degrees on the average of one quart of water 
to one pound of meat. 

How To Roast. — Meat is dressed in six ways ; that is, by roasting, boil- 
ing, stewing, broiling, frying, and baking. We will talk of roasting first. 

To roast well, you must have a good f^re ; and must make it up so that it 
will last all the time t)ie joint is doing ; or, if the fire chances to require re- 
plenishing, slip in the coals with the tongs, but do not remove and chill the 
roast, or diminish the heat in tlie midst of the cooking. 

If it is preferred not very well dressed, place it near tlie fire on putting 
down, and brown the outside quickly, whicli will shut in the juices; then 
draw it back a little, so that it will not burn ; but from the very first 
baste it, as basting makes good roasting. If you like meat well dressed, 
place tlie joint farther from the fire at first (about 14 inches off), and move 
it nearer by degrees, but always basting it well. This is a more expensive way 
of dressing the joint, as it takes a large fire, longer kept up. Keep the meat- 
screen always round the roast, to protect it from a chill. If you do not 
possess a meat-screen make one bj' putting the clothes-liorse round tlie fire 
and covering it with a cloth ; but the heat must be shut in or it is wasted 

156 



APPENDIX TO HOUSEHOLD. 157 

Joints of veal or lamb have a piece of paper tied over the fat with twine, 
or secured with very small skewers hefore they are put to roast. Just before 
they are done, tlie paper is taken off and the joints are dredged with flour 
and basted ; a very little salt is also sprinkled on the joints just as they are 
done, to draw out the gravy. Even for beef and mutton, a sprinkle of flour, 
basted over is an improvement ; it frotlis tiiem up and makes tlieni savory. 

The time for roasting is a quarter of an liour for every pound of meat ; 
for example, if a leg of mutton weigiis 8 lbs, allow 8 quarters of an hour to 
it, that is, 2 liours, and so on. But in frosty weatiier meat takes longer ; it 
sliould then be set before tlie fire for a little wliile to tliaw before it is put 
down, or it will never be well done. Lamb and veal require 20 minutes to 
the pound at 12 inches from the fire. 

Boiling AND Stewing. — Boiling. — Joints to be boiled maybe put into 
hot or cold water. If liked under-dressed, plunge them into boiling water, 
which shuts in the juices ; but the general way is to put tlie meat into 
cold water, and let it slowly come to a boil. Tiie under-dressed way makes 
the meat more nutritious, and it goes farther ; the cold-water way niake?/)o< 
liquor, because the juices of the meat boil out. Tliis pot liquor will make, 
with a little addition, good soup. We think the cold-water way best. But, 
then, it must be boiled gently, and not fast, and never let stop simmering. 
Just before tlie pot boils the scum will rise to tlie top of the water : it must be 
skimmed off, or it will fall back on the meat and make it look very unpalata- 
ble. The cook must keep on lifting the lid every now and then, and skimming 
the scum off ; but the lid must be kept on aU the time she is not skimming 
the pot. The fire for boiling must not be a great Jire, as for roasting, but a 
moderate and gentle one. Salt meat takes longer boiling than fresh meat ; 
20 minutes to a quarter of an hour a lb. is required for boiling it. The 
time of boiling is i of an hour per lb. from the time it actually boils. 

Stewing is very slow simmering at the side of the fire. Frying is done 
by putting meat into boiling fat in a frying-pan, and turning it from side to 
side till it is done. Broiling is done on a greased gridiron over a clear fire. 

Browning for Soups. — 3 large spoonfuls of brown sugar, ^ pint of 
boiling water. Put the sugar into a frying-pan, set it on the fire to brown, 
stirring it with a wooden spoon, that it may not burn. When sufficiently 
dark-colored, stir into it the boiling water : when tliorouglily mixed put it 
into a bottle, and when cold, cork it closely down, and use a tablespoonful 
or more, as may be required, to give a color to your soup. A burnt onion 
or two can be made of use for the purpose of browning, and is often con- 
sidered better than the above receipt. 

Beef Soup. — Time, 9 hours. — 5 lb. of shin of beef, a quart of water to 
each lb. of meat, 1 head of celery, 1 onion, 4 small or 3 large carrots, 2 
turnips, a bunch of sweet herbs, pepper and salt. — Cut off the meat from 
the bone, and put the bone into a stewpan with the water, and let it boil 
slowlj' for 4 hours ; then strain it into a large basin, .and when cold remove 
the cake of fat ; cut the meat into small pieces, and put them into a stew- 
pan with the strained gravy, the herbs tied together, the celery, onion, car- 
rots, and turnips cut small; let them simmer slowly for 5 hours, seasoning 
with pepper and salt to your taste, and adding a spoonful of browning. 
When done, take out the herbs and it will be ready for use. 

Cottage Soup. — Time, to simmer 4 hours. — 2 oz. of dripping, ^ lb. 
of any solid fresh meat in dice an inch square, ^ lb. of onions, \ lb. 
turnips, 2 lbs. of leeks, 3 oz. of celery, -J- lb. of rice, 3 oz. of salt, \ oz. of 
brown sugar, 6 quarts of water. — Put the meat, sugar, dripping, and onions 
into an iron saucepan ; stir them till lightly browned ; add turnips, celery, 
and leeks ; stir 10 minutes. Mix well with it a quart of cold water and 
rice ; add 5 quarts of hot water and salt to your taste ; stir occasionally till 
it boils. If to be kept, stir gently till the soup is nearly cold. 

Cottage Soup, baked. — Time, 3 or 4 hours. 1 lb. meat, 2 onions, 2 car- 
rots, 1 pint white peas, pepper and salt, 1 gallon of water. Cut tlie meat 
into slices, put one or two at the bottom of an earthen jar or pan, lay on it 



158 APPENDIX TO HOUSEHOLD. 

tlie onions sliced ; then lay in slices of meat again, then the carrots sliced ; 
soak tlie peas all the previous night ; put tliem in with the water. Tie the 
jar down, and put it in a hot oven for 3 or 4 hours. 

Chicken Broth. — Time, 1 liour. 1 full-grown chicken, or an old fowl, 
3 pints of water, or weak broth, ^ a teacupf ul of pearl barley or rice, pepper 
and salt. — Cut up a chicken, or an old fowl, put to it the cold water or broth, 
and half a teacupful of pearl barley (or rice, if preferred) ; cover it close, 
and let it simmer for an hour ; skim it clear, and add pepper and salt to 
your taste. The chicken may be placed on a dish with pieces of butter 
over it, a dust of pejjper, and served with mashed potatoes. 

Poor Man's Soup. — Time 1 hour and 10 minutes. — 2 quarts of water, 4 
spoonfuls of beef dripping, 1^ oz. of butter, 1 pint basinful of raw pota- 
toes, 1 young cabbage, and a little salt. — Put the water into a stewpan, and 
wlien boiling throw in tlie beef dripping and the butter, a pint basinful of 
raw potatoes sliced, and let them boil 1 hour. Pick a young cabbage, leaf 
by leaf, or the lieart of a white cabbage, but do not chop it small ; throw it 
in, and let it boil 10 minutes, or till the cabbage be done to taste, tliough 
when boiled fast and green it eats much better. Season it with a little 
salt, and throw it over tliin slices of bread in a tureen. 

Good and Cheap Soup. — Time, 4 hours. — 4 lb. of lean beef or mutton, 
5 quarts of water, 6 carrots, 6 turnips, 3 small onions, 2 heads of celery, and 
I spoonful of black pepper. — Cut in slices the beef or mutton, and fry them 
brown in a little butter, then put them into a stewpan, with their gravy; cut 
the carrots and turnips in slices, 3 small onions, and 2 heads of celery, with 
their green tops, add the black wiiole pepper, and about 5 quarts of water. 
Let it boil, and simmer slowly till the meat is reduced to a pulp ; then 
strain it througii a fine sieve, and serve with or without vegetables. 

French Soup. — Time, 3 hours. — 3 quarts of water, 4 lbs. of meat, 2 
teaspoonfuls of salt, 3 small carrots, 3 middling-sized onions (one being 
stuck with 2 cloves), 1 head of celery, 1 bunch of thyme, 1 bay leaf, and a 
little parsley tied together, 2 turnips, 1 burnt onion, or a little browning. — 
Put the meat into a stock-pot with the water, set it over a slow fire, and 
let it gently boil, carefully taking off the scum that will rise to the top. 
Pour in a teacupful of cold water, to help the scum to rise. When no more 
scum rises, it is time to put in the vegetables, which you should have, 
ready washed and prepared. Cut the carrots in slices, stick the onions 
with cloves, cut the turnips each in four pieces. Put them into the pot 
and let them boil gently for two hours. If the water boils away too much, 
add a little hot water in addition ; a few bones improve the soup very 
much. It is not necessary to keep the pot very closely covered. 

Scotch Mutton Broth. — Time, 3^ hours. — 6 lb. of neck of mutton, 3 
quarts of water, 5 carrots, 5 turnips, 2 onions, 4 tablespoonfuls of Scotch 
barley, and a little salt. — Soak the mutton in water for an hour, cut off the 
scrag, and put it in a stewpan, with 3 quarts of water as soon as it boils ; 
skim it well, and then simmer it for an hour and a half. Cut the best end 
of the mutton into cutlets, dividing it with 2 bones in each ; take off near- 
1}^ all the fat before you put it into the broth, skim it the moment the meat 
boils, and every 10 minutes afterwards ; add the carrot, turnips, and 
onions, all cut into two or three pieces, then put them into the soup soon 
enough to be thoroughly done ; stir in the Scotch barley after you have 
well washed it in cold water; add salt to your taste, and let all stew to- 
gether for 3J hours ; about half an hour before sending it to table, put in a 
little chopped parsley, and serve all together. 

Wrexham Soup (a very Cheap Soup. — Time, 6 or 7 hours. — 1 lb. of lean 
beef, and every description of vegetable in season ; no water. — Cut 1 lb. of 
gravy beef into very small pieces, put them into a ^ gallon jar, fill it up 
with every description of vegetables, even lettuces. Tie the jar over with a 
bladder, and put it over the fire in a deep saucepan of boiling water, or in 
the oven, which is far better, for at least 6 hours. This generally makes 
sufficient soup for 4 persons : a little pepper and salt must be added. 



APPENDIX TO HOUSEHOLD. 159 

White Soup. — Time, 4 hours. — 3 lb. of veal, 1 teacupful of Scoteli bar- 
Ie3', 3 quarts of water, pepper and salt to taste. Put into a stewpaii 3 lbs. 
of veal, one teacupful of well-waslied Scotch barley, 3 quarts of water ; 
boil togetlier for 4 hours ; then strain tfte soup through a liair-sieve. It 
ought to be seasoned, like otlier soups, to your taste, and sliould have the 
appearance of a tliin smooth cream. 

Pea Soup without Meat. — Time, 3 hours. — 1 pint of split peas, 3 
quarts of spring water, 2 large onions, outside sticks of 2 heads of 
celery, a little dried mint, 1 liandful of spinacli, 2 carrots, 2 turnips; a 
few bones, or tiny pieces of bacon, flavor it nicely; pepper and salt to give 
taste. — Boil all these vegetables together till they are soft and tender, 
strain them through a liair sieve, pressing the pulp through it. Then boil 
the soup well for an hour with tlie best part of tlie celery, and a teaspoon- 
ful of pepper ; add a little fried mint, with a little spinach ; a few roast beef- 
bones, or a slice of bacon, will be an improvement. 

Carrot Soup. — Time,4^ hours. — 13 oz. of scraped carrot to 1 quart stock. 
Boil as man^f red carrots in water as you require until tender ; then cut up 
the red part, and pound it very fine; weigh it, and to every 12 or 13 oz. of 
pounded carrot, add a quart of gravy soup or good stock, mixed gradually 
with it ; season witli a little salt and cayenne ; strain it through a sieve, 
and serve it very hot with fried bread cut into dice in a separate dish. 

Brown Onion Soup. — Time, 3 hours. — 6 large Spanish onions, 5 quarts 
of water, a little pepper and salt, 1 penny roll, yolks of 2 eggs, 2 spoonfuls 
of vinegar. — Skin and cut the onions in tliin rings, fry tlieni in a little but- 
ter till they are a nice brown color, and very teuder ; then lay them on a 
hair sieve to drain from the butter ; put them into a stewpan with 5 quarts 
of water : boil them for 1 hour, and stir them often ; then add pepper and 
salt to your taste. Put the crumb of a penny roll through a colander, put 
it to tlie soup, stirring it well to keep it smooth as you do so. Boil it 2 
hours more. 10 minutes before you serve it beat tlie yolks of the eggs 
with the vinegar, and a little of the soup ; pour it in by degrees, and keep 
stirring it all tiie time one way. It will then be ready to serve : this soup 
will keep three or four days. 

Conger Eel Soup. — Time, 2j{ hours, or more. — The head and tail of a 
conger eel, 3 quarts of water, i lb. of butter, 1 leek, the blossoms of 4 or 5 
marigolds, and a few leaves, ^ pint of green-peas, or tlie white heart of a 
cabbage, half a teacup of parsley, a bunch of thyme, 2 tablespoonfuls of 
flour, a pint of milk, and a little salt. — Put the head and tail of a conger eel 
in a stewpan with 3 quarts of water, and let it simmer 2 hours and a half, 
or rather more till it breaks to pieces when tried with a fork. Strain through 
a sieve, and pour back the liquor into a stewpan with a ^ lb. of butter ; 
when boiling throw in a small leek, a few marigold leaves cut up, ^ pint of 
green-peas (or asparagus cut up small when green-peas cannot be procur- 
ed) — or, what is by many preferred, the wliite heart of a cabbage cut up 
— about a pint basinful, or rather more, half a teacupful of parsley chopped 
small, and a bunch of thyme. Mix 2 heaped tablespoonfuls of flour in a 
pint of milk, the blossoms of four or five marigolds plucked, and when the 
peas or asparagus are done,throw it into the stewpan, stirring it all the time till 
it comes to a boil; then let it simmer 10 minutes to take off the rawness of the 
flour, with the lid off the stewpan, or it would boil over. Some wiio prefer 
the parsley green do not put it in till after the milk boils. Before dishing up, 
season with a little salt, as the salt is apt to curdle the milk if added before ; 
have ready thin slices of bread in your tureen, and pour the soup over it. 

Family Soup. — Time, 6 hours. — 3 or 4 quarts of pot liquor, i. e. the wa- 
ter in which mutton or salt-beef has been boiled. Any bones from dressed 
meat, trimmings of poultry, scraps of meat or 1 lb. of gravy beef, 2 large 
onions, 1 turnip, 2 carrots, a little celery seed tied in a piece of muslin, u. 
bunch of savory herbs, 1 sprig of parsley, 5 cloves, 2 blades of mace, a few 
pep])ercorns ; pepper and salt to taste. — Put all your meat-trimmings, meat- 
bones, &c., into a stewpan ; stick the onions with cloves, and add them with 



160 APPENDID TO HOUgEHOLD. 

the other vegetables to the meat ; pour over all the pot-liquor ; set it over 
a slow fire and let it simmer gently, removing all the scum as it rises. 
Strain through a fine hair sieve. This is a good foundation for any soups. 

Fish. — Directions for Coo/ctV/.— Clean your fish carefully, slit it low enough 
so as not to have any blood on" the backbone, but do not make too large a 
cut to spoil the look of the fisii. The sound adheres to tlie bone, and must 
be left ; so must the hard and soft roes ; care must be taken not break tlie 
liver, wliich in most fish is replaced ; great care vaxist be taken not to break 
tlie gall, for it would make the fish bitter. Never fry fish in butter, fry 
them in good dripping or lard : oil is the best, but it is very expensive. 

Boiled Salmon. — Time, according to weight; 10 minutes to the lb. 
Salmon, 4 oz of salt to 1 gallon of water. — Scale, empty, and wash the sal- 
mon witli great care, removing the blood from the inside ; boil the salt 
rapidly in tlie fish-kettle for a minute or two, taking off the scum as it 
rises ; put in the salmon and let it boil gently till it is thoroughly done ; 
take it from the water, drain it, put it on a wet folded napkin, and garnish 
with slices of lemon. Sauce, shrimp, or lobster ; send up dressed cucum- 
ber with salmon, if you iiave one. 

Brill and Turbot Alike. — Time, 10 to 20 minutes. — One brill, \ lb. 
of salt to each gallon of water, 1 tablespoonful of vinegar, 1 lemon. — Clean 
and remove the scales from the fish, do not cut off the fins, but rub it over 
with a little lemon-juice and salt; set it in a fish-kettle with sufiicient cold 
water to cover it ; a handful of salt, and a tablespoonful of vinegar ; gradu- 
ally boil, and then simmer for 10 or 20 minutes, according to the size of 
the fish ; skim it well, as care is required to preserve the color. Serve it 
on a napkin, and garnisli with lemon, curled parsley, or horse-radish ; send 
it to table with lobster sauce in a tureen. All fish are boiled alike ; salmon 
takes 10 minutes to the pound to boil ; soles, &c., about 8 or 10 minutes. 

Salt Fish. — Time, 1 hour. — Put the salt cod in water the night before 
it is wanted, and let it soak all night; boil it, lay it on a dish, pour egg 
sauce over it, and send it up hot ; tlie egg sauce may be sent up separately, 
and boiled parsnips placed round tlie dish. If the cod be very dry, soak it 
for several hours, lay it out to dry in a cold place, and tlien soak.it again 
for a number of hours. This double soaking will soften the driest fish. 

Salt Fish the Second Day. — Time, 20 minutes. — Tlie remains of salt 
fish previously dressed, same quantity of mashed potatoes and parsnips ; 
^ lb. of butter; 1 or 2 eggs. — Pick the fish into small flakes, butter the bot- 
tom of a pie-dish, place it in alternate layers, with the mashed potatoes 
and parsnips. Bake it, turn it out on a dish, and pour over it some egg 
sauce. 

Cod's-Head.and Shoulders. — Time, -Jan hour or more. — Cod's-head and 
shoulders ; 4 oz. of salt to each gallon of water, 3 spoonfuls of vinegar. — 
Eub a little salt down the bone, and the thick part of the fish, and tie a fold 
or two of wide tape round it to prevent its breaking. Lay it in a fish-kettle 
with sufiicient salt and water to cover it, add 3 spoonfuls of vinegar. Let 
the water be brought just to the point of boiling, then draw the fish-ket- 
tle to the side of the fire to simmer gently till the fish is done, which can be 
ascertained by trying it with a fish-slice to see if the meat can be separated 
easily from the bone. Skim it carefully ; when done, drain it and shift it 
off the fish-strainer on a folded napkin in a dish. Garnish with parslej'', 
lemon, and the roe and liver of the cod. 

Fried Soles. — Time, 8 or 10 minutes. — 2 soles, 1 egg, a few bread- 
crumbs. — Remove the skin from the dark side of the soles, clean them, and 
wipe them dry ; dredge a little flour over them ; brusli them over witli the 
yolk of a beaten egg ; dip them into bread crumbs, and fry them of a light 
brown, in sufficient boiling fat for them to cover them ; when done, lay 
them on a cloth to absorb the grease, dish them on a napkin folded, and 
garnish with fried parsley. Plain melted butter or shrimp sauce may be 
sent to table with them. 

Fried Whiting. — Time to fry, 10 minutes. — Egg, breadcrumbs, and a 



APPENDIX TO HOUSEHOLD. 161 

little flour. — Clean the wliitings, take off the skin, and fasten the tail into the 
month, dry them in flour. Brusli them over with the yolk of an egg well beat- 
en, dip tliem in bread-crumbs, fry them in liot lard, and serve tliem on a nap- 
kin, garnislied with fried parsley. These receipts will show how to fry all 
fish for company. 

Boiled Soles. — Time, 8 to 10 minutes. — 1 or 2 soles ; a large handful 
of salt in 1 gallon of water. — Wash and clean the soles, cutoff the fins, and 
put them into a fish-kettle with salt and water. Let them boil slowly, and 
then simmer until done, a large one requiring 10 minutes, a medium- 
size one, 8 : wlien done, serve on a napkin with the white side up. Gar- 
nish with slices of lemon, and parsley. 

To Boil Whiting. — Time 10 minutes for large fish. — 4 or 6 whitings ; 
3 oz. of salt to each gallon of water. — Cleanse the fish and lay them in the fish- 
kettle with sufiicient water to cover them ; bring them slowly to a boil, and 
simmer for 5 or 6 minutes, or for a longer time should the fish be large. Dish 
them on a folded napkin, and garnish with bunches of double parsley. 

Baked Hake. — Time, varying in size. — In season from May to August. 
— Be careful in cleaning your hake ; then stuff it with veal stuffing, sew it 
up with packthread; egg and bread-crumb it over, set it in a baking-dish 
and put it into a hot oven. Let it bake till the fish parts easily from the 
bones ; it is impossible to fix a time for cooking it, unless the size of the 
fish were stated. 

Sprats. — Time, 2 or 3 minutes. — Well-cle.an a number of sprats, fasten 
them in rows by a skewer run through their gills, place them on a close- 
barred gridiron, broil them a nice brown and serve them hot. 

Boiled Eels. — Time, ^ an hour. — Some small eels and a little parsley 
and butter. — The small eels are the best to boil ; put them in sutficient 
water to cover them; add a bunch of parslej'^ : when tender they are done. 
Serve them up in a shallow tureen, with parsley and butter sauce poured 
over them. 

Fkied Eels. — Time, 18 or 20 minutes. — 1 large eel or 2 small ones, 1 egg 
and a few bread-crumbs. — Prepare and wash the eels, wipe them thoroughly 
dry, and dredge over them a very little flour ; cut them into pieces of about 3 
inches long, brush them once with egg, dip them into bread-crumbs, and fry 
them in hot fat. If very small they should be curled round and fried, being 
first dipped into egg and bread-crumbs ; serve them up garnished with fried 
parsley. 

Scalloped Oysters. — Oysters, bread-crumbs, 2 oz. of butter, pepper 
and salt. — Open the oysters, and if any pieces of shell hang about them 
take them off with a knife, or rinse them in their own liquor, but do not dip 
them in water. Leave each oj'ster in its own deep shell ; sprmkle over it a 
little pepper and salt, and some crumbs of bread, and lay little pieces of 
butter at the top ; arrange the shells on a dish and put it in the oven, or in 
a Dutch oven before the fire. When the oysters are thoroughly hot, they 
are done. 

To Bake Herrings. — Herrings, a little pepper and salt, two bay leaves, 
and some vinegar. — Clean and wash your herrings, lay them on a board and 
rub them with pepper and salt ; curl them round and fasten each with a 
small skewer, or bit of wood ; lay them in a dish, cover them with vinegar ; 
add two or three bay leaves; tie them over with a thick paper, put them into 
a moderate oven, and bake them for an hour. To be eaten cold ; serve on 
a disli with a sprig of double parsley in the centre of each dish, and the 
vinegar poured round them. 

To Fry Herrings. — Time, 10 or 12 minutes. — 1 egg and a few bread- 
crumbs. — Egg and bread-crumb your fish (when it is quite cleaned), and fry 
over a clear fire, or, better still, broil these fish. 

Filleted Plaice. — 1 egg and bread-crumbs. — Cut the fish off the boneg 
and divide it into pieces. Egg and bread them, and fry over a clear 
fire. 

Sauces.— Melted butter.— 2 oz. of butter, a little flour, 2 large spoonfuls 



162 APPENDIX TO HOUSEHOLD. 

of water. — Put the butter into a clean saucepan with the water; dredge iii a 
little flour, and sliake it over a clear fire, one way, until it boils ; then pour it 
into your tureen, and serve. 

Common Egg Sauce. — Time, 20 minutes. — 2 eggs, ^ of a pint of melted 
butter. — Boil the eggs for 20 minutes : when cold shell them, cut them into 
very small dice ; put the minced egg into a very hot sauce tureen, and pour 
over them a i of a pint of boiling melted butter. Stir the sauce round to 
mix the eggs with it. 

Fennel Sauce. — Time, 10 minutes. — J- pint of melted butter, a small 
bunch of fennel leaves, a little salt. Strip the leaves of the fennel from 
their stems, wash them carefully, and boil them quickly (with a little salt in 
the water) till tender ; squeeze them till the water is pressed from them, 
mince them fine, and mix them with hot melted butter. 

Parsley Sauce. — Time, 6 or 7 minutes. — J- pint of melted butter, a small 
liandful of parsley. — Wash the parsley, boil it for six or seven minutes till 
tender ; then press the water out of it, chop it fine, make i or ^ of a pint of 
melted butter, as required ; mix the parsley gradually with the hot melted 
butter. 

Lobster Sauce. — Time, 10 minutes. — 1 hen lobster with coral. — Cut the 
lobster into small pieces ; mix it with the coral, and put it into ^ pint of melted 
butter. 

Oyster Sauce. — Time, 5 minutes. — 1 dozen oysters, half a teacupful of 
good clear grav}-, |^ pint of melted butter. — Stew the beards of the 03'sters 
in their own juice with half a teacupful of good clear gravy, strain it off ; 
add to it the melted butter, which should be ready ; put in the oysters, and 
let them simmer gently for 8 minutes. 

Apple Sauce. — Time, 20 minutes. — 8 apples, a small piece of butter, and 
sugar. — Pare, core, and cut the apples into slices; put them into a saucepan 
witli sufficient water to moisten and prevent tliem from burning ; boil them 
until sufficiently tender to pulp ; then beat them up smootidy with a piece of 
butter, and sweeten to your taste. 

Common Onion Sauce. — Time, nearly -J an hour. — 4 or 5 white onions, -J 
pint of hot milk, 1 oz. of butter ; pepper and salt to your taste. — Peel the 
onions and boil them till they are tender; dress the water from them, and 
cliop them very fine; make the milk hot ; pulp the onions with it. Add the 
butter, and pepper and salt to your taste. 

Beef. — To roast a sirloin of beef. — Time, ^ of an hour to each 1 lb. of 
meat — Make up a good fire ; spit or hang the joint evenly at a short distance 
from it ; put a little clarified dripping in the dripping pan, and baste the joint 
well as soon as it is put down to dress ; baste again every ^ of an hour till 
about 20 minutes before it is done ; then stir the fire and make it clear ; 
sprinkle a little salt, and dredge a little flour over the meat ; turn it again till 
it is brown and frothed. Take it from the spit, put it on a hot dish, and 
pour over it some good made gravy, or mix the gravy left at the bottom of 
the dripping-pan with a little hot water, and pour over it ; garnish with 
fine scrapings of horse-radish in little heaps. Serve Yorkshire pudding with 
it on a separate dish. 

Roast Ribs of Beef. — Time, J of an hour to every 1 lb. — The chine bone 
and the upper part of the rib bones should be taken off, and the flap, ends 
fastened with very small skewers. The joint is roasted and served as the 
sirloin. 

Ribs op Beef, Rolled.— Time, 15 minutes to each 1 lb., or 15 minutes 
and i hour over if very large. — Order the butcher to take out the bones 
from the joint ; roll it into a round, and fasten it with skewers and a broad 
piece of tape ; place it before a large fire ; put some beef dripping in the pan ; 
baste it the moment the dripping melts, and do the same every ^ of an hour. 
Just before it is done, /. e., about 20 minutes before you remove it from the 
fire, dredge it lightly with flour, and baste it with a little butter. Remove 
the tape and skewers and fasten it with a silver skewer instead, if your 
mistress happens to have one. Serve with good gravy over it ; it is an im- 
provement to fill the centre with stuffing. 



APPENDIX TO HOUSEHOLD. 1 G3 

Sil-VEE Side of Beef, Boiled. — Time, 20 minutes to each lb. — 10 or 12 
lb. of the silver side of beef, 3 gallons of water. — After the beef has been 
in the pickle for about 9 or 10 flays, take it out and wash it in water, skewer 
it up in a round form, and bind it witli a piece of tape. Put it into a large 
stewpan of water ; and wjien it boils remove the scum very carefully, or it 
will sink, and spoil tlie appearance of the meat ; then draw the saucepan 
to one side of the fire, and let it simmer slowly till done. Wiien ready to 
serve, draw out the skewers, and replace them with a bright one ; pour over 
it a little of tiie liquor in which it has been boiled, and garnish with boiled 
carrots and parsnips. 

When taken from the water, trim off any soiled parts from the beef be- 
fore sending it to table. 

A Beef Stew. — Time, 2 hours and 20 minutes. — 2 or 3 lb. of tlie rump 
of beef, 1 quart of broth or gravy, pepper and salt, tlie peel of 1 large lemon 
and the juice, 2 large spoonfuls of ketchup, 1 of flour. — Cut away all tiie 
skin and fat from the beef, and divide it into pieces about 8 or 4 inclies 
square ; put it into a stewpan, and pour the broth in on it ; then let it boil, 
and s])rinkle in pepper and salt to your taste : when it has simmered 2 iiours 
spread finely the peel of a large lemon, and add it to the gravy. In 20 min- 
utes pour in a flavoring of Harvey's sauce, the juice of tlie lemon, the flour 
and a little ketcliup. 

Ox Cheek, Stewed. — Time, 7 hours altogether. — i an ox head, a bunch 
of sweet herbs, 1 liead of celery, 1 small onion, 4 cloves, pepper and salt, 3^ 
pints of water. — Well wash the ox head, and let it soak in cold water for 
several hours ; tlien put it into a stevrpan, with a bunch of herbs, 1 onion, 
the celery cut into slices, 4 cloves, and pepper and salt. Pour in about 8j 
pints of water, or ratlier more, and set it over a gentle fire to simmer slowlj'. 
Wiien tender take out the head, and cut the meat from it in rather small 
pieces, strain the gravy, and put about the third part of it into a stewpan 
with the pieces of head. Make all very hot and serve it up quickly. 

To Dkess a Bollock's Heart (English Fashion). — Time, 2 hours. — 1 
heart, veal stuffing, ^ pint of gravy. — Soak a bullock's heart for 3 hours in 
warm water, remove the lobes, and stuff the inside with veal forcemeat ; sew 
it socurely in ; fasten some wiiite paper over the heart, and roast it for 2 
hours before a strong fire, keeping it basted fre(}nently. Just before serving 
remove the paper, baste, and froth it up, and serve with gravy poured 
round it, and serve red-currant jelly separately. 

Boiled Maerovs' Bones. — Served on a NapJa'n or Toast. — Saw the bones 
any size you may prefer. Cover the ends with a common paste of flour and 
water; tie a cloth over them, and place them in a small stewpan, with suf- 
ficient boiling water to cover. When sufficiently boiled, serve tlieni upright 
on a napkin ; or, when boiled take out the marrow and spread it on toasted 
bread ; cut into small square slices, season it with a little pepper and salt, 
and send it to table very hot. 

Ox Tongue. — Time, 1 hour to warm ; 2^ hours, if large, to simmer. — 
Choose a jilump tongvie with a smooth skin, which denotes the youth of the 
animal. If it has been salted and dried, soak it before you boil for 20 
hours in plenty of water. If it is a green one fresh from the pickle, soak 
it only 3 or 4 hours. Put it into cold water, let it gradually icarm for 1 
hour, then let it slowly simmer for 2i hours. Plunge it into cold water in 
order to remove the furred skin ; bend it into a nice shape with a strong 
fork ; then trim if it is to be served as a cold tongue, and ornament 
the root with a frill of cut paper. If it is to be served hot, it must be 
wrapped in greased paper and warmed again in hot water, after removing 
the coating ; if to be served cold, let it stand in the water in which it is 
boiled until cold. 

Broiled Steak. — Time, 8 to 10 minutes. — Rump steak, 1 oz. of butter, 
pepper and salt. — Rump steak is best for broiling and frying ; beefsteak for 
stewing. Have the steak cut about ^ or i an inch in thickness; place 
the gridiron over a clear fire, and rub the bars with fat. Place the steak on 



164 APPENDIX TO HOUSEHOLD. 

it and "broil it, turning it frequently., and carefully pricking the fork through 
the fat, for if the steak itself is pricked the gravy will run out, and it will 
harden. Have ready a liot dish on wiiicli you have placed a lump of hutter 
the size of a large walnut, the ketchup, and pepper and salt. Lay tlie steak 
(rubbing it liglitly over with butter) on the dish, and serve as quickly as 
possible. 

Rump Steak and Fried Onions — Time, 20 minutes. — A rump steak, 
3 onions, a good sized piece of butter, and a little salt Fry a rump steak a 
nice brown, and put it into a liot dish with a good-sized piece of butter on 
the top, or pour the fat from the pan, put in a little water, and sliake it 
about, let it just boil, and pour it over tlie steak. Have ready the onions, 
cut into tiiin rings, and again divided across; fry them liglitly, and when 
done drain them on a cullender before the fire, stirring in a little salt. Serve 
tiiem on a separate dish, as the flavor of onions is often disliked. 

Steak Stewed in a Plain Wat. — Time, 40 ininutes altogether. — J 
pint of water, 1 onion, 1 spoonful of walnut ketchup, a piece of butter rolled 
in flour and some pepper and salt. — Fry the steaks in butter a good brown, 
then put them in a stewpan with ^ a pint of water, the onions sliced, the 
ketchup, some pepper and salt; cover the pan close, and let them stew 
slowly. Thicken the gravy with a piece of butter I'olled in flour, and serve 
them on a liot dish. 

Fillets of Beef. — Undercut of sirloin of beef, I lemon, ^ pint of good 
gravy, mashed potatoes for centre. — Cut the undercut of the beef into small 
slices ; broil them a delicate brown ; warm the gravy over the fire. Have ready 
a mould of mashed potatoes in the centre of a very hot dish ; lean the tiny 
cutlets when done against the side of the potatoes ; pour around them the 
gravy, having first squeezed a lemon into it. Serve hot. 

Bubble and Squeak. — Time, 20 minutes. — Slices of cold boiled beef, 
chopped potatoes, chopped-up cabbage, botli previously boiled ; pepper, salt, 
and a little butter. — Chop up and fry tlie cold potatoes and cabbage with a 
little pepper, salt, and a good large piece of butter ; set it aside to keep hot. 
Lightly fry some slices of cold boiled beef ; put them in a hot dish, with 
alternative layers of vegetable, piling it high in the middle. 

Stewed I3eef Kidney — Time, 30 minutes. — A beef kidney ; pepper 
and salt. — Cut the kidney into slices, season it highly with pepper and salt, 
and fry it of a light brown ; then pour a little warm water into the pan, 
dredge in some flour, put in the slices of kidneys, and let them stew very 
gently. Sheep's kidneys should be split open, broiled over a clear fire, and 
served with a piece of butter placed on each half. 

Minced Beef. — Time, 10 minutes. — l^ lb. of beef, 6 oz. of bacon, 2 small 
onions, a littl(3 pepper, 2 nutmegs, 1^ oz. of butter rolled in flour, a spoon- 
ful of browning. — Mince about 1^ lb. of beef with the bacon, and onions, 
seasoning it highly with pepper and nutmeg. Take a sufficient quantity of 
stock made from bones, and any trimmings, apiece of butter rolled in flour, 
and a little browning ; make it hot, and strain it over the mince ; put the 
whole into a stewpan, let it simmer for a few minutes, and serve it on a hot 
dish, with sippets of toasted bread arranged round the edge of the dish, and 
poached eggs on it (or a hard boiled egg divided and placed on each sippet). — 
It is surrounded by a wall of mashed potatoes. 

Hashed Beef — Plain. — Time, 25 minutes. — Some slices of cold roast 
beef, 2 onions, 1 spoonful of mushroom ketchup, and the gravy from the 
meat or from the bones boiled down, pepper and salt. Put the gravy 
saved from roast meat (with a little water if not sufficient), or the bones of 
the cold joint, boiled down to a gravy, into a stewpan with the onions, 
mushroom ketchuj), some peppei-, salt, and a little butter rolled in flour to 
thicken it ; let it simmer gently for a quarter of an hour, take it from the 
fire, and when cold remove the fat. Cut the meat into slices, dredge them 
witli flour, and lay them in the stewpan with the gravy ; let it simmer slow- 
ly for 10 minutes until hot, taking care it does not boil, or the meat will be 
hard. Garnish it with sippets of toasted bread. 



APPENDIX TO HOUSEHOLD. 165 

Tripe. — Time, 2 hours. — 21b. of tripe, equal parts of milk and water, 
4 large onions. — Take 2 lb. of fresh tripe, cleaned and dressed by tlie tripe- 
dresser, and simmer it for two hours in water ; the onions should be put on 
the fir^' at least i an hour before tiie tripe is put into tlie stenpan, and thus 
made into onion sauce, to be served with the tripe. Tripe may also be 
cleaned, dried, cut into pieces, fried in butter, and served witii melted but- 
ter, but it is very rarely tender. 

Leg of Motton Roasted. — Time, X of an hour or 20 minutes to each 
1 lb. — A leg of mutton intended for roasting can be kept much longer tlian 
forboiling, but it must be wiped very dry, and dusted with flour and pep- 
per. Cut off the knuckle, remove the thick skin, and trim off the piece of 
flank. Put a little salt and water into the dripping pan, and baste the joint 
for a sliort time with it ; then use the gravy from tlie meat itself, basting it 
every 10 minutes. Serve it with gravy poured round it. The wether leg 
of mutton is the best for roasting. A leg of mutton, if too large, can be di- 
vided, and tlie knuckle boiled. By placing a paste of flour and water over 
the part cut off, to keep in the gravy, it can be roasted, by which means two 
roast dinners can be had from the one joint. 

Roast Shoulder of Mutton. — Time, X of a" hour to each 1 lb. — A 
shoulder of mutton should be basted in roasting. Roast tliis joint at a 
brisk fire. It should be well hung, and served with onion sauce. 

Roast Loin of Mutton. — Time X of a-n hour to each 1 lb. — Roast this 
joint at a bright fire, and baste carefully about every ^ of an hour. Brown 
and froth it as before directed for leg, &c. 

To Roll a Loin of Mutton. — Time, X of an hour to each 1 lb. — A loin 
of mutton, veal stuffing, and a large spoonful of ketchup. — Hang a loin of 
mutton till tender, take out the bone, and lay over the meat a staffing made 
as for veal ; roll it up tightly, fasten it with skewers, and tie it around with 
a string ; roast it before a brisk fire ; make a gravy of the bones, adding 
the ketchup, and a little salt. Wiien the meat is done pour some of the 
gravy made from the bones, mixed with the gravy from tlie meat, over it, 
and serve — with currant jelly, separately. 

Boiled Leg of Mutton. — Time X of an hour to 1 lb. of meat. — Cut off 
the shank bone, and wash and wipe the joint very clean. Then put it into 
a saucepan with cold water, and put it over a good fire. As the scum rises, 
skim it off. 

Boiled Neck of Mutton. — Time, X of an hour to every lb. Take the 
best end or middle of a neck of mutton, see that it is thoroughly jointed, and 
put it into a stew pan, witii sufficient cold water to cover it. When it boils 
skim it carefully, and throw in a little salt ; then draw the stewpan to the 
side, and let it simmer gently until the meat is well done ; allow the time 
from when it begins to simmer. 

Mutton Cutlets. — Time, to stew, 7 minutes ; to broil 10 minutes — 
Some chops from the loin, a sprig of thyme and parsley, yolk of one or two 
eggs, bread-crumbs, salt and ca^'enne pepper to taste, 2 oz of. butter, iuice 
of a small lemon. — Cut some cutlets from a loin of mutton, take off an inch 
from the top of each bone, and from the thickest end; melt two oz. of but- 
ter in a stewpan, season the cutlets, and put them into a stewpan with a 
piece of butter, and a little thyme and parsley cliopped fine, season with 
pepper and salt; fry them lightly, and then take them out to cool. Take 
some fresh chopped parsley and some bread-crumbs, spread them over the 
cutlets with a knife, wrap them in buttered papers, and broil them over a 
clear fire. Serve them up in the papers. 

Mutton Chops Broiled. Time, 10 minutes. — Cut some chops from 
the best end of tlie loin or neck, trim them neatly, removing the skin and 
fat, leaving only enough of the latter to make them palatable ; place the 
chops on a gridiron over a very clear fire, turn them frequently, taking care 
that the fork is not put into the lean part of the chops, season them with 
pepper and salt. When just finished cooking, put a piece of fresh butter 
over each chop, and send them to table on a hot dish. Pork chops are 
cooked in the same manner. 



166 APPENDIX TO HOUSEHOLD. 

Minced Mutton. — Time i an hour. — 1^ lb. of meat, -J pint of good 
brown gravy, pepper and salt. — Mince some dressed mutton as fine as 
possible, season it highly with pepper and salt, warm -J- a pint of good 
brown gravy, or gravy made from the bones, make tlie mince very hot, and 
send it to table. 

Irish Stew. — Time about 2 hours. — 2^ lb. of chop, 7 potatoes, 4 turnips, 
4 small onions, nearly a quart of water. — Take some cliops from a loin of 
mutton, place them in a stewpan in alternate layers of sliced jiotatoes and 
chops; add the turnips and onions cut into pieces, and pcnir in nearly a 
quart of cold water ; cover the stewpan closely, and let it stew gently till 
tlie vegetables are ready to mash, and the greater part of the gravy is ab- 
sorbed ; then place it in a dish, and serve it up hot. 

Hashed Mutton. — 1 hour and 20 minutes. — Some cold mutton, 1-| pints 
of water, 14 peppercorns, 4 allspice, a bunch of savorj' lierbs, a large piece 
of butter, a spoonful of browning, or more if liked. — Cut the cold mutton in- 
to slices, put the bones into a stewpan with tlie herbs, spice, and 1-J- pint 
of water ; set it over tlie fire, and let it simmer gently for an hour. Cut a 
slice or two of onion if liked, fry them a nice brown, and add them to the 
bones and herbs. Let all simmer together for 10 or 12 minutes ; then strain 
it througli a hair sieve, and when cold take off tlie fat. Put tlie slices of 
meat dredged with flour into the stewpan, add the gravy, with a spoonful 
of browning and two of walnut ketchup ; make it very hot, but do not let 
it boil. Serve it with sippets of toasted bread round thfe dish. 

Sheep's Head. — Time, 2 hours. — 1 head, 2 onions, 2 carrots, 2 turnips, 
a piece of celery, 6 cloves, a sprig or two of thyme, 1 bay leaf, 34^ oz. of pep- 
per, 8 quarts of water, salt to taste, Put the head into a gallon of water, 
and let it soak for 2 hours, wash it tlioroughly, saw it in two from the top, 
take out the brain, cut away part of the uncovered portions of the skull and 
the ends of the jaws ; wash it well once more. Put the onions, carrots, tur- 
nips, celery, thyme, bay leaf, and seasoning into a stewpan, with three 
quarts of water. Let it simmer very gently ; take out the vegetables and 
bunch of herbs ; skim off tlie fat ; lay tlie head on a disli. Have tiie brain 
ready boiled (it will take 10 minutes to do), chop it up fine, warm it in pars- 
ley and butter, put under tlie head, and serve. 

Lamb and Veal. — Lamb and veal are roasted and boiled exactly as 
beef and mutton are, only they require a little longer time, that is 20 min 
utes to the pound', and 10 minutes over. 

Lamb's Fry. — Time altogether, 20 minutes. — 1 lb. of lamb's fry, 1 egg, 1 
oz. of bread-crumbs, a sprig of parsley, pepper and salt. — Boil some lamb's 
fry for about a>J4^ of an hour ; then drain it dry. Brush it over with the yolk 
of a beaten egg, and tlien cover it with bread-crumbs, seasoned with minced 
parsley, pepper and salt ; fry it till it is a nice color, that is for about 5 niin- 
utns, and serve it on a folded napkin, with fried parsley. 

Lamb Cutlets and Lamb Chops. — are dressed in the same way as 
mutton chops and mutton cutlets. 

Veal Stuffing. — Mix 6 oz. of bread-crumbs with the peel of a lemon 
chopped very fine, a tablespoonf ul of chopped savory Jierbs, 3 oz. of finely 
chopped beef suet, or of butter broken into small pieces ; season it and bind 
it with two well beaten eggs. 

To Roast a Fillet of Veal. — Time, 4 hours for 12 lb. — Veal, ■§■ pint 
of melted butter, ^ lb. of forcemeat, a lemon. — Take out the bone o& tlie 
joint, and make a deep incision between the fillet and the saddle. Fill it 
with the forcemeat of veal stuffing. Bind the veal up in a round form, and 
fasten it with skewers and twme ; cover the veal with buttered paper, and 
put it at some distance from the fire at first, advancing it as it becomes 
dressed. Baste it well, and just before it is done take off tlie paper, dredge 
a little flour over it, and baste it with butter ; remove the skewers, and 
replace them with a silver one ; pour over the meat some melted butter, 
witli the juice of the lemon, and a little of the brown gravy from tlie meat. 
Garnish with sliced lemon ; serve with either ham, bacon, or pickled pork. 



APPENDIX TO HOUSEHOLD. 1 G7 

Calf's Head Boiled. — Time, to 8oak, 1| hours, to simmer, 1| hours. — 
i a calf's head, i pint of melted butter, with parsley, 1 lemon, a pinch of 
pepper and salt.— Soak the half calf's head in cold water for 1^ hours ; then 
for 10 minutes in hot water before it is dressed ; put it into a saucepan 
with plenty of cold water (enough for the head to swim), and let it boil 
gently ; when the scum rises skim it very carefully ; after the head boils let 
it simmer gently for li hours. Serve it with melted butter and parsley 
over it, and garnish with slices of lemon and tio}'^ heaps of fried parsley. 
Ham should be served with calf's head, or slices of bacon. 

Calf's Brains and Tongue. — Time to boil, 10 or 15 minutes. — A little 
parsley and thyme, 1 bay leaf, a little pepper and salt, 2 tablespoonfuls of 
melted butter, juice of X of a lemon, a pinch of cayenne. — Separate the 
two lobes of the brain with a knife, soak them in cold water with a little 
salt in it for 1 hour; then pour away the cold water, and cover it with hot 
water, clean and skin them ; boil them very gently in ^ pint of water ; 
take off the scum as it rises. Take them up, drain and chop them, and put 
them to warm in a stewpan, with the herbs chopped, tlie butter or cream, 
and the seasoning; squeeze a little lemon juice over them, stir them well 
together. B.oil the tongue, skin it, take off the roots, lay it in the middle 
of the dish, and serve the brains round it. 

Hashed Calf's Head. — Time, 1| hours. — J- a calf's head, a bunch of 
savory herbs, 2 blades of mace, a little cayenne pepper and salt, 1 lemon, 
li gills of sherry or white wine, 2 dessertspoonfuls of mushroom ketcimp, 
1 onion, 1 carrot, 1 quart of broth, or the liquor in which it was boiled. 

Cut the meat from the remains of a boiled calf's head into small pieces 
of about 2 inches across ; put a quart of broth, or the liquor in wliicii the 
bead was boiled, into a stewpan, with the carrot, onion, mace, and herbs ; 
boil it until reduced to nearly half the quantitj' ; then strain it tiirough a 
liair sieve, and add the wine, the juice of the lemon, mushroom ketchup, 
and a piece of butter rolled in flour. Lay in the slices of head, and when 
gradually heated, let them just boil up. Then serve on a hot dish, with 
rolled bacon, and forcemeat balls as a garnish. 

Veal Cutlets. — Time, 12 to 15 minutes. — A veal cutlet, 1 bunch of 
sweet herbs, bread-crumbs, nutmeg, peel of ^ a lemon, yolks of 2 eggs, 1 
oz. of butter, a little flour and water. 

Let the cutlet be -J an inch thick, and cut it into pieces the size and 
sliape of a crown piece ; chop the herbs fine ; mix them with tiie bread- 
crumbs. Brush the cutlets over with yolk of egg; then cover them with 
the bread-crumbs and herbs, fry them lightly in butter, turning them when 
required; take them out when done. Put an ounce of fresh butter with 
the grated peel of the lemon, a little nutmeg and flour ; pour a little water 
into the frying-pan, and stir the butter, flour, and lemon-peel into it ; then 
put the cutlets into this gravy to heat. Serve them piled in the centre of 
the dish, with thin rolls of lemon as a garnish. 

Calf's Liver and Bacon. — Time, }( of an hour. — Calf's liver, bacon, 1 
lemon, a small piece of butter, a little flour, pepper, and salt. Well soak 
the liver; then dry it in a cloth, and cut it into thin narrow slices ; cut an 
equal number of thin slices of bacon as you have of liver, fry the bacon 
lightly, and keep it hot ; then fry the liver in the same pan, seasoning it with 
pepj)er and salt, and dredging over it a little flour. When done arrange it 
round the dish, with a roll of bacon between each slice. Pour off tlie fat 
from the pan, put in a piece of butter rubbed in flour ; squeeze in tlie juice 
of the lemon, and add a cupful of hot water ; boil it, and pour it into the 
centre of the dish. 

Pork. — Pork must be very much more dressed than all other meats, 
except veal. It should, therefore, be placed at a considerable distance 
from the fire, and tluis get well warmed through before the skin begins to 
get dry and brown. 

To Make Sage-and-Onion Stuffing for Roast Pig or Roast Pork. 
— Time, 25 to 30 minutes. — 2 large onionS; double the quantity of bread- 



168 APPENDIX TO HOUSEHOLD. 

crumbs, 3 teaspoonfuls of chopped' sage, 2 oz. of butter, 1 egg, pepper and 
salt. 

Boil the onions in two or three waters, to take off tlie strong taste in 
them ; then drain them, chop tliem up fine, and mix tlieni with the bread- 
crumbs, tlie minced sage, the butter, pepper, and salt. Mix tlie wliole with 
the well-beaten yolk of an egg to bind it. 

To Boil Bacon. — Time, 1^ hour for 2 or 3 lbs. — If very soft, soak it in 
soft water two hours before cooking. Put it into a saucepan witli plenty of 
water, and lot it boil gentlj^ If a fine piece of the gammon of bacon, it 
may when done have the skin, as in hams, stripped off, and have finely- 
powdered bread-raspings strewed over it. 

To Boil Pickled Pork. — Time }i( of an hour to 4 lbs. — The belly part 
is considered delicate. It should be nicely streaked. Boil it gently. Serve 
it with green as a garnish round it. 

To Boil a Hand of Pork. — Time, 1 hour. — If the pork should be very 
salt, it will require to be soaked for nearly two hours before boiling. Boil 
it, and serve witli jiease-pudding and greens in a separate dish. 

To Boil a Ham. — Time, 4 or 5 hours. — A blade of mace, a few cloves, 
a sprig of thyme, and two bay leaves. Well soak the ham in a large quan- 
tity of water for 24 iiours, then trim and scrape it very clean, put it into a 
large stewpan with more than suflScient water to cover it ; j)ut in the mace, 
cloves, thyme, and bay leaves. Boil it for 4 or 5 hours, according to its 
weight; and, when done, let it become cold in the liquor in which it was 
boiled. Then remove the rind carefully, without injuring the fat ; press a 
cloth over it to absorb as much of the grease as possible, and shake some 
bread-raspings over the fat. Serve it cold, garnished with parsley. Orna- 
ment the knuckle with a paper frill. 

To Choose Bacon. — Excellent young bacon can be thus known: — The 
lean will be tender and a bright color; the fat firm and white, yet bearing 
a pale rose tinge ; and the rind thin. Rusty bacon has yellow streaks in it. 

Bacon and Eggs. — Cut the bacon in thin slices and fry it. When the 
bacon is done fry the eggs in the same pan. Break each egg separately in 
a cup, and then throw it quickly into the pan. Lay a fried egg on each 
slice of liacon. 

To Steam Bacon. — Time, 20 minutes to the pound. — It is a mistake to 
boil bacon. It should be steamed. No waste then takes place as to quan- 
tity, and the flavor is preserved. 

Scrape the outer rind or skin well, wash the bacon, put it in a steamer 
over a pot of boiling water, and steam it for as long as required by the 
weight. 

Serve it with veal or fowl, or by itself with greens. 

To Roast a Pig's Head. — Time to roast, ^ an hour. — ^ oz. of sage, 1 
large spoonful of salt, 1 dessertspoonful of pepper. 

Boil it till tender enough to take the bones out ; then chop the sage 
fine, mix it with the pepper and salt, and rub it over the head. Roast it at 
a good fire ; baste it well; make a good gravy, and pour over it. Apple 
sauce is eaten with it. 

Poultry and Game. — Roast Turkey. — Time, according to size, from 
1^ hours to 2 liours or 2^ hours. — ^ pint of forcemeat of veal or sausage 
meat, and a little butter. 

To truss the bird: Pick the bird carefully, and singe off the down with 
a piece of lighted white paper ; break the leg-bones close to the feet, hang 
it on a hook, and draw out the strings from the thighs ; cut the neck off 
close to the back, but have the crop skin long enough to turn over tlie 
back ; remove the crop, and with the middle finger loosen the liver and the 
gut at the throat end ; cut off the vent, remove the gut, take a crooked 
wire and pull out the gizzard, and the liver will easily follow. But be 
careful not to break the gall-bladder; if you do it will spoil the flavor of 
the bird, by giving it a bitter taste, which no after efforts of washing can 
remove. Do not lareak the gut joining the gizzard either, lest the inside 



APPENDIX TO HOUSEHOLD. IG'J 

become gritty. "Wipe tlie inside witli a wet clotli ; tiien cut the breast-bone 
through on each side close to the l)ack, and draw the legs close to the 
crop ; put a cloth on the breast, and beat tiie breast-bone down with a roll- 
ing-pin till it lies flat. Scald the feet, peel off the outer skin, and cut away 
the claws, leaving the legs on. Fill the crop with stuffing, and fasten the 
skin of the neck over the back with a verij small skewer. Tiien put a long 
skewer into the pinion and thigh, througii the body, passing it through the 
opposite pinion and tliigli. On the other side put a small skewer in the 
small part of the leg, close on the outside of the sidesman, and push it 
through. Clean the liver and gizzard and tuck them between the pinions, 
and turn the point of the pinions on the back; pass a stfing over the points 
of the skewers, and tie it securely over the back. Cover the breast with a 
sheet of paper buttered. Tiien place the bird at some distance from a very 
good and bright fire, keep the heat well to the breast, put 4 oz. of butter in 
the dripping-pan, and baste it frequently. Just before it is finished dressing 
remove the paper, dredge it lightly witli flour, and baste it with the butter, 
80 as to brown and froth it. Serve it with good brown gravy poured over 
it, and garnish it with small fried sausages. Sauce, bread sauce. 

To Truss a Goose. — Cut the feet off at the joint, and the pinions off 
at the first joint. Cut off the neck close to the back, leaving the skin of 
the neck long enough to turn over. Pull out the throat and tie a knot at 
the end. Loosen the liver, &c., at the breast end with the middle finger, 
and cut it open between the vent and rump. Draw out all the entrails ex- 
cepting the soal (or soul), and wipe out the inside. Beat the breast-bone 
witli a rolling-pin, put a skewer into the wing, and draw the legs up close ; 
put a skewer through the middle of the legs and through the body ; do the 
same on the other side- Put another skewer in the small of the leg, turn 
it close down to the sidesman, run it through, and do the same on the other 
side. Cut off the end of the vent, and make a hole large enough for the 
passage of the rump, as' by that means you will better secure the seasoning 
in its place. 

To Roast a Goose. — Time, a large goose, 2 liours ; a small one, 1^ 
hours. — Sage-and-onion stuffing, some good gravy. — Stuff the goose inside 
with sage-and-onion stuffing ; roast it before a brisk fire ; keep it frequently 
basted, and when done remove the skewers, place it on a dish, and pour a 
little good gravy round it. Serve with apple sauce, and a little gravy in a 
tureen. 

To Roast Ducks. — Time, % of an hour to 1 hour. — Ducks are trussed 
in the same manner as geese ; except that the feet must be left on, and 
turned close to the legs. Hang tiie ducks one day ; stuff one with sage-and- 
onion stuffing, season the other with pepper and salt in inside. Roast them 
at a bright fire, and keep them well basted. A short time before serving, 
dredge them lightly with flour, and baste them with butter ; serve them 
with a little gravy poured round them, and a little of the same gravy in a 
tureen. The giblets can be made into a pie. 

To Truss a Roast Fowl. — The fowl must be picked and singed ; the 
neck cut off close to the back. Take out the crop, and with the finger 
loosen the liver and other parts at the breast end. Put a skewer through 
the middle of the leg, and through the body, and do the same on the other 
side. Put another skewer in the small of the leg, and through the sides- 
man. Do tiie same on the side, and then put another througii the .;kin of 
the feet, which should have the nails cut off ; clean out and wash tlie giz- 
zard, remove the gall-bag from the liver, and put both liver and gizzard 
under the pinions. 

To Roast a Fowl. — Family Receipt. — Time, 1 hour. — 1 large fowl ; 
2 or 3 large spoonfuls of bread-crumbs, pepper and salt,^lb. of butter. — Pre- 
pare the fowl for roasting ; put into the inside tiie bread-crumbs, seasoned 
with pepper and salt, and a piece of butter the size of a large walnut. Roast 
it at a clear fire, basting it well with butter; and just bef<n-e it is done, 
dredge it with flour, and baste again with butter. When done, add a little 



170 APPENDIX TO HOUSEHOLD. 

warm water to the butter in the dripping-pan, or a little very thin melted 
butter, and strain it over the fowl. Serve with bread-sauce, or a little 
gravy in a tureen if preferred. 

To Truss Boiled Fowls. — Pick and prepare the fowl as for roasting. 
Then cut off the nails of the feet, and tuck them down close to the legs. 
Put your finger into tlie inside and raise the skin of the fowl ; then cut a hole 
in the top of the skin, and put tlie legs under. Put a skewer in the first 
joint of tlie pinion, and bring the middle of the leg close to it ; put tlie 
skewer througli the middle of the leg and througli the body ; do the same 
on the otlier side. Open the gizzard, remove the contents, and wash it well ; 
remove the g.iU-bladder from the liver. Put the gizzard and the liver in 
the pinions, turn tlie points of the pinions on the back, and tie a string over 
the top of the legs. 

To Boil Fowls or Chickens. — Time, 1 hour for a large fowl, |^ for a 
medium size, ^ an hour for a chicken. — After the fowls or chickens are trussed, 
fold them in a nice white floured cloth, and put them into a stewpan ; cover 
them with hot water, bring it gradually to a boil, and skim it carefully as 
the scum rises ; then let them simmer as slowly as possible. When done, put 
them on a dish, remove the skewers, and pour over them a little parsley 
and butter. Boiled tongue, ham, or bacon is usually served to eat with 
them. 

To Truss and Roast Pigeons. — Time, 20 to 30 minutes. — Wash the 
pigeons thoroughly, and wipe them dry before putting them to the fire. Cut 
off the head and neck, truss the wings over the back, and cut off the toes at 
the first joint ; season the insides with pepper and salt, and put a piece of 
butter into the body of each bird. Roast them before a clear fire, basting 
tiiem well. Add a little water to the butter in the drij)ping-pan, with a 
large spoonful of gravy, and pour it round the birds. Bread sauce. 

To Truss and Roast a Partridge. — Time, 25 to 30 minutes. — Partridges 
should lianga few days. — Pluck, draw, wipe the partridge; cut off the head, 
leaving sufficient skin on the neck to skewer back; bring the legs close to 
the breast, between it and the side bones, and pass a skewer through the 
pinions and the thick part of the thighs. If the head is left on, it should 
be brought round, fixed on to the point of the skewer ; but it is generally re- 
moved from the bird when dressing it. Roast them and serve with a little 
grav}' poured over the birds, and bread sauce and gravy in tureens. 
:\ To Truss and Roast a Pheasant. — Time, from i an hour, according to 
^ize. — After tlie jilieasant is picked and drawn, wipe the inside, and truss it 
in the same way as a partridge. If the head is left on, which it ought to be, 
bring it round flnder the wing, and fix it on the point of the skewer. Serve 
as roast partridge. 

To Truss a Hare. — Cut off the fore legs at the first joint, raise the skin 
of the back and draw it over the hind legs ; leave the tail whole ; then draw 
the skin over the back, and slip out the fore-legs. Cut the skin from the 
neck and head, skin the ears, and leave them on ; clean the vent, cut the 
sinews under the legs, bring them forward ; run a skewer tlirongh one hind 
leg, through the body, and the other hind leg. Do the same with the fore- 
legs, lay the head back, put a skewer in the mouth, through the back of the 
head and between the shoulders. Rinse the inside, fill it with veal stuffing 
sew up the body,*and pass a string over it to secure the legs on the skewers. 

To Roast a Hare. — Time, 1^ hours to labours, or 2 hours. — A hare, 
some veal stuffing, milk, butter, and brown gravy. — After the hare is skinned 
and prepared, wijie it dry; fill the belly with veal stuffing, and sew it up. 
Draw the fore and hind legs close to the body, and pass a skewer through 
each. Tie a string round the body, from one skewer to the other, and tie it 
above the back ; fix the head between the shoulders witii another skewer, 
and be careful to have the ears on. Place it at some distance from the fire 
when first it is put down, and baste it with milk and water for a short time 
and afterwards with butter. Just before it is done, dredge it with flour and 
baste it with butter: when done, remove the skewers, and pour a little 



APPENDIX TO HOUSEHOLD. 171 

good gravy in the dish. Serve with gravy in a tureen, and red-currant 
jelly. 

To Truss and Roast Rabbits — Time, to roast |^ of an hour. — Empt}', 
skin, wash and soak the rabbit; stuff it with veal stuffing; skewer back 
the head between tlie slioulders ; cut off the fore-joints of the legs and shoul- 
ders, draw tlicni close to the body, and pass a skewer through them. Roast 
it in the same manner as the hare. 

To Truss Boiled Rabbits. — After skinning the rabbit wash it in cold 
water, and then put it into warm water for about 20 minutes to soak out the 
blood. Draw the head round to the side, and secure it with a thin skewer 
run through that and the body. Put the rabbit into a stewpan of liot water, 
and let it boil gentlj' until tender: when done, place it on a dish, and 
smother it with onion sauce, or with parsley and butter. 

Potatoes — Boiled. — Time, from 18 to 20 minutes after the water boils ; 
large ones ^ an hour. — Pare the potatoes and throw them into cold water ; 
then put them into a saucepan, cover them with cold water, and a pinch of 
salt: when the water boils check it several times \)y throwing cold water 
in, as the slower they are boiled the better. Wiien done, throw away the 
water and sprinkle a little salt over them ; put them at the sideof tliefire to 
dry, with the lid of the saucepan off, and then serve them quickly with the 
lid of the dish raised. 

To Steam Potatoes. — Time, 20 to 40 minutes. — Pare the potatoes thin, 
and throw them into cold water for 5 minutes ; then put the steamer over 
the saucepan filled with boiling water, and let them steam as directed, or 
until a fork goes through them easily. Then take them up and serve them 
quickly, or they will lose their color. 

Baked Potatoes. — Time, 1 hour. — Take as many large potatoes as you 
wish, and wash them clean ; then wipe them dry, and put them into a quick 
oven for 1 hour. Serve them in a napkin, with cold butter and pepper 
and salt. 

Fried Potatoes. — Time to fry, 10 minutes. — Boil some potatoes in their 
skins ; when cold, peel them and cut them in slices a J of an inch thick, and 
fry them in butter or beef dripping a nice delicate brown. When done, take 
them out with a slice, to drain any grease from them, and serve piled liigh 
on a dish ; or, they may be chopped up small, seasoned with pepper and salt, 
and fried liglitly in butter, turning them several times, that they may be 
nicely browned. 

To Mash Potatoes. — Time, i an hour, or j^ of an hour if large. — ^Pota- 
toes, a piece of butter, a little milk, and salt. — Take off the skins of the po- 
tatoes, and lay them in cold water for an hour ; then put them into a sauce- 
pan with a little salt, cover them witli water, and boil them. When done, 
drain the water from them, put them into a bowl, and mash tUem fine. Melt 
a piece of butter the size of a large egg with a little milk ; mix it well with 
the mashed potatoes until they are a smooth paste, taking care the potatoes 
are not too wet ; then put the mash into a dish, piled up ; smooth it with 
a knife to serve, or it may be improved by browning them in the oven, or in 
a Dutch oven before the fire. 

To Boil Broccoli. — Time, 10 to 15 minutes if small ; 20 to 25 minutes 
if large. — Two or three heads of broccoli, 2 quarts of water, and a little salt. 
Strip off the dead outside leaves, and cut the inside ones even with tlie 
flower ; cut off the stalk close, and put them into cold salt and water for an 
hour to cleanse from insects ; put them into a large saucepan of boiling salt 
and water, and boil them quickly with the saucepan uncovered. When 
tender, take them carefulh' out, drain them dry, and serve them, with a lit- 
tle melted butter poured over them, and some in a separate tureen. 

To Boil Cabbage or Savoys. — Time, a large cabbage or savoy, i to }( 
of an hour ; young summer greens, 12 minutes. — Cut off as much of tlie 
stalk as convenient, and cut the cabbages across twice at the stalk end, un- 
less very large, and then they must be quartered ; wash them, drain them 
in a cullender, and put them into a saucepan of boiling water with a spoonful 



172 APPENDIX TO HOUSEHOLD. 

of salt ; pi'ess tliem down frequently, and let them boil very quickly until 
tender, keeping the saucepan uncovered. When done, drain tliem tlirough 
a cullender, covered over to keep them warm, or take them carefully out 
with a slice. Serve them up very hot, arranged in quarters round the 
dish. 

Turnips. — Time, 1 hour to 1^; young ones 20 minutes. — Turnips, a 
spoonful of salt to every gallon of water. — Pare tiie turnips, and cut them 
into quarters ; put them into a saucepan of boiling water and salt in the 
above proportion, and boil them until quite tender ; then drain them, and 
press them tiirough a cullender with a wooden spoon, and put them into a 
saucepan witli a piece of butter and a little pepper ; stir them over the fire 
until very hot, and thoroughly mixed. Dish them up, and serve them with 
boiled mutton, &c., &c. 

To Boil Broad Beans. — Time, 15 minutes if young, 20 to 25 minutes if 
of a moderate size. — 1 peck of be.ans, ^ gallon of water, 1 large spoonful of 
salt. — Shell the beans, put tliem into a saucrepan of boiling salt and water, 
and boil them quickly as above directed. When done, drain them, and serve 
them with parsley and butter in a separate tureen. Boiled bacon should be 
served witli broad beans. 

To Boil French Beans. — Time, 15 to 20 minutes. — French beans, a lit- 
tle salt and water. — Cut off the tops and bottoms of tlie beans, and remove 
the strings from each side ; tlien divide each bean into three or four pieces, 
cutting them lengthwise, and as they are cut put them into cold water with 
a little salt. Drain the beans, and put them into a saucepan of boiling 
water. Boil them quickly with the saucepan uncovered, and as soon as they 
are done drain them in a cullender. Dish and serve with a small piece of 
butter stirred into them. 

To Boil Green Peas. — Time, 12 to 15 minutes if young, 20 to 25 if 
large. — i peck of peas, a knob of butter, a sprig or two of mint, and a tea- 
spoonful of winte sugar, if you like. — Shell the peas, and put tiiem into a 
saucepan of boiling water with a spoonful of salt, and the mint; let them 
boil with the pan closely covered. When tender, strain them through a cul- 
lender, and put them in a dish with a bit of butter stirred into tliem, a very 
little pepper, and the mint on the top. 

To Boil Carrots. — Time, 26 minutes ; if large, 1^ to lj{ hours. — When 
3'oung, carrots only require washing without scraping, and tiie skin wiped 
off if necessary after they are boiled. Put tiiem into a saucepan, witii hot 
water to cover them, and a little salt; let them boil fast; then take them 
out, and if necessary rub off the skins and put tliem into a dish. If old car- 
rots, scrape the skins very clean, and wash them ; if large, cut tliein in slices 
and boil them in plenty of salt water until they are tender ; put tiiem in a 
dish and serve. 

To Boil Artichokes. — Time, -J to }{ of an hour. — 2 large spoonfuls of 
salt and a piece of soda the size of a si.xpence to every gallon of water. — 
Gather the artichokes two or tliree days before they are required for use. 
Cut off the stems, pull out tlie strings, and well wash them. Put the arti- 
chokes witii their tops down into a saucepan of boiling water, with the soda 
and salt in the above proportions. If the leaves come out easily they are 
'done ; take them out and lay them upside down to drain. Serve them on a 
napkin, with a tureen of melted butter; or, tliey may be placed on a dish 
without the napkin, and a little butter served witli tliem. 

To Boil Jerusalem Artichokes. — Time, 20 minutes. — To each gallon 
of water 2 large spoonfuls of salt. — Wash the artichokes, peel and cut them 
into a round or oval form, and put them into a large saucepan of cold water, 
witii salt in the above proportion; they will take 20 minutes from the time 
the water boils to become tender. When done, drain tiiem, and serve tliem 
with a little melted butter poured over them. 

To Boil Asparagus. — Time, 15 to 18 minutes after the water boils. — 1 
tablespoonful of salt to ^ gallon of water. — Scrape clean all tiie white i)art 
of the stalks from the asparagus, and throw thera into cold water ; tie them 



APPENDIX TO HOUSEHOLD. 173 

up in bundles, cut the root ends even, and put them in a piece of muslin to 
preserve tlie tops. Have ready a wide stewpan with the salt and water 
boiling; lay in the asparagus, and boil it quickly until it is tender. Have a 
thin slice of toasted bread, cut in square pieces, laid at the bottom of the 
dish ; take up the asparagus, lay it on the toast with the white ends up- 
wards and tlie points meeting in the centre. Serve with butter in a tureen, 

To Boil Parsnips. — Time, 1 hour to li hours ; if small, ^ hour to 1 
hour. — 1 large spoonful of salt to i gallon of water. — If tlie parsnips are 
young they require only to be scraped before boiling ; old ones must be 
pared thin and cut into quarters. Put them into a stewpan of boiling salt 
and water, boil them quickly until tender ; take them up, drain them, and 
serve them on a vegetable dish. 

They are generally served with boiled beef, pork, or salt cod, and also 
added as a garnish witli boiled carrots. 

To Boil Bketroot. — Time, 1 hour, 1^ hours, or two hours. — Beetroot, 
vinegar, salt and pepper. — Winter beets should be soaked over night, and 
washed very clean ; put them into a stewpan of boiling water, and boil 
them quickly. When done, put them into cold water, and rub off the skins 
with your hands; then cut them into thin slices, put them into a dish, and 
pour over them some cold vinegar ; add a little salt and pepper. If the beet- 
root is in the least broken before dressed, the color will be gone entirely. 

To Boil Vegetable Marrow. — Time, 10 to 20 minutes. — Marrows, 1 
large spoonful of salt to |- a gallon of water. — Peel the marrows, and put 
them into a saucepan of boiling water and salt: when tender, take them 
out, and remove the seeds ; cut them into quarters if large, if not, halve 
them ; serve them in a vegetable dish on toast, with a tureen of melted 
butter sent to table with them. 

To Make Crust for Pies, Tarts, and Puddings. — Make pastry with 
clean coW hands ; dip j'our hands in cohl water (after washing them in hot 
water) before you begin, or your crust will not be good. Crust for com- 
pany or the master's table is made with butter ; for home or the servants, of 
clarified dripping or lard. Look to the oven ; if it is too cold it will make 
your crust heavy, if too hot it will burn it. Try it, by baking a tiny piece 
of crust in it first. Make a little hole in the top crust of meat pies to let 
out the gas. 

Family Puff Paste. — 1 lb. of sifted flour, I lb. of lard, a little salt, |lb. 
of butter. — Put the flour in a bowl, and work into it the lard and a little salt. 
When it is well mi.ved with the flour, add sufficient cold water to bind it to- 
gether ; then strew some flour over the paste-board ; flour the rolling-pin, 
and roll out the paste to ^ an inch in thickness ; then divide the butter ; 
place one half of it in the centre of the paste, fold it over, and roll it out 
twice ; then add the other part of the butter, fold it again, forming a square, 
and roll it out 3 times, repeating the folding over of the paste each time: 
when it will be fit for use. 

Cheap and Vert Light Crust for Pies, &c. — 5 oz. of fresh beef drip- 
ging, 1 lb. of flour. — To be mixed with hot water, riot boiling, and a little 
white sugar. These must be put together as lightly as possible, and the 
flour and drijiping must be mixed on the paste-board with a knife. Omit 
the sugar if for meat pies. 

Suet Crust for Puddings. — 1 lb. of flour, 6 oz. of beef suet, and cold 
water. — Chop the suet as Jine as possible, rub it well into the flour ; mix it 
with a knife or wooden spoon to a very smooth paste, with a little water, 
and roll it out for use. 

Beef or PiUmp Steak Pie. — l^ or 2 lb. of beef or rump steak, a little 
pepper, suit and cayenne, a little water or gravy if you have it, a large 
spoonful of ketchup, yolk of 1 egg, some paste. — Cut the meat into small 
pieces with a very little fat, dip each piece into flour, place them in a pie- 
dish, seasoning well with pepper, salt, and cayenne ; fill the dish sufficiently 
with slices of the steak to raise it in the middle ; half fill the dish with wa- 
ter or gravy left from any roast meat, and a spoonful of ketchup ; put a 



174 APPENDIX TO HOUSEHOLD. 

border of paste round tlie edge of the pie-(lis1i ; moisten it, and lay tlie 
crust over it ; cut the paste even with the edge of tlie dish all round ; or- 
nament it witii leaves of jjaste, and brush it over witii the beaten yolk of 
an egg. Make a hole in the top, and bake it in a hot oven. 

Mutton Pie, Veal-axd-Ham Pie, are done in the same way, only veal 
pie often has hard-boileil eggs jiut in it. 

Pigeon Pie. — Time tr> bake,l^ hours. — 2 or three pigeons, a rump steak, 
a little gravy, 2 oz. of butter, pepper and salt ; crust. — Lay some paste 
round the sides and edge of a pie-disii ; sprinkle pepper and salt at the bot- 
tom, and put in a thin rimip steak ; pick and draw the pigeons, cut off the 
feet, and press the legs into the sides ; put a piece of butter and pepper and 
salt in the inside of each, and lay them in the dish with their breasts up- 
wards, and the neks and gizzards between them ; add pepper and salt and 
a wine-glass of water; put a thin paste over the top, and brush it^jver with 
water; tiien put a crust -J an inch thick over that, cut it close to the dish, 
and brush it over with beaten egg ; ornament the top, and stick 4 of the 
feet out of it, and bake it. When done, pour in a little gravy. You may 
leave out the steak if you like. 

Beefsteak Pudding. — Time to boil, 2 hours, or a little longer. — 1 lb. 
of flour, 6 oz. of chopped suet, a little salt, l^lb. of steaks, pepper and salt 
to taste, water.— -Make a paste of the above quantity of flour, suet and salt. 
Butter a round-bottomed basin, line it with paste, turning a little over the 
edge ; cut up the steak into small pieces, with a little fat, flour them liglitly, 
season highly with pepper and salt; then lay them in the basin, pour over 
them I a cupful of water, cover the top of the basin with paste, pressing it 
down with the thumb ; tie the basin in a floured pudding-cloth, and put it 
into a saucepan of boiling water, keep it boiling for 2 hours, occasionally 
adding a little water. When done untie the cloth, turning the pudding over 
on a dish, and take the basin carefully from it. 

All meat puddings are made in the same way. 

Apple, Goo-seberry, Currant, or Other Fruit Puddings. — Time to 
boil, labours. — Fruit, suet, crust, sugar. — Line a well-buttered basin with 
suet paste, fill it with apples pared and cored, a slice or two of lemon peel 
cut thin, or a few cloves; moisten the edges of the paste, cut out a piece 
and put it over the top, press it together, and cut it round the edge ; put 
the basin into a floured cloth, and tie it over. Put it into a saucepan of 
boiling water and boil it. Serve on a hot dish. 

All fruit puddings are made in the same manner ; sugar may be added 
if preferred. 

A Good Prain Plum Pudding without Eggs. — Time to boil, 3^ hours. 
1 ib. of currants, 8 oz. of suet, 1 large spoonful of treacle, a little nutmeg 
and sufficient milk to mix the whole. — Chop the suet very fine, and mix it 
with the flour, the currants picked and washed, and the nutmeg ; mix all 
well together with the treacle and milk. Put it into a buttered basin, or floured 
cloth, and boil it. Raisins stoned and chopped may be used instead of the 
currants. 

Plain Suet Pudding. — Time, 2-^ hours to 3 hours. — 1 lb. of flour, 4 oz. 
of beef suet, a pinch or two of salt, ^ pint of water. — Chop the suet very 
fine, and mix it with the flour ; add the salt, and work the whole into a 
paste with the water. Tie the pudding, rolled in the shape of a bolster, in 
a cloth, and when done cut it in slices, and put butter between each slice. 
One or two beaten eggs added to the above, with a less quantity of water, 
may be used, and it may be flavored with ginger or lemon ; no butter is 
then used. 

RoLLT-poLLT PuDDiNG w^iTH Jam OR Treacle. — Time, 1^ houTS or 
more. — Jam, suet paste. — Make a plain suet paste, roll it out thin, and 
spread the jam evenly over it, leaving a space of an inch all round, or the 
jam will run out. Roll it in the shape of a bolster, tie it in a floured cloth, 
and put it into a saucepan of boiling water. Treacle may be spread over 
the paste instead of jam, and is extremely good. 



APPENDIX TO HOUSEHOLD, 175 

German Pudding. — Time, 3 Jiours to boil. — ^ lb. of treacle, i lb. of 
flour, i lb. of suet, a teaspoonful of carbonate of soda, ^ pint of milk, 1 oz. 
of candied peel. — Mix the milk and treacle first ; put the soda with the 
suet, flour, and peel ; rub all these together dry. Pour the treacle and milk 
in, and boil it in a basin. 

Plain Tapioca Pudding. — Time, 1 hour. — l^ oz. tapioca, 1 pint of 
milk, 8 eggs, sugar to taste, gi'ated lemon peel. — Soak the tapioca in water 
until it is soft, add the eggs (well beaten) to the milk, and sugar to taste ; 
stir the tapioca into it, and pour the whole into a buttered pie-dish. Grate 
a little lemon-peel over the top, and bake in a moiierate oven. 

Carrot Pudding. — Time, 2 hours. — Boil and grate 2 carrots, then mix 
them with a pe>und of flour, a tablespoonful of sugar; add two tablespoon- 
fuls of currants well mixed with 4 ounces of finely-chopped suet; bake it 
in a dish, and turn out and cover with white sugar. 

Plain Kick Pudding. — Time, 1 hour to bake. — 3 eggs, 1 quart of milk, 
a pinch of salt, 3 tablespoonfuls of rice, 2 spoonfuls of sugar, a little nut- 
meg. — Well beat the eggs, and stir them into the milk, with the salt, and 
the rice well washed ; add the sugar and a little grated nutmeg. Bake in a 
quick oven. 

Rice Pudding without Eggs. — Time 2 hours. — A teacupful of rice, 1 
quart of milk, a little salt and nutmeg, sugar to taste. — Wash the rice in 2 
waters, add to it the sweetened milk, salt, and nutmeg. Put it into a but- 
tered pie-dish, and bake in a moderate oven. 

Tarts, Gooseberry, Currant, Apple, or any other Fruit. — Time 
to bake, from ^ to 1 hour, — 1 quart of gooseberries, rather more than ^ lb. 
of paste, moist sugar to taste. Cut off the tops and tails from the goose- 
berries, or pick the currants from their stalks, or pare and quarter the ap- 
ples ; put them into a pie-dish with the sugar, line the edge of the dish 
with the paste, pour in a little water, put on the cover, ornament the edge 
t>f the paste in the usual manner, and bake it in a brisk oven. 

Open Jam Tart. — Time to bake, until the paste loosens from the dish. 
— Jam, puff-paste, 1 egg. — Line a shallow tin dish with puff-paste, put in 
the jam, roll out some of the paste, wet it lightly with the yolk of an egg 
beaten witli a little milk, and a tablespoonful of powdei'ed sugar. Cut it in 
very narrow strips, and lay them across the tart, lay another strip round 
the edge, trim off the outside, and bake in a quick oven. 

Tartlets and Patty-pans. — Time to bake, i of an hour. Puff-paste, 
jam. — Line some patty-i)ans with puff-paste, fill them with any jam or 
preserve, and bake them lightly. 

Mince Pies. — Time to bake, 2-5 or 30 minutes. — Puff-paste, mincemeat. 
Roll out the paste to the thickness of a ^ of an inch, line some good-sized 
patty -pans with it ; fill them with mincemeat, cover with the paste, and cut 
it close round the edge of the patty-pan. Put them in a brisk oven. Beat 
the white of an egg to a stiff froth ; brush it over them when they are 
baked ; sift a little powdered sugar over them , replace them in the oven to 
dry the egg. 

Mincemeat. — 1 lb. of beef suet chopped very fine, 1 lb. of apples pared 
and minced, 1 lb. of currants washed and picked, 1 lb. of rasins stoned and 
chopped fine, 4 lb. of moist sugar, i lb. of citron, lemon and orange peel, 1 
nutmeg, J oz. of salt, | oz. of ginger, ^ oz. of allspice, i oz. of cloves, all 
ground fine, juice and peel of 1 lemon, 1 glass of brandy. Mix all these 
ingredients well together with the brandy, or any white wine. Put all into 
a jar, and keep it in a cool place. Double the quantities if more is re- 
quired. 

Gooseberry Fool. — 1 quart of gooseberries, some water, sugar to taste, 
1 quart of new milk, a little grated nutmeg. — Put the gooseberries into a 
stewpan, with water to cover them ; when they begin to turn yellow and 
swell, drain the water from them, and press them through a cullender, or 
in a dish ; sweeten them to your taste, and set them to cool. Put the milk 
over the fire, and when it begins to simmer take it off, and stir it gradually 



176 APPENDIX TO HOUSEHOLD. 

into tlie cold gooseberries ; grate ii\ a little nutmeg. Put the whole into a 
dish, and serve. 

Cheese Pudding. — 4 oz. of old dry clieese, 2 oz. of bread-crumbs, 1 
egg, or 2 if tlie eggs be small. — Grate the cheese fine, add to it the bread- 
crumbs, mix with well-beaten egg. Bake, and serve directly it is taken out 
of the oven, while it is raised and liigli. 

Cake,s. — An earthen basin is best for beating eggs or cake mixture. 
Cake should be beaten with a wooden spoon. It is well in making a cake 
to beat the butter and pounded sugar to a light cream. In common cakes, 
when only a few eggs are used, beat them until you can take a spoonful up 
clear from strings. To ascertain wdiether a cake is baked enough, pass a 
small knife-blade through it; if not done enough, some of the unbaked 
dough will be found sticking to it; if done, it will come out clean. 

Common Seed Cake. — Time, 2 hours. — 2^ lb. of flour, ^ lb. of loaf or 
good moist sugar, 1 tablespoonful of thick yeast, ^ pint of warm milk, -J lb. 
of butter, 1 oz. of caraway seeds. — Mix tiie pounded loaf sugar, or good 
moist, with the flour, mix tlie yeast and warm milk with a sutficient quan- 
tity of flour to make it the thickness of cream, and pour it into the middle 
of the flour and sugar, ami set it in a warm place for 1 hour ; melt the 
butter to an oil, and pour it into the middle of the sponge, with the seeds 
and sufficient milk to make the dough of a middling stiffness ; line a tin 
with buttered paper, put in the mixture, and again set it before the fire to 
rise; bake in rather a hot oven for 2 hours. When done, brush the top 
over with milk. 

Plum Cake. — Time, 1 hour to 1^ hours. — 1 lb. of flour, ^ lb. of sugar, 
6 oz. of butter, ^ lb. of currants, a small teaspoonful of carbonate of soda, 4 
pint of milk, and 2 eggs. — Rub the butter into the flour and sugar; mix 
the soda thoroui/hlt/ with the milk, which must be cold; mix all well to- 
gether, put it into a buttered tin, and bake immediately. 

Gingerbread Cake. — Time, ^ of an hour. — J lb. of butter, lb. of sugar, 
\ lb. of treacle, 1 lb. of flour, -J oz. of ginger, 1 teaspoonful of carbonate of 
soda, 4 eggs. — Put tlie butter, sugar, and treacle into a saucepan together, 
and place it over the fire to melt; well beat the eggs, and stir the butter, 
sugar, and treacle into them; add the powdered ginger and soda, stir all 
together into the flour, and bake. 

Bread Cake 1| lb. of dough, -J lb. butter, | lb. of sugar, ^ lb. of cur- 
rants, 3 eggs, ^ a teaspoonful of allspice, -J- a nutmeg. — Beat tlie butter, sugar, 
and eggs well together, then work it into the risen dough, adding the spice 
and currants picked and washed ; make it into a loaf, and bake it the same 
as bread. 

Lemon Chete.secakes. — % lb. of warmed butter, peel of 2 lemons, juice 
of 1, I lb. of loaf sugar, a few almonds, puff-paste. — Just warm the butter, 
stir into it the sugar pounded fine, and when dissolved mix with it the peel 
of 2 lemons grated and the juice of 1 strained; mix all together and pour it 
into patty-pans lined with puff-paste ; put a few blanched almonds on the 
top of each. 

Cheap Blanc Mange. — 1 quart of new milk, 1 oz. of isinglass, 2 table- 
spoonfuls of boiling water, \ lb. of loaf sugar, 1 large lemon, a stick of cin- 
namon. — Pour the boiling water over the isinglass, rub part of the sugar on 
the lemon, and when the flavor is extracted ; put it with the remainder of the 
sugar into a stewpan with the milk and the cinnamon ; let it all simmer 
until the sugar and the isinglass are dissolved, then strain it through muslin 
into a jug, strain it again, and then pour it into a china-mould, and let it 
stand all night in a cold place. Dip the mould into cold water before the 
blanc mange is poured into it. 

Plain Boiled Custard. — Time, 20 minutes to infuse the peel, 10 or 15 
to stir the custard. — 1 quart of milk, 8 eggs, peel of 1 large lemon, 3 laurel 
leaves, ^ lb. of loaf sugar. — Pour the milk into a very clean saucepan with 
the laurel leaves and the peel of the lemon, set it at the side of the fire for 
20 minutes, and when on the point of boiling .strain it into a basin to cool; 



APPENDIX TO HOUSEHOLD. 177 

then stir in the powdered sugar and well-beaten eggs ; again strain it into a 
jug, which place in a deep saucepan of boiling water, and stir it one way 
until it thickens ; then pour it into a glass disli or into custard cups. 

Gkound Eige Crkam. — Time, 3 minutes. — i large spoonfuls of ground 
rice, yolks of 4 eggs, wliitos of 2, 1 pint of new milk, 2 oz. of loaf sugar. 
Mix the rice very smooth with a little milk; add tlie yolks of the eggs well 
beaten, and the whites of 2 ; add the sugar pounded; boil a pint of milk, 
pour it over the rice and eggs ; boil it 3 minutes, and put it into a mould ; 
when cold, turn it out, and serve plain or with jam round it. 

Black or Red Currant Jam. — Time, ji of an liour to 1 hour. — To every 
1 lb. of fruit, 1 lb. of sugar. — Gather tlie currants on a fine day, and pick 
them from the stalks. Put tlioni into a preserving pan with the sugar 
broken into small pieces. Bring it gradually to a boil, and then let it sim- 
mer, removing the scum as it rises, and stirring the jam constantly. Wiien 
done, put it into pots with brandy paper, or paper steeped in starch, over 
them, and tie them down closely. 

Gooseberry Jam. — Time, li hours. — |4flb. of loaf sugar to 1 lb. of red 
gooseberries. — Pick off the stalks and buds from the gooseberries, bruise 
them liglitly, and boil them quickly for 8 or 10 minutes, stirring all the time ; 
then add the sugar, pounded and sifted, to the fruit, and boil it quickly, re- 
moving the scum as it rises. Put it into pots, and when cold cover as above. 

All jams are made much in the same way. 

Pickles. — Use glass bottles for your pickles, also wooden knives and 
forks in the preparation of them. Fill the bottles 4 parts full with the artic- 
les to be pickled, and then fill th« bottle with vinegar. Use saucepans lined 
with earthenware, or stone pipkins, to boil your vinegar in. 

To Pickle Red Cabbage. — To 1 quart of vinegar 1 oz. of whole pepper. 
— ^Remove the coarse leaves from tlie cabbage, cut them in long slices or 
shreds, and put then on a large sieve, well covering them with salt, and let 
them remain all niglit ; then put tiiem into stone jars, and pour over them 
some boiling vinegar and whole peppers. Cover them over, and set them 
by for use. 

To Pickle Onions. — Onions, vinegar, ginger, and whole pepper. Peel 
and put the onions into a stewpan of boiling water; set them over the fire, 
and let them remain until quite clear ; then take them out quickly, and lay 
them between two cloths to dry. Boil some vinegar with the ginger and 
whole pepper, and when cold, pour it over the onions in glass jars, and tie 
them closely down. 

To Pickle Walnuts. — "Walnuts, vinegar. — For the pickle, to every 2 
quarts of vinegar \ oz. of mace, the same of cloves, black pepper, Jamaica 
pepper, ginger, and long pepper, 2 oz. salt. — Purchase the walnuts before the 
shell is hard. Put them into strong salt and water for 9 days, stir them 
twice a day, and change tlie water every 3 days ; then place them on a hair 
sieve, and let them remain in the air until they turn black ; put them into 
stone jars and let them stand until cold ; then boil the vinegar, &c., 3 times, 
let it become cold between each boiling, and pour it over the walnuts. Tie 
the jars down with a bladder, and let them stand 3 months before use. 

German Yeast Bread. — Time, 1^ to 2 hours. — 2 quarterns of flour, 1 
tablespoonful of salt, 2 oz. of dried German yeast, a cupful of water, 1-J pints 
of warm water. — Dissolve the yeast in a small cupful of cold water, and 
then add it to 1^ pints of warm water. Put the flour, mixed with the salt, 
into a deep broad pan ; make a hole in the middle of the flour, and pour in 
the water and yeast ; knead it up quickly, and let it stand near the fire, 
covered over with a thick cloth, for 1 hour; then divide it into loaves, and 
bake them according to their size. You may make up a large quantity of 
flour, and bake the loaves 2 or 3 at a time, if care is taken not to keep the 
dougli too warm. 

To Boil Eggs. — Slip the eggs off the spoon gently into boiling water. 
Boil, for soft eggs, 3 minutes ; for white set, 4 minutes ; hard eggs, 10 to 16 
minutes. 

8* 



178 APPENDIX TO HOUSEHOLD. 

To Poach Eggs. — Eggs, water, A little vinegar. Break the egg whole 
into a cup ; do not break the yolk. Slip it into boiUng water, in which is a 
little vinegar. Wlien it is set, it is done. Lift it out with a slice, and serve 
on iiot toast. 

To Dress a Lobster. — Wipe over the shell of tlie lobster, when it is 
boiled, with salad oil. Rub it off again ; separate the body from the tail, 
break off the great claws, and crack them at the joints ; split the tail in 
lialves ; place the halves of the body upright in the dish; lay the claws and 
half- tails round it ; garnish with parsley. 

To Dress a Crab. — 1 crab, 2 tablespoonfuls of vinegar, 1 ditto of oil, 
pepper or cayenne to taste. Empty the shells, chop up and mix tlie meat 
with the above ingredients, and put it in the large body shell. Garnish with 
parsley. 

To Make Gruel. — Time, 10 minutes. — 1 tablespoonf ul of patent groats, 
2 tablespoonfuls of cold water, 1 pint of boiling water. Mix the groats with 
the cold water till smooth ; then pour the boiling water on them, stirring all 
the time. Then set it over the fire in a clean saucepan, and boil for 10 min- 
utes. Sweeten as liked, and serve. 

To Make Beef Tea. — 1 lb. of beef. — Cut the beef into small pieces like 
dice, put them into a common preserve jar, and keep it in the oven all day, 
or all night. When all the juice of the meat has been extracted by the heat, 
add boiling water to it till it is of the strength you require. Season to 
taste, or put the small pieces into a saucepan, add a quart of cold water to 
them ; boil and skim it ; put in the salt when the water boils, and simmer 
and strain for ^ of an hour. Strain througli a hair sieve and serve. To 
warm up beef tea, put it in a basin and place it in a basin of boiling 
water (but the water should not reach the top of of the basin), and warm 
over the fire. 














HEALTH AND MEDICAL DEPARTMENT. 



For Physicians, Druggists, Dentists, Perfumers, Bar- 
bers, Families, Toilet ; Advice to Mothers ; Treat- 
ment OP Infants, Etc., Etc. 



mEECHANISini OF THE HUHIAIV BODir. 

The Muscular and other Formations of the Body. — There are two 
hundred and eight bones in tlie human body, exclusive of the teeth. These 
bones are composed of animal and earthy materials — the former predomi- 
nating in youth and the latter in old age — rendering the bones brittle. The 
most important of the bones is the spine, whicli is composed of twentj'-four 
small bones, called the vertebrae, one on top of the other, curiously hooked 
together and fastened by elastic ligaments forming a pillar, so to speak, by 
which the human frame is supported. The bones are moved by the muscles, 
of which there are more than five hundred. The red meat of beef, the fat 
being excluded, is the muscular fabric of the ox. There are two sets of 
muscles, one to draw the bone one way and another to draw it back again. 
We cannot better describe the muscles than by comparing them to fine 
elastic thread bound up in their cases of skin. Manj' muscles terminate in 
tendons, which are stout cords such as may be seen traversing the back of 
the hand, just within the skin, and which can be observed to move when tlie 
hand is opened or shut. Every motion you make, even'the involuntary one of 
breathing, is performed through the agency of the muscles. In adults there 
are about fifteen quarts of blood, each quart weighing about two pounds. 
This blood is of two kinds, the arterial and venous. This first is the pure 
blood as it leaves the heart to nourish the frame, and is of a bright vermil- 
lion color. The last is the blood as it returns to the heart, loaded with the 
impurities of the body, to be there refined, and is of a purple hue. Every 
pulsation of the heart sends out about two ounces of arterial blood, and as 
there are from seventy to eiglity beats in a minute, a hogsiiead of blood 
passes througli the lieart every hour. In fevers the pulsations are acceler- 
ated, the waste of the body goes on faster than it can be recuperated, and 
consquently death ensues if the fever is not checked. The stomach is the 
boiler, if we may use such a figure, which drives the human engine. Two 



180 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

sets of muscles crossing each other transversely, turn the food over and over, 
churning it up in tlie gastric juice till it has been reduced to the consistency 
of thin paste. This process requires from two to four hours. Emerging 
from the stomach, tlie food enters the small intestines, wliere it is mixed 
with bile and pancreatic juice and converted into chyle. These small intes- 
tines are twentj'-four feet long, closely pac'ked, of course, and surrounded 
through their wliole length with small tubes whicii act like suckers, and 
drawing off the chyle, empty it into a larger tube named the thoracic duct, 
which runs up the back and discliarges its contents into tlie jugular vein, 
Avhence it passes in to the heart to assist in forming arterial blood. 

Only about one-fourth of the human frame, bones included, is solid 
matter, chiefly carbon and nitrogen, the rest being water. If a man weigh- 
ing 140 lbs. were squeezed out under a hydraulic press 105 lbs. of water 
would run out and thirty-five pounds of residue would remain. A man is 
therefore, chemically speaking, thirty-five pounds of carbon and nitrogen, 
diffused through five pailfuls of water. 

Food and its Mysteries. — The processes of the assimilation of food to 
the human economy and the time required in digesting the various articles 
of ordinary consumption are not mucli understood. We cannot do a more 
valuable service than to present our readers with a table of the time 
required for the stomacli to dispose of its load, when the gastric juice is in 
a healthy state. The table will demonstrate how each article is adapted to 
the person, by showing how long and how severe each particular preparation 
tasks the stomach. 

Articles of Diet. Mode of Time of 

Preparation. Digestion. 

H. M. 

Rice Boiled 10 

Eggs, whipped Raw 1 30 

Trout, salmon, fresh Boiled 1 30 

Apples, sweet and mellow .... Raw 1 30 

Venison steak Broiled 1 35 

Tapioca Boiled 2 

Barley " 2 

Milk' " 2 

Bullock's liver, fresh Broiled 2 

Fresh eggs Raw 2 

Codfish, cured apd dry Boiled 2 

Milk Raw 2 15 

Wild turkey Roasted 2 15 

Domestic turkey " 2 30 

Goose ;; 2 30 

Sucking pig " 2 30 

Fresh lamb Broiled 2 30 

Hash, meat, and vegetables . . . Warmed 2 30 

Beans and pod Boiled 2 30 

Parsnips " , . 2 30 

Irish potatoes Roasted 2 30 

Chicken Fricassee 2 45 

Custard Baked 2 45 

Salt beef Boiled 2 45 

Sour and hard apples Raw 2 50 

Fresh oysters " 2 55 

Fresh eggs Soft boiled 3 

Beef, fresh, lean, and rare .... Roasted 30 

Beef steak Broiled 3 

Pork, recently salted Stewed 3 

Fresh mutton Boiled 3 



HEALTH AND MKDICAL. 181 

Soup, beans Boiled 3 

" Clucken " 3 

Apple dumpling " 3 

Fresh oysters Koasted 3 15 

Pork steak Broiled • 3 15 

Fresh Mutton Roasted • 3 15 

Corn bread Baked 3 15 

Carrot Boiled 3 15 

Fresh sausage Broiled 3 20 

Fresh flounder Fried 3 30 

Fresh catfish " 3 30 

Fresh oysters Stewed 3 30 

Butter Melted 3 30 

Old strong cheese Raw 3 30 

Mutton soup Boiled 3 30 

Oyster soup *' 3 30 

Fresh wheat bread Baked 3 30 

Flat turnips Boiled 3 30 

Irish potatoes " 3 30 

Fresh eggs Hard boiled ........ 3 30 

Fried 3 30 

Green corn and beans Boiled 3 45 

Beets " 3 45 

Fresh lean beef Fried 4 

Fresh veal . . . . ' Broiled 4 

Domestic fowls Roasted 4 

Ducks " 4 

Beef soup, vegetables and 

bread Boiled 4 

Pork, recently salted " 4 30 

Fresh veal Fried 4 30 

Cabbage with vinegar Boiled 4 30 

Pork, fat and lean Roasted 5 30 

Dr. E. M. Hunt thus generalizes on the /ac<s of digestion, as set forth in 
the above table : 

Food should pass into the stomach in a finely divided state. The 
rapidity with which tlie digestion is performed depends upon various cir- 
cumstances. Strong emotion, as anger or grief, will retard it ; moderate 
exercise Jiastens it, and thus the state both of bodyand mind influence it. A 
usual meal is generally digested in a healthy person in from three to five hours. 
A mixture of food is not especially objectionable, except as by variety it 
encourages the appetite, and often leads us to consume more than is need- 
ful. Animal food is digested more quickly than vegetable, and solid food 
more speedily than soups. Oily food is more quickly appropriated by the 
system than muscular fibre, when agreeing with the stomach. Uncooked 
oil is more digestible than cooked. Cream and butter are the purest of oils. 
Boiled meats are most digestible, roasted next, broiled and fried the least 
so. Bulk is necessary to digestion. The people of cold climates who live 
much on fats, mix crude matters, sometimes even sawdust, with them, and 
thus find them more readily digested. Milk is among the most nutritious 
and digestible of foods. It is considered constipating, but the chief reason 
is, that it is almost entirely taken tip by the system, and no residue left. 

With the same exertion, we need richer food in cold weather than in 
warm. Never eat between meals, unless extra exertion or exposure require 
it, and then select hearty and quickly digestible food. The stools from 
vegetable food are more copious than from meats, because vegetable is less 
nutritious than animal food, and more of them therefore is rejected. As a rule, 
ripe fruits or vegetables are more digestible than green, and green fruit 



182 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

Btewed more digestible than wlien eaten in a raw state. Smoked meats are 
less digestible than fresh, and of smoked or salted meats, the inner portion is 
more easily digested tlian the outer part. The inner part is preserved as much 
by the saltpetre and the exclusion of the air, as by the salting and smoking 
process, and is in a state more allied to preserved fresh meat. Dried fruits, 
as prunes, raisins, apples, etc., are unfit to eat unless well cooked, and all 
unbroken seeds are indigestible. Alcholic stimuli, or condiments of any 
kind, are not necessary in healthy conditions of the stomach. 

Hanging, Recovery from. — As hanging is a very frequent means of 
committing suicide in this country, it is highly desirable that all persons 
sliould be put in possession of the best remedies for restoring ani- 
mation to a body so found ; and that their services may be directed in a 
proper and beneficial course to the unhappy person, it is necessary that all 
should know the physiological cause of the suspended animation, so that 
their efforts may be directed on sound principles, and with scientific views 
of affording aid. In the first place, the cause of partial or complete death 
by hanging is not, as erroneously supposed, the consequence of a broken neck, 
and a pressure of a dislocated bone of the vertebral column on the spinal mar- 
row ; for if such were the case, no person could ever by any possibility 
recover ; as surgical art has never yet, nor can discover a moans of reducing 
a luxation of tlie spinal vertebrae. The cause, then, of death by hanging, results 
entirely from the pressure of tiie rope or ligature employed on the large veins 
returning with their impure blood from the head to the heart; these vessels 
are called the jugular veins, and tlie effect of this pressure or obstruction is 
to cause a rapid collection of blood in the veins of the head, face, and on and 
in the brain. Tiie arterial supply of blood to these parts being still the same, 
and tiie discharging channels blocked up, causes a rapid distension of the veins, 
which goes on for a few seconds till the delicate texture of wiiicli their 
coats are composed, being unable to bear further dilation, bursts, and their 
contents are effused into the cavities of the brain, where it immediately 
presses on the origin of all the vital nerves, and produces that disorganiza- 
tion which results in death ; the person dying from apoplexy or venous 
effusion on the brain. At the same time the blood having been checked at 
the points of external pressure, forms a clot in the jugular veins, of itself 
presenting a barrier to the return of blood, should the ligature be removed. 
Treatment. —Immediately cut down the body, or hold it up while another 
cuts the cord and remove the stricture from the throat ; lay the body on its 
back, bleed from one or x)ther of the jugular veins, or from both arms at 
once ; open the waistcoat and dash cold water in sudden splashes on the 
face and chest", apply hot bricks close to the soles of the feet, imitate 
artificial breathing by inflating the lungs by a pair of bellows through one 
of the nostrils, closing the lips with the hand, and then by pressure on the 
stomach, expelling the air. As soon a sufficient number of tiles or bricks 
can have been heated, place them in a row under the spine, and let the body 
rest on them ; rub the neck sharply, where most discolored, with sweet oil 
and brandy, to cause absorption of the clot formed by the pressure, and 
place hot bottles or heated bricks between the thighs, and finally extend 
the friction of oil and brandy with or without hartshorn, over the region of the 
heart and stomach. These means vigorously applied, without confusion, 
but with despatch, and in regular order, will, if persevered in sufficiently 
long, restore animation if any spark of life is left in the body. There is 
but one other means, the most powerful, but unfortunately the least availa- 
ble, and that is electricity or galvanism. When this agent can be procured 
the galvanic current is to be passed from the back of the neck and dis- 
charged through the stomach, or made to traverse the chest. To recap- 
itulate : the moment the body has been taken down, and the pressure 
removed, while the bottles are being filled with water and the bricks or 
tiles placed on the fire to heat, bleed as directed to the extent of twelve or 
twenty ounces, dash the cold water on the face and chest, and having 
dried the latter, using the embrocation vigorously, while the lungs are being 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 183 

inflated, and as soon as possible bring into operation tlie efficacy of heat to 
the spine, feet, and thighs, continuing at sliort intervals the artificial 
respiration, tlie frictions and cold effusions on the face. 

Sea Bathing. — The most natural and beneficial mode of cold bathing is 
that afforded by the ocean, its waters possessing a peculiarly bracking influence, 
wliich imparts atone and vigor to the system. Some precautions, liow^ever, 
are necessary. No infants or chihlren of tender years should be immersed 
in the sea ; as tlie shock occasioned by tlie cold temperature, as well as the 
terror imparted, both act prejudiciallj'- Children above six years of age 
may be bathed witli less precaution ; but even then they should not enter the 
water when their bodies are either cold or hot. A warm glow on the skin, 
produced by a gentle walk, is a test of the condition most advantageous for 
entering the water. For children two or three plunges will suflice ; and 
tliose of more advanced years, should never remain above ten minutes or a 
quarter of an hour in the water. An hour or two about noon will usually 
be found the most advantageous time for sea-bathing ; as the sun's raj's then 
exert a sufficient influence upon tlie temperature of the water, witliout 
producing any injurious effect on the head of the bather, especially if it be 
kept cool by frequent submersion. Sea bathing at the commencement 
should be practised twice or thrice a week. Afterwards it may used daily 
with advantage; but not oftener. It maybe continued for one, two, or 
tliree months, bi^t seldom witli advantage beyond the latter period. A 
flowing instead of a receding tide is to be preferred as more agreeable, 
salubrious, and less dangerous ; the water being purer before it has com- 
mingled witli the refuse of the beach, and the person in less danger from 
the reflux of the wave. Persons of consumptive' and scrofulous tendency 
should resort to sea-bathing with extreme caution, and not without medical 
advice. Adults upon entering tlie sea, should immerse the head immedi- 
ately, on account of the apopletic tendency that might otherwise be 
induced. Persons in more advanced life should not attempt sea bathing 
witiiout medical advice ; and even then the period of immersion should 
never exceed five minutes. 

The following are general precautions to be observed in bathing. Do not 
bathe the lower extremities first. Tlie immersion should be complete at once. 
Never leap into deep water feet foremost and in an erect position. The 
best method is to drop into the water, the body and limbs being bent 
together. Do not stand still or remain motionless in the water. Do not 
remain long enough in the water to become chilled. Leave the water on 
the first indication of cramp. Apply a brisk towel all over the body as soon 
as you leave the water ; and dry yourself thoroughly and as expeditiously 
as possible. Dress yourself as soon as you are tlioroughly dry. Do not 
indulge in violent exercise immediately after a bath, but take a brisk walk 
just sufficient to iieat you. 

Hare-Lip. — This disease so called from a fancied resemblance to the 
appearance of that animal, is one of those distressing malformations that are 
born with a child. Hare-lip is more frequently found in the upper than in 
the under lip, and fortunately it is so, for in the latter case, the child is 
unable to articulate, or retain the saliva in the mouth, creating a source of 
ceaseless discomfort and pain. The disease consists of a fissure or longitu- 
dinal division of one or both lips, having a space between, wider at t1ie 
bottom and narrowing to an apex at the gum, resembling the letter V 
reversed, ^. This condition is called the simple hare-lip, but sometimes 
the fissure is double, having a pendant piece of the lip in tlie centre of»both 
fissures. The compound hare-lip is that condition of deformity where the 
cleft extends along the bones of the palate, over the whole arch of the 
mouth, while in some cases the bones of the palate are entirely wanting — a 
most distressing malady, as the child can never articulate, and only with 
great lUfficulty eat or drink, as all sustenance passes into the nostrils. 
Independent of the deformity attending this malformation, the infant so 
afflicted is prevented from sucking, and must be reared by hand. 



184 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

The treatment of this misfortune is very simple and most satisfactory, 
and no mother out of apprehension of her child's suffering should neglect 
to have the deformity cured ; which, when in the simple form of the cleft 
lip, can be effectuall}^ done. The operation consists in making the two 
edges of tlie fissure even, bringing them together by means of two short 
silver needles, and keeping tliem in that position by silk thread passed over 
their ends like the figure 8, till the process of union has taken place, requir- 
ing about eiglit or ten days, when the needles are withdrawn, and in a 
week longer the permanent cure will be effected. The best period for 
performing the operation is between tlie age of six and twelve montlis, 
before the child can entertain any alarm at what is to be done, or by cries 
and restlessness materially interfere with the success of the operation. 

Contagion. — Contagious diseases may be communicated by actual con- 
tact of tlie body, by articles of clothing or furniture, and by the atmos- 
phere. Peculiar atmospheric conditions favor the propagation of disease 
by contagion, and this especially applies to dirty and crowded places, 
whence noxious exhalations arise. Old and soiled furniture and clothing, 
are also much more favorable to the reception of the disease tlian when 
new and clean. Wool, cotton, and other loose textures seem particularly 
apt to attract and retain contagious emanations ; whilst, on the other hand, 
polished surfaces and hard substances are with dilBculty impregnated. 
Chambers in which persons afflicted with contagious maladies are, should 
be kept scrupulously clean, regularly ventilated, and fumigated two or 
three times a day. Attendants on the patient should be dressed in silk or 
other material having a glazed surface ; and it will be found an excellent 
plan to put on a large apron made of oiled silk. The furniture should con- 
sist as much as possible of articles having hard and polished surfaces, and 
instead of being crowded with furniture, the room should contain only 
such articles as are indispensably necessary. When the patient quits the 
chamber in which he lias lain, every article that has come in contact with 
his person, should be first fumigated with chlorine in a close apartment, 
tlien exposed to the air, and finally washed ; the furniture and clothing 
should undergo an appropriate and thorough cleansing. Tiie bed requires 
the greatest amount of care ; if of wool, it is better destroyed altogether ; 
if of hair or feathers, these should be exposed to a heat of at least 210 de- 
grees by re-baking. With regard to the chamber itself, it should be thor- 
oughly fumigated with the doors and windows sliut, and then left open to 
the influence of the air for several days. And, as a last precaution, the 
walls, ceiling, wainscot, etc., should be re-washed, papered, and painted. 
Until all thesci precautions iiave been taken, the furniture and clothes 
should not again be brought into use, and the apartment should remain 
unoccupied. 

Hydrophobia, or dread of water, as the name signifies, is a disease pe- 
culiarly affecting the nervous system, caused by the bite and absorption into 
the blood of the saliva, or u/?i(s„as it iscalled, of some rabid or strongly irri- 
tated animal, but most frequently of the two domestic species, the dog and 
cat, though, from the almost analogous symptoms excited in the system by 
certain accidents, eventuating in what has been called tetanus, the two di- 
seases by many medical men have been considered as synonymous. The 
influence exerted by the mind on the body, both for good and evil, is a fact 
well known to the most casual observer, but in no instance is that effect 
exercised with more dangerous consequences than in the disease under no- 
tice ;^for it is unquestioned that many persons have been forced into a state 
of hydrophobia, simply tlirough the terror inspired by the scratch or abras- 
ion of an animal perfectly in health, though perhaps under a temporary fit 
of displeasure or pain. The peculiarity of this disease, is the great length 
of time that usually takes place between the receipt of the accident, or bite, 
and the disease itself, or the manifestation of the constitutional symptoms ; 
sometimes weeks elapse, at others months, and not imfrequently years have 
supervened between the cause and the effect. 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 185 

Symptoms. — At whatever time tliese may shoAv themselves, they com- 
mence with wandering pains over tlie body, anxiety, restlessness, disturbed 
sleep, and frigiitful dreams, the patient starting up in horror and bedewed 
with cold perspiration ; by degrees muscular contractions occur at intervals, 
weight and oppression of the stomacii, a tightness in the throat, and diffi- 
culty of swallowing, till suddenly tlie crowning symptom takes place, and 
the patient, in attempting to drink, is seized with a sudden horror, and recoils 
in terror from the wished-for potation ; the very sight or sound of water, or 
tlie motion of fluid, throwing the body into violent convulsions. From this 
stage the symptoms rush on to their climax ; the countenance is contracted, 
the eyes wild and staring, the teeth set firmly, and with tlie tiglitened lips 
covered with a ropy foam, or a thin watery saliva pours from them : this 
state is alternated with shrieks, animal noises, bilious vomitings, convulsive 
jerks and plunges, till (jne fearful spasm that draws the body like a bent 
bow, resting on head and heel, releases the patient from liis sufferings. 

Treatment. — The hot bath, electricity, blisters, bleeding and opium in im- 
mense doses, are tlio only agents that art can employ in this formidable 
disease ; the most violent measures and the most op[)osite have been resorted 
to ; but, unfortunately for science, hitherto with but little effect or benefit. 
In no disease is the old adage of " prevention better than cure " so applic- 
able as in this. For the tranquillity of mind, for the satisfaction of the pa- 
tient, and for motives of safety, in all cases of bite or abrasion from the 
tooth of an animal, the part should be cauterized. A tape or bandage being 
first tied tightly above the part to prevent absorption, the part is tlien to be 
washeil with warm water, and lunar caustic then applied. If these steps 
are adopted quickly and effectually, and, if possible, the part sucked or 
drj'-cupped before applying the caustic, and the ligature or pressure con- 
tinued for some time, there will seldom be any necessity for the painful and 
questionable practice of excision. The patient's mind must be soothed ; an 
aperient and a sedative given, and a warm poultice applied over the scar. 
A mode of treating hydrophobia by means of ice, internally, down the 
spine, over the throat and chest, has been adopted with success, but the 
cases are too few to warrant pronouncing it as either safe or certain. 

Bites of Animals generally result from the teeth of dogs and cats ; and, 
as long as these proceed from a hurt the consequence of a sudden anger in 
the animal, need provoke no alarm, and the treatment is simple and easy. 
But when an animal has been excited into passion and kept in a state of 
irritation for some time, a poison is engendered and mixed with tiie saliva, 
that imparts to a wound then inflicted much inflammation, and sometimes 
considerable danger ; especially so if the constitution of the person bitten, 
at the time should chance to be in a diseased or unhealthy state. In gene- 
ral, however, the bite is harmless enough ; b\it as all sucti acciilents pro- 
duce a most depressing effect on the mind, and the terror excited by a harm- 
less bite, in some instances, gives rise to the most exaggerated fear, it is 
always more satisfactory to adopt tlie same precautions as would have been 
demanded had the animal been really dangerous. 

Treatment. — In cases of trifling abrasion from the teeth of dogs or cats 
where it is the return snap for an accidental stamp or kick at the animal, 
and where there can be no reasonable doubt of the health of the animal, 
all that is really necessary either for precaution or cure, is to wash the part 
with warm water, applying the nitrate of silver, or lunar caustic, and tie on a 
hot bran poultice. Where the case is more serious, and the animal has been 
enraged, tie a garter or piece of tape directly round the limb, above the 
puncture or wound and between it and the heart, so as to avoid as far as 
possible all absorption into the S3^stem ; the part is then to be washed 
quickly with a sponge and warm water, changing both water and sponge : 
if cupping glasses are at hand apply one directly over the bites, allow it to 
remain three or four minutes ; remove it and wash away carefully the blood 
that may have exuded, or whatever moisture may have been forced to the 
surface, and apply the glass again, and if necessary a third time. When 



186 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

the cupping apparatus cannot he had, take a wineglass, put a few drops of 
spirits of wine, spirits of camphor, tincture of myrrh, Friar's Balsam, or 
sulphuric etlier, or brandy if it is pure ; light it witli a matcli, and before 
tlie flame lias burnt out apply it to the part. If tlie air has been well 
exiiausted the flesh will rise in tlie glass, and a few drops of blood exude 
from tlie orifices. While these measures are being adopted — and they 
should not occupy more tiian ten or fifteen minutes — some lunar caustic 
may have been sent for, which is to be held between a piece of folded rag 
by one end, while the other dipped in water is rubbed freely over the part, 
and worked into the punctures ; a hot bran or linseed meal poultice is then 
laid on the cauterized surface, the patient's mind tranquillized, and the limb 
and body ke])t in perfect rest. If a glass cannot be made to adhere by the 
use of the spirits named above, or by exhausting th.e air by the flame of a 
taper, let the caustic be applied at once, and the poultice continued till the 
eschar or blackened cuticle dies and is thrown off. If the wound heals 
slowly, with an irritable appearance, and small pustules form round it, apply 
the caustic again, give an occasional aperient of equal parts of blue and col- 
ocynth pill, and take as a corrective, in doses of lialf a tumblerful, four 
times a day, a decoction of dulcamara, or sarsaparilla. Two ounces of the 
former, cut small, and boiled from three pints of water to two, and one ounce 
of the latter, prepared in the same way. 

Bites or Stings of Reptiles. — Of these the rattlesnake, the cobra dL 
capelio, tlie whipcord snake, and the viper of our own country are among the 
most dangerous ; and thougii the potency of the venom ejected from each 
varies according to the species, it exerts the same characteristic chain of 
symptoms only more or less intense, the difference being merely in degree and 
time, as the virus of one is more subtle and deadly than that of another. In 
all cases the infliction of the woimd is followed by instant and acute pain 
discoloration and swelling of the part, sickness, fainting, pain in the back, 
difficulty of breathing, spasms, extreme drowsiness, coma and death — in 
tiie worst cases — witliin two hours. Hitherto no antidote has been discov- 
ered to this quick killing venom, and all that medical aid can do to avert a 
fatal termination, lies in the speed with whicli it employs precautionary 
measures. These consist in, 1st, preventing absorption of the virus irto the 
blood ; 2d, in removing as much of the poison as possible from the wound ; 
and 3d, by counteracting with antispasmodics and stimulants, the symptoms 
that supervene. 

The treatnii'iit is the same from whatever variety of reptile the injury has 
been received, only modified according to the amount of danger to be ap- 
prehended. It is necessary to state, in order to overcome the natural repug- 
nance of most persons to suck a venomed wound, that the most deadly 
animal poison is perfectly innocuous unless brought in contact with a crack- 
ed or abraded surface, and that it might be dissolved and drunk with impu- 
nity, if in its passage to the stomach there were no decayed teeth or ex- 
coriation on the lips or gullet. Directly after receiving the injury a string 
or ribbon must be tied tightly round the limb, above the wound, the part 
washed well and quickly with warm water, at the same time forcing out 
with the fingers any blood or exudation that may appear; if proper cupping 
glasses are not ready, instantly apply the lips and suck the wound with a 
steady exhaustion, spitting out and washing the mouth before again repeat- 
ing tlie process, wliich sliould be continued for quite ten minutes. When 
the cupping glasses are used, the mode advised in the beginning of this 
article is to be adopted. The punctures are then to be treated with lunar 
caustic as already described, and a hot poultice applied. The fainting, 
difficulty of breathing, and symptoms of collapse that supervene, are to be 
met by doses of ether, brandy, and ammonia, or valerian, lavender and 
musk, repeated everj^ ten or fifteen minutes, alternated every half hour, for 
four times, with thirty drops of Fowler's solution of arsenic, taken in a 
tablespoonful of water. Electricity should be applied to the spine, or, if 
not at hand, substitute friction with mustard along the spinal column. For 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 187 

the drowsiness and coma, the patient must be kept constantly walking, 
and cold water occasionally dashed in the face. Should much consti- 
tutional disturbance manifest itself subsequently; the system is to he 
strengthened and the morhid action corrected by a course of sarsaparilla 
— compound decoction — alternated witli five drops of Fowler's solution of 
arsenic every six hours, or a compound Plummer's pill twice a day ; at 
the same time a liberal diet, such as wines and tonics as the case may 
demand. 

Burns. — Burns are generally considered serious wlien they occur on the 
liead, throat, chest and bowels, from the inflammation induced in the im- 
portant organs immediately beneath these parts. Burns over joints are 
particularly serious from the consequences so liable to ensue in such situa- 
tions, namely, the formation of a stiff joint, and contraction of the cuticle, 
causing the limb to be drawn up or bent. The contraction is so great after 
all burns, that the greatest circumspection is necessary during the cure to 
avoid a malformation ; for, if the part is kept long at rest, or two parts of 
the body in contact, such as the chin upon the breast, or the arm by being 
bent, adliesion will take place, and either a very frightful or most incon- 
venient permanent disfigurement will be established. 

The following remarks should be borne in mind by ever}' one who has 
anything to do with a burn, and cannot be too firmly impressed on tlie 
memory. First, that as the exposure to the air of a burnt surface is the 
cause of the continuance of pain, the part cannot be too soon protected from 
the atmosphere. Second, that burns, if instantly wrapped up and kept ex- 
cluded from the air, require no medicament whatever, and heal in a few 
days. Third, that when tlie clothes of a person are on fire, the person is te 
be instantly enveloped in the carpet, hearth-rug, blanket, coat, or any otiier 
article that, by smothering the fire, will extinguish the flames. Fourth, that 
the blister raised by burning is never to be broken, nor burnt clothes adher- 
ing to the flesh removed. 

Treatment. — In whatever part of the body a burn may be situated, the 
treatment is the same ; the part must be immediately covered with a double 
fold of wadding, laying the woolly side next the skin. ShouM pieces of the 
dress adhere to the cuticle, cut carefully all the loose edges otf, and lay the 
wadding over what remains. If the burn has been extensive, and there is 
much prostration of strength, and a sinking pulse, brandy, ether, and am- 
monia must be given every half hour, to rouse the action of the heart, in 
draughts consisting of a tablespoonful of brandy, half a teaspoonful of sal 
volatile, twenty drops of ether, and a wineglassful of water ; at the same 
time, to counteract the shivering and sense of cold that usually follow such 
accidents, apply heated bricks or bottles of hot water, to the feet, thighs, 
and arm-pits. Should the pain, in spite of the exclusion of air, continue an 
hour after encasing the part or parts in wadding, give 40 drops of laudanum 
in one of the above draughts, and repeat the same amount, if necessar}', in 
an hour. This dose, of course, applies to adults; to a child from five to 
twelve years, from five to ten drops. When the wadding becomes moist 
from .the exudation, on no account remove it, but layover tlie moistened 
dressing another layer of wadding. When the pain and tenderness subside, 
the part is to be exercised as much as convenient, and the burnt surface 
kept constantly covered till the new cuticle has formed and the dressings 
fall off by degrees. 

Where neither wadding, wool, nor fine cotton can be procured to envel- 
ope the burn, cover the part instantly with handfuls of flour, violet powder, 
Peruvian bark, or any harmless impalpable powder, adding more wlienever 
moisture appears tlirough the thick cake thus made over it ; and continue 
in the same manner as directed with the wadding, to apply fresli powder as 
the occasion demands, till the healing state of the burn warrants the appli- 
cation of a poultice, to bring off the collection. When softened and re- 
moved by one or two poultices, the part is to be again dusted lightly, or 
treated with the wadding, to protect the new cuticle. To those possessed 



188 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

of the domestic articles of medical use, the following mode of procedure is 
advised as at once tlie most practical and etKcacious. 

Immediatel}' pour over the burnt part, wlierever it may be, — except tlie 
eye or moutli— sufficient of the extract of lead to wet the burn, and directly 
after, lay smoothly on, a piece of wadding a little larger than tlie size of the 
injury, and with the wool next the skin ; over this applj' a double fold of 
the same material, and secure it by a loose bandage ; keep the patient quiet, 
and administer tablespoonfuls of brandy and water, or sweetened gruel 
witli brandy, at tlie same time implicitly follow the previous directions. 

Burns on tlie throat and chest often produce severe and difficult breath- 
ing, when, if not relieved, the patient might expire from suffocation. The 
feet and legs, must, therefore, be plunged into hot water of a sufficient 
temperature to attract a sudden supply of blood and make them look red, 
and tlie eifect of this diversion continued by one or two mustard plasters to 
the feet, or a blister to each thigh. 

Burns, the result of acids, must be treated first, by a free application of 
powdered clialk or magnesia, to counteract the acid, this is then to be 
washed off, and the wadding or wool applied. Burns caused by quick or 
slacked lime are to be waslied directly with vinegar and water till all the 
corrosive substance has been neutralized, and then healed by dressing with 
tlie extract of lead and tlie wadding. 

Vomiting. — When not the consequence of accidents or injuries to the 
head, or from hernia, or some affection of the bowels, vomiting or sickness 
generally proceeds from some derangement of the stomach, or else from 
the effect of some irritating or poisonous substance received into it through 
accident or design. In such cases as the latter, an emetic of antimony or 
ipecacuanha should be taken to expel the noxious substance as quickly as 
possible. For rejieated and exhausting sickness, such as attends a bilious 
attack, the following draught should be taken every half hour. Take of 

Camphor water 1 ounce, 

Sal volatile 20 drops, 

Spirits of lavender i drachm. 

Mix. A small mustard plaster should be applied to the pit of the stomach, 
the patient at the same timekeeping in an inclined position on his back, as 
frequently as possible. Sometimes simply lying on the back, drinking a 
copious draught of cold water, with cold wet napkins applied to the stomach, 
will relieve the most aggravated cases of vomiting. But where no relief 
can be obtained, a medical man should be instantly sent for. 

Choking. — ;When any mass of food, such as a piece of meat, potato, or 
other substance, lodges in the fauces, or the base of the tongue, if in sight, 
but too far for the fingers to reach, it should be immediately grasped with a 
pair of pincers, or, what is better, a pair of curling-tongs, and dragged out. 
If neither are at hand, and as time is precious, press down the tongue with 
the fingers, and tickle all the surrounding parts with a feather, so as to in- 
duce heaving or vomiting. Nature by that action_ often getting rid of tho 
obstruction. If, however, none of these means present a chance of reliet, 
use the point of the curling-tongs as a probe, and push the obstruction into 
the gullet. However quickly these operations may have been carried on, 
the sufferer may have died before the obstacle has been displaced, or be- 
come so apparently lifeless as seemingly to render all further steps useless ; 
this, however, is not the case, cold water must be dashed on the face and 
chest, ammonia applied to the nostrils, and the lungs inflated with air. 
When the lodgment has been lower down and taken place in the gullet 
proper — a fact tliat can be ascertained by an examination of the mouth, and 
also by the mute indication of the sufferer's fingers — the impediment to its 
descent to the stomach proceeds from some spasmodic action into which 
some of the muscular fibres are thrown, causing them to grip the body in 
its descent and retain it in that position, while its bulk pressing forward on 
the windpipe, causes the danger to life that results from the accident. Two 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 189 

or three sudden or sliiirp slaps between tlie sliouklors, or water dashed ab- 
ruptly in tlie face, will often, by producing a sudden gasp, releasvi the spasm 
and cause tlie descent of the object; if not, a probe, flexible tube, or a quill, 
must be emploj'ed and the substance pushed past the constriction ; when, 
however, the bulk is too large to be moved by such simple means, and 
while a messenger is sent for a surgeon to bring the proper instrument, en- 
deavours should be made to keep up a partial supply of air in the lungs, by 
means of the bellows. 

Fainting, or Syncope, as it is professionally called, very often attacks 
the individual without warning, though at other times, and in those subject 
to tliese distressing symptoms, fainting is preceded by well-defined sensa- 
tions, such as a feeling of distress, languor, and sickness ; the sight becomes 
dim, and the eyes appear covered by a film ; an areola or dark circle ap- 
pears round the orbits ; a buzzing, or low singing noise is heard in the ears ; 
the face and lips are pale, a cold perspiration breaks out over the skin ; tlie 
pulse sinks to a mere flutter, and finally ceases ; the body totters, and un- 
less upheld, falls to the ground. The loss of consciousness is sometimes 
complete ; at otliers, the patient retains a partial amount of recollection ; 
the pallor, too, is occasionally more intense, and corpse-like, the eyes shut, 
moutli open, the limbs flaccid, and the extremities deadly cold. This state 
lasts from five minutes to half an hour ; a spasm of the chest and a few 
gasping sobs, each more prolonged than tlie last, is the first indication of re- 
turning consciousness. When the fit is prolonged, it may terminate in epi- 
lepsy or convulsions. The causes that predispose to faintings, are an in- 
tensely nervous state of the system, a delicate constitution, and extreme 
debility from whatever cause produced, or a diseased state of the heart. 
Youth is more subject than age, to fainting ; and females more frequently 
affected by it than males. 

Treatment. — When fainting is the result of excessive nervous sensibility, 
or when it occurs in hysterical women, there is seldom any danger; all that 
is generally necessary, is to lay the patient on his back in the horizontal 
position; loosen an}' string that may compress the chest or neck, open the 
window, dash water in the face, and apply volatile salts to the nostrils, and 
give a draught with half a teaspoonful of spirits of lavender, or thirty dro[)S 
of sal volatile, and twenty of ether, added to the lavender and water, where 
the fainting threatens to merge in hysteria. Should the case be obstinate, 
heated bricks or mustard plasters must be applied to the feet or thighs. 
Where the fainting proceeds from organic disease, the treatment must be 
guided by the nature of the primary affection. 

Frost Bite. — This insidious and dangerous affection of the extremities 
and parts most exposed to frost, as the feet and toes, hands, fingers, nose, 
and ears, is the result of exposure to extreme cold ; and though persons of 
a phlegmatic temperament, and a sluggish state of the circulation, are 
more prone to this misfortune than others, yet it m.iy attack persons of all 
habits of body, and of all ages. The effect of the sudden application of 
intense cold, or long continued cold of a less severe character, is, in the first 
instance, to deaden the nervous sensibihty, and next to drive the blood from 
the part most exposed, and leave it in such a state of torpidity as to be un- 
able to resist the killing effect of the surrounding cold, whicli finding the 
part thus unprotected with the vitality of nervous energy, or the warmth of 
circulation, in reality freezes it to death. Thougli excessive cold is the 
cause of death either to a part or the entire body, tlie amount of cold the 
frame can bear with impunity is remarkable ; the actual danger, as far as 
frost-bite is concerned, resulting from the sudden reaction in the part, from 
the rise of temperature, or the application of warmth : on this account, the 
greatest precaution must be observed, in avoiding all abrupt change of tem- 
perature, as by forcing the blood suddenly back to the part, inflammation, 
mortification, and sloughing, must follow. A frost-bite is known by the 
swelling and discoloration of the part, attended with pain, numbness, and a 
sense of pricking ; the color, at first bright, becoming of a dull brown. 



190 HEALTH AND MEDICAL 

which, if unrelieved, deepens into black. The treatment consists in slowly 
and very cautioiisli/ restoring the circulation, for if the slightest warmtli is in- 
cautiously applied, mortification is certain to ensue. The patient siiould 
therefore be removed into a cold room, and tlie part rubbed gently with 
snow, or batlied witli cold Avater, and on no account allowed to enter a room 
with a fire, or any heated apartment. After half an hour, a small quantity 
of weak spirits and water may be taken cold; and ultimately the. patient 
put to bed in cold sheets: the treatment of frost-bite resolves itself into tlie 
slow and careful restoration of the circulation in tlie affected part. 

Lock Jaw. — This disease is a violent contraction of the muscles of 
voluntary motion, attended with tension and extreme rigidity of the parts 
affected, and receiving particular names from the portion or part of tlie 
body affected ; thus, when all the muscles of volition are aifected in one 
invisible spasm, the disease is called tetanus. When the body is bent for- 
ivard, by tlie spasm seizing only the anterior muscles ; wlien it is bent back- 
wards like a bow, the body resting on the heels and the top of the head, by 
the disease affecting the opposite class of muscles ; or wlien it is drawn in- 
to an arch on the right or the lejl side, accordingly as each separate set of 
muscles are contracted. Besides tliese four, there is, however, anotlier 
form, and, as being more frequently met with, of more importance to tlie 
general public ; and that is that form of tetanus affecting muscles of the 
jaw and neck, which from their violent contraction firmly shutting the 
moutli, and contracting the gullet, has l)een named trismus, or locked jaw. 
In ordinary convulsions or spasms, the contractions and relaxations are al- 
ternate, witli remissions of ease, wliether attended with partial or complete 
insensibility. Tlie peculiarity of tetanus, however, is that the contraction 
of tlie muscles is kept up without any change or abatement; the muscular 
fibre being grasped in a dead lock of unmitigated intensity to the last, while 
the involuntary muscles, as tliose of respiration, are unimpaired, and the in- 
tellect of tlie patient is as clear, and his sensation as acute, as in the sound- 
est health. This disease is divided into the acute and chronic, and into that 
proceeding spontaneously or from poisons, and called idiopathic, and that 
the consequences of wounds or injuries, greater or less, received by the 
body, when it is called traumatic. As it is only intended to treat of locked 
jaw, or trismus, in this article, it will be suflScient to observe that tlie causes 
which generally induce this form of tetanus are of the traumatic order, and 
result from erysipelas, wounds of the head, lacerations of the scalp, punc- 
tures of the hands and feet, especially with rusty or jagged substances, 
bites from rabid animals, injuries from machinery, and sometimes from the 
extraction of a>decayed tooth. It is a peculiarity of tliis fatal disease tliat 
the exciting cause is often as insignificant as the consequences are grave. 
Males are more subject to it than females, and, for one case of idiopatiiic 
locked jaw, there are five the result of external injury. 

Symptoins. — These commence after the injur3',from a quarter of an hour 
to three or four days, and sometimes as late as ten or twelve weeks, witli a 
stiffness in the back of the head and neck, extending to the shoulders, and 
very materially impeding the motion of the head ; this gradually extends 
to the throat, rendering talking irksome, and finally, swallowing impossible. 
The pain and rigidity of the muscles of the throat runs down the breast, 
and darts sharp pains through the chest, into the back ; the muscles of the 
neck now beginning to plunge and contract, and gradually increasing their 
tension, drawing the head backwards, at the same time that the lower jaw 
is drawn upwards till it becomes in such close approximation, that it is im- 
possible to separate them ; all the muscles of the throat, cheeks and neck 
feeling like bars of wood in their rigid contraction. The eyes are dilated, 
glaring and motionless in their sockets ; the tongue, if it has not been pro- 
truded and caught in the teeth, has been drawn back into a roll at tlie base 
of the mouth ; the foreliead is dragged up into deep ridges, and the skin of 
the face is violently stretched up to the ears, wliere it is raised into wrinkles, 
giving a wild, distorted, and ghastly look to the countenance; as the last 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 191 

Bymptom is added to the series forming the disease, locked jaw is ctniplete. 
Without proceeding further with tlie description of trismus, it will be 
enough to say that the disease is sometimes fatal in fifteen minutes, though 
the ordinary period may be taken as from four to eight days. 

Treatment. — When the disease proceeds from worms, or some internal 
irritation — the rarest exciting cause — aperient medicines of an active nature 
are to be given directly, and continued till the cause is expelled ; when 
from splinters or bits of glass, or sharp substances, lodged in the flesli, in- 
cisions sliould be made, and the injured part well cleaned of all cause of 
irritation, and where a nerve has been injured, it should be divided as soon 
as possible. Where tlie constitution is robust, and the patient strong, 
bleeding should be adopted to a large extent, the hot bath and friction eiu- 
ployed, and the muscular contraction overcome by the fumes of tobacco, or 
by opium, morpliia, or aconite; but if tlie constitution is debilitateil, the 
same result must be effected by camphor, musk, ammonia, and .stimulants 
of wine and brandy, with cold affusions on the head from a lieigiit. Be- 
sides these, and, in fact, nearly all the remedies of the pharmacopoeia, which 
have been employed with varying success, tiie wild liemp has of late years 
been used with more than usual advantage, and still more lately chloro- 
form ; but wliatever the remed}' administered, the dose requires to be very 
considerable to produce any effect. 

Leech Bites, to Stop Bleeding. — Remedy. Press steadily for some 
time with the finger upon the orifice, previously covered with two or three 
folds of lint or rag. If this does not avail, appl}' a little muriated tincture 
of iron on lint, or toucii tlie orifice with nitrate of silver, or with red-hot 
wire, or pass a fine needle liorizontally through the bite, and then twist a 
piece of fine silk several times round the needle, enclosing the bite by a 
figure of 8. Or scrape a piece of lunar caustic to a fine point, and insert- 
ing it into the bite, hold it there for a second or two. Observe. Leech- 
bites are frequently followed by a suspicious-looking swelling ; if this 
should make its appearance, and remain any lengtii of time, apply a lotion 
made of half a pint of cold water, ccmtaining a teasi)oonful of tincture of 
arnica. For the soothing and liealing of leech-bites rapidly, brotii made 
with the fattest part of tripe is an excellent wash. 

Housemaid's Knee. — The popular name of a swelling on the bone on 
the front of the knee : increased by pressure, kneeling, or walking. It is 
so called because it affects persons who are in the habit of kneeling on 
cold stones, damp floors, &c. — First Remedy. Suffer the part to rest, ap[)ly 
a few leeches, together with warm fomentations ; take, also, purgative medi- 
cines. — Second Remedy. Paint the swelling twice daily with tincture of 
iodine. 

Griping. — This well-known sensation in the bowels is a symptom of 
diarrhoea, dysentery, and colic. Some medicines are more liable to gripe 
than others. This inconvenience may be remedied by the addition of 
the oil of cloves, cinnamon, or essence of ginger. Griping in Children 
may be remedied by a little magnesia administered once or twice a day. If 
the gripings are severe, put the child into a warm bath, and give one grain 
of calomel every three hours till relief is afforded, tlien give a teaspoonful 
of castor-oil. 

Grocer's Disease. — There is a disagreeable disease attending grocers 
who have much to do in the liandling of sugar. The hands first become 
chapped, pustules appear upon them, and if they continue to handle sugar, 
a settled callous ulceration follows. We recommend the use of gloves, 
made of parchment, to prevent the disease, as well as to assist in curing. 
Those affected with it, should every night keep their hands in warm water 
for half an hour, then touch the parts with diluted citron ointment, and 
put on a pair of soft leather gloves, in which they should sleep. In the 
morning the proper gloves, above alluded to, should be put on, and the 
hands by no means allowed to come in contact with the sugar until the 
disease is entirely removed. 



192 HEALTU AND MEDICAL. 

Gum-Boil. — This sometimes arises from exposure to cold, but is caused 
in tlie majority of cases by the irritation of a decayed tooth. — Remedy. 
Inflannuation of tlie gum generally goes on to suppuration, to promote 
whicli, warm fomentations and poultices may be applied externally'. As 
soon as tlie matter is formed tiie abscess may be cut or lanced. Afterwards 
the mouth should \m wasiied occasionally with an astringent lotion com- 
posed of tincture of galls ajid water, or of twenty or tvventy-iive grains of 
sulphate of zinc, dissolved in half a pint of rose-water. When the pain 
and inflammation have entirel}^ subsided, the decayed tooth should be ex- 
tracted or stopped by a dentist. 

Cold Feet. — This derangement is attributable to defective circulation 
of the blood. Coldness of the feet mostly comes on at night, and will often 
prevent a person sleeping long after he has got into hed.-— Heme dij. Half an 
liour before bedtime walk up and down the room briskly, or run up and 
down stairs. Rub the feet with the hand or a flesh-brush. Dip them into 
hot water, without suffering them to remain in any length of time. Drink 
some warm beverage just before going to bed. In winter-time, wear boots 
instead of slippers in the house. Do not sit long together, but every now 
and then get up and walk about. These, and many other simple expedients, 
may be adopted to prevent this unpleasant sensation. 

Chicken Pox.— -A complaint almost entirely confined to children. It is 
a disease of a mild and comparatively harmless character. The symptoms 
are slight feverishness, succeeded by a number of red spots, which break 
out on the face and back, followed in a few days by watery bladders. — 
Remedy. Magnesia, one drachm ; rhubarb, half drachm ; powdered ginger, 
ten grains ; divide into twelve doses, and mix each dose in a little water ; 
administer occasionally while the disease is prevalent. Give cooling drinks, 
and let tlie diet be mild. 

Miller's Disease.— The powder or dust from corn and flour is apt to 
injure the throat, lungs, and eyes of millers. This powder has also a sharp- 
ness in it that causes a violent itching all over the body. Persons thus em- 
ployed should be careful to wash off the dusty filth which adheres to the 
skin, along with the perspiration. They should also make frequent use of 
melon seeds, whey of cow's milk, and the decoction of melons, for by these 
means the acrimony of the putrid powder is diluted. When millers are 
seized with asthma, they must avail themselves of the remedies to be found 
under tliat head. 

Mouth, Sore.— Take of honey two tablespoonfuls ; borax, powdered, 
half-drachm ; mix well together, and take a teaspoonful twice a day. The 
mixture should be placed in the mouth, little by little, touching the various 
ulcers that are visible, or can be got at. 

Foul Air.— As very serious disorders frequently arise from the presence 
of foul air, we deem it advisable to give the following among our collection 
of remedies.— FiVs^ Remedy. Mix two parts of dry chloride of lime with 
one part of burnt alum; set this in sliallow dishes in the room, witli or 
without the addition of vfater.— Second Remedy. Sprinkle tlie floor with a 
solution of one ounce of chloride of lime in one quart of water.— Third 
Remedy. Pour one ounce of sulphuric acid upon two ounces of the nitrate 
of potash in a large teacup, placed in a basin containing hot water. 

Foul Air, Suffocation BY.—Remedy. The foul air should be expelled 
from the lungs by pressure being made by one person with both hands on 
the chest, while at the same time a second person, witli out-spread iiands, 
presses firmly on the stomach. By tliis means, the diaphragm, or internal 
partition between tlie chest and the belly, will be forced up into the chest, 
and the lungs compressed into a very small space. By both removing the 
pressure simultaneously, fresli air will rush down the windpipe ; and by 
thus pressing and relaxing alternately, the act of respiration will be imit- 
ated, and every chance of inflating tlie lungs with fresh air will l)e ob- 
tained. Warni water may be injected into tlie stomach, clysters of tur- 
peniine and water administered, and, among other things, a napkin moist- 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 195 

ened with a solution of cliloride of soda or lime, placed under tlie nostrils. 
Tickling the throat with a feather is not witliout its effect : and sliocks of 
electricity may also be passed through the chest. 

Cramp. — An affection usually caused by exposure to cold and damp.— 
First Remedy. Foment the part affected with warm water, with a little 
mustard mixed in it; drink uothizig cohl, and take a little brandy and 
water ; put the feet in warm water, and endeavor to produce a perspira- 
tion, take two or tln-ee times a day a dose of Peruvian bark in a little wine, 
or a little ginger and water. — Second lieiiicdi/. Take of water of ammonia 
or spirits of hartshorn, one ounce ; olive oil, two ounces ; shake them to- 
gether till they unite, and rub it on the affected j)art with the huntl.— Third 
Bemedi/ {For severe cases). Take of strong liniment of ammonia, one and 
a-half ounces ,- oil of turpentine, one ounce ; spirits of camphor, one ounce ; 
liard soap, four drachms ; mix tlie whole well together, and apply it to the 
part on flaimels heated and moistened. — Fourth Remedy. (For (!ramp in the 
stomach). Drink copious draughts of hot water, brandy and water, ether, 
or laudanum ; appl}' hot flannels moistened with compound campiior Ihii- 
ment and turpentine ; liatlie the feet in warm water, or apply mustard 
poultices to them. When the cause of cramp is constitutional, the best 
preventives are warm tonics, such as the essence of ginger and camomile, 
Jamaica ginger in powder, etc., avoiding fermented liquor and green vege- 
tables, particular!}' for supper, and wearing flannel next the skin. 

Corpulence.— Much sleep, much food, and little exercise are the com- 
mon causes of persons growing fat. Excess of fat is an incumbrance which 
the body had better be without than with, and therefore it is a species of 
disease.— i^tVs/; Remedy. Gradually reduce the usual quantity' of aliment, 
take less nutritious substances for food, drink sparingly, especially of malt 
liquors, use regular and daily active exercise, abstain from suppers, take 
short rest, sleep but few hours, and rise early every morning. By a rigid 
pursuance of these means for a due length of time, the most corpulent and 
unwieldy man or woman will be reduced within moderate bounds, with an 
acquisition of health, strength, and vigor. — Second Remedy. In addition to 
active exercise, the body should be rubbed with a pomatum made of lard 
three and a-quarter ounces, and campiior one ounce ; this to be heated and 
mixed over the fire, and afterwards suffered to cool. Afterwards take five 
grains of aloes every four days, and emplo}' the following clyster every 
morning ; linseed, one ounce ; r(jse leaves, one and a-half drachms ; bay 
salt, three drachms ; boil the ingredients for twenty minutes in a quart of 
water; just before taking the decoction off the fire, add to it cam[)horated 
oil one and a-half drachms. — Third Remedy. (Banting's System). This 
consists chiefly in discarding certain articles of food, and living as much as 
possible upcm meat. The plan is scarcely calculated for general adoption, 
as it can only be followed by persons favorably circumstanced, wliilst it 
exacts so much self-denial that, generally speaking, after being tried for a 
short time, it is given up. 

Apoplexy. — A sudden suspension of the mental and physical powers.— 
Remedy. Remove the patient to a cool, well-ventilated room ; place him in 
a reclining or sitting posture, with the liead and shoulders slightly raised. 
Loosen all the tight parts of the sufferer's dress, especially anything press- 
ing around the neck. Pour cold water over the head, and keep it cool by 
means of powdered ice in a bladder. Apply mustard plasters to the soles 
of the feet and the calves of the legs. If the patient be of a full habit, a 
dozen leeches may be applied beliind the ears and on the temples. If food 
has been taken recently, an emetic of mustard and water may be given ; 
and in order to promote the action of tlie bowels, a drop of croton-oil should 
be placed on the tongue, and repeated every two or three liours, till the end 
is accomplished. In persons of spare habit, a small quantity of stimulant, 
as wine or brandy, or a teaspoonful of sal-volatile in water, may be given 
every twenty minutes or half-hour. Bleeding should only be resorted to in 
the last extremity, where there is great danger, and the arrival of the med- 



194: HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

ical man is delayed. Persons of an apoplectic temperament slioukl live 
moderately', eat plain and unstiraiilating food, and avoid wine, spirits, beer, 
etc. Exercise and fresh air are also of the liighest importance. 

NiGHTMAKE. — Tlie conimon causes of nightmare are indigestion and the 
use of narcotic and intoxicating substances. — First Remedy. Take of car- 
bonate of soda ten grains ; compound tincture of cardamoms, three 
draclims ; simple syrup, one draclun ; pe]>permint water, one ounce ; mix 
for a drauglit, to be taken at bedtime.— ^eronrf Remedy. Subcarbonate of 
potass, twelve grains ; peppermint water, one ounce ; compound tincture of 
cardamoms, two drachms ; syrup of ginger, one drachm ; mix for a 
draught, to be taken at bedtime.— T/uVf/ Remedy. Take, on going to bed, a 
teaspoonful of sal-volatile in a wine-glassful of cold water. — Fourth Remedy. 
Drink a couple of glasses of beer at supper, and with it mix a little carbo- 
nate of soda; also take the following; llufus's pill, half a drachm ; rliu- 
barb, half a drachm; oil of cloves, ten drops ; mi.x and form into twenty 
pills, two to be taken daily. — Caution. Persons subject to tins visitation 
ouglit carefully to shun all kinds of food likely to prove flatulent or of 
difficult digestion. Hot and heavy suppers are particularly injurious, as 
are acids. Excess of sedentary employment should also be avoided. 

Nose, Substances in, to Extract. — The extraction of foreign bodies 
from the nose must be performed with great gentleness and care, other- 
wise, in attempting to get the substance out, it may be only further pushed 
hn.—F'irst Remedy. The extraction is best accomplished by means of the 
flat end of a probe or bodkin, bent about the eiglitli of an inch, nearly at 
right angles with the rest of the instrument, which bent end being care- 
fully passed beyond the body, must be used as a hook to draw it out.~ 
Second Remedy. If the foreign body be not very far in the nostril, it can 
sometimes be dislodged in the following manner :— Gradually close the free 
nostril by the pressure of the finger, and, at tlie same time, blow the nose 
forcibly, the combined effort causing tlie obstruction to be blown out. 

Nostrils, Ulceration of.— The lining membrane of the nose is apt to 
become inflamed and ulcerated. ~/ie/«ed'j/. Gently syringe tlie part with 
warm water, containing a little carbonate of soda in solntion.— Observe. 
The nostrils do not communicate with the brain, as is popularly supposed. 
Tliere is, consequently, no danger in adopting the above remedy. 

Lime in the Eye. — Lime will sometimes intrude itself into the eye, and 
the accident is attended witii much pain and even danger to the eyesight. 
ft burns the coats of the eye, and may either destroy its transparency, or 
occasion such injury as to cause the eye to burst, shrivel up, and become 
utterly \\se\ess.— Remedy. Without an instant's loss of time, wet tlie web of 
a feather with' warm vinegar and water, and with it remove the lime; at 
the same time apply the vinegar and water freely to the eyeball itself, and 
xhe inside of the lids, with a bit of soft muslin, or by gently syringing. 
Wlien the lime is got rid of as completely as possible, tlie eye should be 
bathed with warm water, and afterwards a little sweet-oil dropped in, which 
will soothe it grea.t]y.— Second Remedy. If the inflammation be considera- 
ble, a few leeches sliould be applied, and the part fomented with warm 
poppy-water. A smart purge must also be given. 

Ankle, 'Sprained. — First Remedy. Keep the ankle in perfect rest in 
bed or on a sofa. Apply warm moist flannels repeatedly for some hours, 
and a bread-and-water poultice on going to bed. Continue the treatment 
for some days, and if the pain be persistent and severe, apply leeches. 
Vinegar plasters had better not be used till all tenderness lias subsided, 
and there remains only a slight pain and stiffness in the part ; then a vine- 
gar plaster is an excellent application, as it diverts the inflammation going 
on in tlie ligaments, by bringing out a crop of pimples on the skin, at a 
time when the ])ressure can be borne. Wlien the pain has entirely ceased, 
the foot should be used cautiously ; short and gentle walks only should be 
ventured on, to be extended and increased proportionally with the renewal 
of strength. For the swelling which often appears after a sprain, bind it 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 195 

up with strips of soap plaster on a roWer.—Second Remedy. Mix together a 
tablespoonful of lioney, suet, and white of egg, beat the wliole thoroughly 
togetiier, and let it stand for an hour ; then anoint the injured part witli 
the oil resulting from tlie above mixture, keeping the ankle well bandaged. 
— Third Remedi/. Apply cold lotion made of water, tlirce parts ; spirits of 
wine, one part; laudanum, one part. Support the ankle by a moderately 
tight bandage, and rest the limb ; if the part become inflamed, withdraw 
the bandage, and instead of the solution, use warm water. 

Addevi-Bite.— First Renwdij. Anoint tlie injured part frequently with 
sweet oil, and if the inflammation is excessive, apply a linseed poultice. 
Meanwhile, as the patient will in all probability exhibit great faintness, 
stimulants should be from time to time administered, such as brandy, sal- 
volatile and water, or even eau-de-cologne and water. — Second Remedy. Tie 
a tape or string above the part bitten, so as to prevent the poison ascend- 
ing. The poison may be sucked out, but this hazardous experiment should 
be ventured on only by persons whose mouths and lips are free from any 
wound or excoriation. Apply, afterwards, a poultice of quicklime, with 
oil and honey. To allay itching, bathe the affected part with a solution of 
opium in water. 

Bruises.— Bruises maj' proceed from many causes, be of many varie- 
ties, and occur in any part of the body. When severe, and happening over 
a joint, total rest of tlie limb must be enjoined, and the joint kept con- 
stantly soothed by fomenting it with a folded flannel, wrung out of a hot 
decoction of camomile flowers, and poppy heads, made strong. The same 
application may be applied to any other bruised part of the body, and 
where the pain is severe.- When a swelling results from a bruise, not over 
a joint, wet a folded rag well with the extract of lead, and lay it over the 
part, repeating the process in a few minutes ; with the third or fourth ap- 
plication the swelling will have disappeared. In the bruises and hurts re- 
ceived by children from falls, this will be found in all cases an invaluable 
remedy. When the skin has been broken by the bruise, and there is much 
discoloration and pain, apply the extract of lead, and over that, place a hot 
bran or camomile poultice, re-wetting the rag with the extract on every 
occasion of renewing the poultice. 

Gnat-bite. — First Remedy. Mix equal portions of turpentine and sweet 
oil, and apply to the \>a.vt."-Second Remedy. Wash the part with spirit of 
hartsiiorn.— 7"/uVc? Remedy. Acetate liquor of lead, half an ounce; cold 
water, half a pint ; dissolve in half a drachm of opium, and mix together. 
Apply this to the part, to be followed a few hours afterwards by a Httle 
olive oil. 

Chafing.— Children and fat persons are liable to have the skin chafed. 
—First Remedy. Bathe the part M'ell with warm water, then dab it with, 
fuller's earth and water, and, lastly, dust it with violet powder.— Sfco/io? 
Remedy. Put a slug on tiie sore place, and after the slug has slimed the 
part, let it go. Instant relief will be afforded. 

Nail, Ingrowing.— It often happens that a tight, or ill-made shoe, by 
continu.al pressure on one part of the nail, forces it into the flesh, and then 
causes great pain and inconvenience.— /?emerf^ for the Toe. First procure 
an easier shoe, which will allow the nail to take its natural course ; then 
take a piece of glass, and with it scrape the whole length of the middle of 
the nail persistently, and yet with a delicate hand. By this means, the 
centre of the nail will eventually be rendered so thin, that it may be read- 
ily bent, and in this flexible condition it gives way to the upward pressure 
of the skin on its outward edges, readily bends, and offers no further re- 
sistance. The cause of irritation being withdrawn, the tenderness soon 
heals, and the proud flesh drops down.— Observe. An ingrowing nail may 
be caused by an improper mode of cutting it. Nails should never be clip- 
ped at the corners, but cut straight across the top, if anything, slightly 
scooped in the middle. Ti\is leaves a sufiicient amount of resistance at the 
corners ; for wear what shoes we may, there must alw.ays be a certain de- 



196 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

gree of pressure on the nail, which should be provided iov.— Remedy for the 
Finger. Wrap the affected finger in a compress moistened witli a lotion 
made as follows : Liquor of ammonia, one ounce ; campliorated alcohol, 
one draclim ; bay salt, quarter of an ounce ; water, tliree-quarters of a 
pint; mix, and shake well togetlier. After ten minutes, remove this, and 
replace it by a compress anointed with camphor pomatum, and kept in 
place till next dressing by an india-rubber finger-stall drawn over it. Then 
dissolve one and a quarter ounces of camphor in a gill of brandy, wet a 
narrow band with this aolution, place it round the root of the nail, and let 
it remain there until the next dressing.— Observe. The finger-nails sliould 
be cut of an oval shape, corresponding with the form of the finger ; tliey 
should not be allowed to grow too long, as they thereby are rendered more 
liable to accident, neither should they be too short, as tliey thus deprive the 
ends of the fingers of their protection and support. Wlien tlie nails are 
naturally ragged or ill-formed, they should be gently scraped, afterwards 
rubbed with lemon, then rinsed with water, and well dried with a towel. If 
the nails grow more to one side than the other, tliey should be cut in sucli 
a manner as to make the points come as near as possible to the centre of 
the end of the finger. 

Scalds. — In this accident the principle to act upon is, to keep up the 
heat of the part at first, and bring it down gradually to the ordinary tem- 
perature. The first, and most important object, is to protect the surface 
from the action of the air. For this purpose, flour, cotton-wool, or wad- 
ding, are the readiest means. — First Remedy. Flowers of zinc, calomiiie 
powder, and lycopodium, of each one ounce; powdered myrrh, and sugar 
of lead, of each half a drachm ; lard, one and a half ounce ; mix, and ap- 
ply from time to i\n\e.— Second Remedy. Lime-water, one part ; linseed 
oil, two parts ; shake well together, and apply by lint or linen soaked in it. 
— Third Remedy. First apply vinegar until the pain abates, then a bread 
and milk poultice, and lastly, as soon as the watery fluid is seen to ooze 
out, cover the part with powdered chMi..— Fourth Remedy (for slight scalds). 
Apply oatmeal and cold water to the part affected immediately after the 
accident ; keep it on as a poultice all night.— F;'/?/* Remedy. Lime-water, 
six ounces ; common spirits, three ounces ; mix, and apply to the part by 
means of linen dipped in \t.— Sixth Remedy. Goulard water and olive oil, 
of each, one ounce ; rose water, four ounces ; mix, and apply occasionally. 
— Observe. In all cases of scalds, if fever should ensue, general laxative 
medicines ought to be taken. The best are castor oil and Epsom salts. 

Chapped Hands. — This troublesome complaint arises generally from 
not wiping the .hands perfectly dry after washing then\.— First Remedy. 
Borax, two scruples ; glycerine, half ounce ; water, seven and a half 
ounces ; mix, and apply as a lotion twice a day.— Second Remedy. Honey, 
one ounce ; borax, one drachm ; mix, and apply as an ointment.— TAiVdf 
Remedy. Camphor, finely powdered, half-drachm ; spermaceti ointment, 
one ounce ; mix, and apply.— i^owr^A Remedy. Spermaceti, one ounce ; 
white wax and olive oil, of each four ounces. Melt gently in a pot placed 
in boiling water, and add one ounce of honey and half an ounce of pow- 
dered camphor: stir the whole while cooling, and form the mass into balls, 
for occasional use. 

Eruptions of the Skin. — Under this head may be included all rashes 
not especially treated elsewhere in this work. — First Remedy. As the main 
source of eruptions are derangements of the constitution and stomach, it 
must be borne in mind that local applications for restoring the healthy ac- 
tion of the skin, such as daily warm and cold sponging, warm baths, vapor 
baths, and well-regulated exercise, should be adopted, together with the 
following : Take of blue pill twenty grains ; camphor, six grains ; tar- 
tarized antimony, one grain ; mix, and divide into sixteen pills, one or 
two to be taken every night for three or four nights successively ; to be 
sto))ped for a like period, and then renewed. If the bowels do not act 
gently under the influence of these, a teaspoonful of Epsom salts and car 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 197 

bonate of magnesia, mixed in equal proportion, may be taken each follow- 
ing morning.— Scco7id Remedy. Lenitive electuary, two ounces ; flowers of 
sulpliur, lialf an ounce ; mix well, and take a teaspoonful every night and 
movnins;.— Third Remedi/. Apply to the eruptions the cerate of acetate of 
lead. When a stimulating application is desirable, weak citrine ointment 
may be made use of. 

Bleeding from Wounds. — It is of importance to know how to proceed 
to stop the bleeding of a wound, as many serious and severe cases liave oc- 
curred througli the attendant or bystander not possessing the presence of 
mind or tact necessary in such an emergency. — Remedy. When a wound is 
situated in the limbs, and is succeeded by copious and protracted bleeding, 
the main thing is to prevent the wiiole current of blood passing througli the 
limb. If from the upper part of the arm, tlie thumb should be pressed firmly 
into that part of the neck beliind the collarbcme ; this will intercept the flow 
of blood througli the principal artery of the arm as it issues from the chest. 
The tliumb, however, is apt to become tired and relax its pressure, and 
notliing can answer tlie purpose better than the handle of a door-key wrap- 
ped in three or four folds of linen, which can be held in its position for an 
indefinite length of time. If the wound be high upon tlie leg or thigh, the 
timmb should be pressed immediately below tlie cavity of the groin, the 
patient, meanwhile, lying on liis back. This will have the effect of arresting 
the flow of blood from the great artery which supplies the limbs. Wlien the 
wound is situated below tlie middle of the upper arm, or below the middle of 
the thigh, a large and strong handkerchief should be bound once or twice 
round the limb ; a piece of stick, such as a large skewer, or a small ruler, 
should then be introduced between the bandage and the skin, and twisted 
so that it screws the handkerchief tight until the flow of blood ceases. When 
the bleeding stops, the screwing should cease, otherwise the parts will be 
bruised and injured. If the wounded part be on a bone, the bleeding can be ar- 
rested by firmly pressing the finger on the bone, or by a cork, or a hard pad. 
It must be uiiders1;ood that these proceedings are to be adopted only until 
such time as proper assistance arrives. In every instance a surgeon ought 
to be sent for instantly. 

Blood, Spitting of. — A discharge of blood, often of a frothy appearance, 
brought up with coughing, and preceded by a saltish taste in the mouth, 
difficulty of breathing, and a sense of weight and pain at the chest. — First 
Remedy. Avoidance of exertion, heat, and mental disturbance. The patient 
should be placed in a half-sitting posture. Cool air must be freely admitted, 
and if necessary, the head and body sprinkled with water. All stimulating 
food and drink must be discarded, and cold acidulated beverages should l)e 
given to drink. If this treatment does not arrest the spitting, give a little 
alum in water, and keep the bowels open with castor-oil or a dose of Epsom 
salts. When the spitting has ceased, everj' nveans should be adojited to pre- 
vent a return, and this is most effectually accomplished by the patient taking 
gentle carriage exercise, keeping himself quiet, and taking occasional doses 
of Peruvian Bark. — Second Remedy. Acetate of lead, twelve grains, made 
into a small mass with bread, and divided into six pills, of which one may 
be taken every three, four, or six hours, according to the urgency of the 
symptoms. 

Blister. — The term blister is applied to any substance tliat has the 
power to raise the outer skin into bladders, or pustules. There are several 
varieties of blisters — animal, vegetable, and mineral, the principal being the 
cantliarides or Spanish fly, mustard, eupliorbium, mezereon, savin, anti- 
mony, silver, vinegar, potassa, and ammonia. 

Blistering and counter irritation is a mode of treatment by which it is 
sought to cure one disease by establishing another of the same type, but less 
severe than the first; bearing this in mind, the general utility of all external 
stimulants, especially those of blisters, will be better understood and more 
fully nppreciated. 

Blisters are used in medicine as a means of depletion, either to carry off 



198 IIKALTII AND MKDICAL. 

from tlie hotly a certain amount of 1)1()0(1 in the form of serum, and tlius nvi 
as a local Mcciling, or in addition to tliis effect, to cause, by tlie intlanniia- 
tion they produce on the surface, a larger amount of ))lood to circidate 
tlirouyh tlie adjacent cuticle, and thus relieve some dei'per oi'gan or part 
from the excess of hlood that disease causes to be attracted to it. With this 
view only, and when no de;)letion is required, medical men are in tiie habit 
of using a milder form of hlistering than that effected hy raising the epider- 
mis in bladders, and to this they give the name of'rubefacients, or, in simple 
Jinglish, substances that " make red." 

From the benefit they afford, the case of application, and the safety of 
their employment, blisters have become of universal use, and may be con- 
sidered as an established domestic remedy. Yet there are certain points in 
connection with them that require explaining, both for protection and guid- 
ance. When the blister has sufficiently risen, remove the plaster, and nip- 
ping the blister where it bags most, gently press out the water, taking great 
care not to break tlie skin as it collapses ; immediately place over the whole 
a warm bread poultice, the bread confined within a fold of muslin, and allow 
it to remain for one or two hours ; then carefully remove the poultice, and 
sprinkle the blistered part with a thick layer of violet powder, cover this 
with a piece of linen, and by a bandage or handkerchief keep the whole in 
its place ; every four hours add more violet powder, especially over the moist 
part, taking care not to remove the cake or crust that forms till the cuticle 
is sufficiently healed to ])ermit of its being taken away, when the ])lace is to be 
lightly dusted with the powder from time to time, to a\ old cracking the new 
cuticle. It is seldom, if ever, necessary to interpose gauze or tissue paper be- 
tween the blister and the skin, and, except in very rare and singular cases, 
should never be done, nor is there any time that can be fixed as the duration 
a blister should remain on ; this must depend on tlie rising, which will take 
from eight to sixteen hours to effect ; though in infancj" and childhood, from 
the extreme delicacy of the cuticle, the time required is infinitely shorter. 
But tills is a point that every nurse provides for byfr'equent insj)ection. 
Wiien a blister is not at hand steep a pewter plate or j)iece of flat metal in 
boiling water, and place it at once on the skin, pressing it down for a mo- 
ment, and then allowing it to rise, and as it cools remove it; for in cases of 
still greater emergency, a blister ma^' be obtained b>' wetting a part of the 
cuticle and rubbing on it for a few minutes, lunar caustii; ; or cut a circular 
hole out of a piece of adhesive plaster, which having adhered to the skin, tie 
some lint to the end of a stick, dip the padded end in nitric acid or aquafor- 
tis, and brush lightly and rapidly the skin exposed within the whole in the 
plaster, when a "vesicle will be immediately produced. In thiscountr}- it is 
seldom that an}' blisteris used but that of cantharides or Spanish flies, ex- 
cept in extreme cases, that of mustard, as given above. Tiie blister plaster 
as sold in the siiops is a sjiecies of tough ointment, and is made of wax, suet, 
resin, and lard, all melted over a slow fire, and while cooling the powdered 
flies stirred in, till the whole, when cold, becomes a smooth, firm, and tena- 
cious mass. The mode of making a blister is to cut out a shape from a piece 
of adhesive plaster, either round, ovil, oblong, or according to the part on 
which it has to be applied, and taking a piece of the blister plaster, and 
softening in the fingers with the right thumb wetted in water, extend it over 
the shape, leaving a margin of half an inch all round ; the plaster is to be 
spread about the thickness of a shilling, and all over of an equal smoothness. 
This is then to be warmed for a moment before the fire, and applied evenljr 
over the ])art, the edges of the plaster being nicked, where necessary, to 
make it lie flat. For the ears the shape of the blister resembles the figure 6, 
the O part coming under the lobe of the ear, and the tail sweeping behind 
it ; each ear, however, requires a different position of the figure, that of the 
left needing the 6 as it naturally stands, the rigiit must have it reversed, as 
thus, 9. 

Black Eye. — This is an unfortunate disfigurement, which the world in- 
voluntarily associates with fighting and drunkenness ; oftentimes the hurt 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 199 

results from the purest accident ; but few people will believe it, and the less 
said about it the better. — R'^medij. Biithing the part frequently with warm 
water is the only remedy for a black eye, and in a few da3's the skin will 
resume its natural color and appearance. We may here mention that there 
are persons who publicly advertise to paint over black eyes, so that all 
traces of the injury may be hidden under an imitative flesh coloring. 

Blear Eye. — A term given to an inflammatory appearance of the eyelids 
and the corners of tlie eye \ise\i.— First Remedy. This minor complaint is often 
very obstinate, arising, as it does, from some hereditary taint and resolving 
itself into a constitutional defect. When resulting from age, cold, or tem- 
porary weakness, adopt the following: — Mix five grains of sulphate of zinc 
in two tablespoonfuls of water ; wet the eye from time to time with a piece 
of linen rag or lint dipped in this liquid. — Second Remedi/. Take an active 
aperient of calomel and rhubarb, and bathe the eye with poppy-water. If, 
on the subsiding of the inflammation, the eye feel weak, wash it frequently 
during the day with a lotion composed of a grain of sugar-of-lead to a largo 
tablespoonful of soft water. 

Bleeding at the Nose, — This is common with young jjersons, and witii 
such as are of full habit of body. Generally speaking, it may he regarded 
as an effort hy which Nature seeks to relieve the overchargeil system, and 
when it does not occur too f I'equently, or last too long, it is as well to allow 
the bleeding to go on unchecked. With weak or aged persons, however, it 
cannot be stopped too soon. — First Remedi/. The sudden application of cold, 
by driving tiie blood from the surface, effects a stoppage in ordinary cases. 
Putting a door-key down the back, bathing the head and face with cold 
water, or vinegar and water, exposing the body to the cool air, and drinking 
iced lemonade, are among these expedients. — Second Remedy. If the bleed- 
ing is difficult to check, j)lnce the person in an upright position, put a mode- 
rate pinch of powdered alum into two tablespoonfuls of water, and with a 
syringe inject this up the nostrils. — Third Remedy. If the above should fail, 
a plug of lint should be made, with a strong thread or piece of twine tied 
round" it, then moistened vvitii water, and dipped in finely-powdered charcoal. 
The coagulated blood should not be removed from the nostrils, but suffered 
to come away of its own accord, which it will shortly. Where there is a 
frequent recurrence of bleeding at the nose, it is advisable to keep the sys- 
tem cool, and tlie bowels somewhat relaxed; a seidlitz powder two or three 
times a week, the first thing in the morning, will effect tins. 

Abrasion. — A wound of the skin caused by friction. — First Remedy. Re- 
move any sand or dirt from the part by batidng it in warm water; then 
ajjply spirit and water to it till the pain is somewhat abated, lay a piece of 
dry lint over it, or lint wetted with water, and over that a piece of oiled silk 
to retain the moisture. If there is much pain or swelling from inflammation, 
apply a bread-and-water j)oultice, or a piece of linen moistened with Goulard 
water. When this comes off, if the skin is not healed, dress with simple 
cerate, spermaceti, &c. Observe, common sticking-plaster irritates abrasions, 
court-plaster does not. — Second Remedy. After liaving washed the wounded 
part with warm water, apply collodion by means of a hair pencil; a piece of 
gold-beater's skin first, and tlie collodion applied afterwards. — Third Remedy. 
Take tincture of arnica or wolf's-bane, dilute it with twenty parts of water, 
or thirty parts, where the skin is broken ; apply the liquid with linen rag 
wrapped round the injured part. If the mixture should prove too strong, 
dilute it with more water. 

Drowning. — The restoring of apparently drowned persons depends 
greatly on the prompt application of remedies and the presence of mind of 
the operator. — Remedy. On tlie first alarm of a person being drowned, send 
quickly for medical assistance, and while the body is being searched for, or 
conveyed to the nearest house, the following articles should be got ready : — 
Warm water, a warming-pan, hot blankets and flannels, heated bricks, a pair 
of bellows, sal-volatile, smelling-salts, clyster-pipes, and an electrifying ma- 
chine. When the body is found, it should be quickly conveyed to a warm 



200 HEALTH ANO MEDICAL. 

and dry situation, and rubbed all over with moderate stimulants, as diluted 
flower of mustard, then wrapped in hot blankets, and placed in a warm bed. 
Apply sal-volatile, or smelHng-salts, to the nostrils, and let the eyes be ex- 
posed to a strong light. But restoration of the action of the lungs is chiefly 
to be aimed at; and for tliis purpose, a full expiration of warm air from the 
moutli of a bystander should be repeatedly forced into the patient's mouth, 
at the same time drawing downwards, and pushing gently backwards, the 
upper part of tiie windpipe, to allow a free admission of air ; blow the bel- 
lows gently in order to inflate the lungs, till the breast be a little raised ; 
the mouth and nostrils may then be set free, and a moderate pressure made 
with the hand upon the chest. Injections of camphor, ammonia, and brandy 
have often been introduced with success into the rectum, and sometimes in- 
jections of warm air alone. Besides this process, it may be possible to con- 
vey some warm and active stimidant, as ammonia, or the compound spirit of 
lavender, into the stomach by means of a syringe. Bladders, or bottles of 
hot water, or heated bricks, should be applied to the pit of the stomach, the 
arm-pits, between the thighs, and the soles of the feet. Returning life is first 
usually discoverable by the symptoms of sighing, gasping, slight palpitation 
or pulsation of the heart ; the efforts to restore life should then be redoubled, 
for the feeble spark still requires to be solicited and nourished into a flame, 
and it has often gone out from a relaxation of labor. A spoonful or two of 
warm wine, or warm wine and water, should now be introduced into the 
mouth, so soon as the power of swallowing is sufficiently restored, which 
should be shortly succeeded by a light, warm, and nourishing food of any 
kind, with gentle laxative clysters, a well-heated bed and perfect tranquillity. 

Piles. — These consist of small tumors, situated on the extremity of the 
great gut, called the rectum. The piles are usually accompanied by a sense 
of weight in the back, loins, and bf)ttom of the belly, together with pain in 
the head, sickness at the stomacli, and flatulence in the bowels. If the 
tumor breaks, a quantity of blood is voided, and considerable relief from 
pain is obtained ; but if they continue unbroken, the patient experiences 
great pain. — First Bemedi/. Take of lenitive electuary one ounce ; flour of 
sulphur, one ounce ; jalap, in powder, one drachm ; balsam of copaiba, half- 
ounce ; ginger, in powder, half-drachm; cream of tartar, half-ounce; syrup 
of ginger, a sufficient quantity to form the wliole into an electuary ; mix. 
Take a teaspoonf id every three hours, until the bowels are freely open, at 
the same time, make use of the following lotion : Goulard water, six ounces ; 
laudanum, one ounce; mix, and apply to the parts repeatedly.— .S'eco?iri 
Remedy. When the piles are very painful and swollen, but discharge 
nothing, the patient should sit over the steam of liot water. He may also 
apjdy a linen cloth, dipped in warm spirits of wine, to the upper part, or 
make use of bread and milk pouliives.— Third Bemedij . Take of powder of 
oak-galls, one ounce; elder ointment, one ounce; mix, and anoint the 
parts night and morning.— Fourth Remedij. Sublimed sulphur, half ounce ; 
cream of tartar, one and a half drachms ; lenitive electuary, one ounce ; 
syrup sufficient to form an electuary. A teaspoonful to be taken at bed- 
time.— /^///A Remedij. Powdered nut-gall, two drachms; camphor, one 
drachm; melted wax, one ounce; tincture of opium, two drachms; mix, 
and apply as ointment to the parts. 

To Apply an Eye STONE.~Eye-stones are frequently used to extract 
matter, railroad sparks, and other extraneous substances from the eye. 
They are to be procurecl from the apotliecary's. They cost l)ut two or three 
cents apiece, and it is well to get several, that if one does not succeed, you 
may try another. To give an eye-stone activity, lay it for about five 
minutes in a Staucer of vinegar and water, and if it be a good one, it will 
soon begin to move or swim round in the liquid. Then wipe it dry, and let 
it be inserted under the eyelid, biiuling the eye closely with a handkerchief. 
The eye-stone will make the circuit of the eye, and take out the mote, 
which, when the eye-stone finally drops out, it will bring with it. 

The first thing to be done, when a mote or spark gets into your eye, is 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 201 

to pull down the lower part of the eyelid, and with a liandkerchief in your 
hand blow your nose violently at tlie same moment. This will frequently 
expel the mote without further trouble. A mote will, in many cases, come 
out of itself, by immediately holding your eye wide open in a cup or glass' 
filled to the brim with clear cold water. Or take a small pin, and^wrapping 
the head in the corner of a soft, cambric handkerchief, sweep carefully 
round the eye with it, under the lid, above and below. This should be done 
with a firm and steady hand. Another way is to take a bristle from a brush, 
and first tying the ends together with a bit of thread, so as to form a loop, 
sweep round the eye with it, so that the loop may catch the mote and bring 
it out. A particle of iron or steel has, we know, been extracted from the 
eye by holding near it a powerful magnet. 

Chilblains. — A species of inflammation wliich arises from exposure to a 
severe degree of cold. For Unbroken Chilblains : First Reuiedy. Sol- 
ution of acetate of lead and camphorated spirits, of each equal parts ; mix, 
and apply twice a day with a hair pencil. — Second Remedy. Soap liniment, 
one ounce ; cajeput oil, quarter of an ounce ; tincture of cantharides, quarter 
of an ounce ; mix. — Third Remedy. Oil of turpentine, one ounce ; camphor, 
quarter of an ounce ; Goulard water, quarter of an ounce ; mix. — Fourth 
Remedy. (Dr. Graves's Preventive). Sulphate of copper, ten grains ; water, 
one ounce ; dissolve, and brush over the parts by means of a camel-hair 
pencil, and when dry, apply a little simple ointment ; repeat this for some 
evenings in succession. — Fifth Remedy (Le Jeune's Balsam). Camphor, 
one and a-half drachms ; tincture of benzoin, one ounce ; iodide of potas- 
sium, three drachms ; extract of lead, two ounces ; a mixture of equal parts 
rectified spirits of rose water, four ounces ; mix the above witli a solution 
of two ounces of soap in four ounces of the same diluted spirit ; mix the 
whole, adding a few drops of any ess^tial oil. — Sixth Remedy (Swediaur's 
Paste). Bitter almonds, eight ounces ; honey, six ounces; powdered cam- 
phor, half an ounce ; flour of mustard, half an oimce ; burnt alum, quarter 
of an ounce ; olibanum, quarter of an ounce ; yolks of tliree eggs, beat to- 
getlier to form a paste ; rub a portion of it on the part affected, moistened 
with water, night and morning; then wash with warm water, and dry 
with a cloth. — For Broken Chilblains. — First Remedy. Apply a bread 
and water or linseed-meal poultice, for three or four days in succession, and 
afterwards dress the sore surface witli resin ointment thinly spread on lint, 
or with an ointment made of equal parts of the ointment of nitrate of mer- 
cury and white cerate, applied in the same manner. — Second Remedy. Black 
oxide of iron, bole, and turpentine, of each one drachm ; rub together, and 
add to the mixture one ounce of resin cerate. — Third Remedy. Locatelli balsam, 
one ounce ; citrine ointment, quarter of an ounce ; balsam of Peru, twenty 
drops. — Fourth Remedy (As used in Russia). Dry the peelings of cucumbers, 
and when required for use, soften tlie inner part with water, and apply it to 
the part affected. — Fifth Remedy. Lunar caustic, five grains ; red precipitate, 
one drachm ; basilicon, one ounce ; water, one ounce. As the sores advance 
towards he;iling, tliese jireparations should be made proportionally weaker. 
Breast Pang. — A sudden and acute pain about the breast-bone, extending 
towards the arms, attended witli difficulty of breatliing and a sense of suf- 
focation. — Remedy. This pain is most likely to come on while walking, or 
directly after eating ; but sometimes it makes itself felt in sleep soon after 
midnight. Instant relief is required during the attack, and the first stimu- 
lant that conies to hand may be administered ; a dose of strong spirits and 
water, or a teaspoonful of sal-volatile or etlier in water, and repeated at 
intervals. If the pain continue, frictions and mustard plasters applied to the 
chest, soles of the feet, and calves of the legs. Where there is extreme faint- 
ness, the horizontal posture should be adopted. Persons subject to these at- 
tacks would do well to provide themselves with the following, as a medicine 
in case of need : — Half an ounce eacli of sulpliuric ether, spirits of ammonia, 
and sal-volatile ; two drachms of tincture of opium. Mix and take a tea- 
spoonful in water, and repeat at the end of an hour if relief be not afforded. 



202 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

Cdts. — For small and simple cuts; the following : First Remedy Tie it 
up at once with a piece of linen rag ; this is usually sufficient to stay the 
bleeding ; the small quantity of blood which may exude quickly dries upon 
■the wound, and forms a sort of glue which effectually excludes the air. As 
no better dressing can be used, it may be left on till the cut is well. — Se- 
cond Remedy. If the bleeding should be excessive, it should be checked by 
the use of cold water or astringents, such as turpentine or Friar's balsam, 
and the edges of the cut surface brought firmly into contact by strips of 
sticking-plaster, and, if necessary, bandaged. 
Deafness. — The most frequent cause of this disorder is cold, causing a 

lodgment of hardened wax in the outer passage of the ear. First Remedy. 

Drop into tiie ear every night a small portion of salad oil, and syringe the 
ear daily with warm water till the wax is detaclied and washed oat ; then 
apply a little wool or cotton, moistened with the following liniment, cam- 
pliorated oil, half an ounce ; soap-liniment, half-drachm ; mix. Continue 
this for some weeks. Second Remedy. Oil of almonds, one pound ; bruised 
garlic, two ounces ; alkanet, half an ounce ; infuse and strain, to be applied 
with a little cotton to the ear. Third Remedy. Fill the mouth with the 
smoke of the most powerful tobacco, then close the mouth and hold the 
nostrils tight. A strong effort should then be made to drive the smoke out 
at the nostrils, and this exertion will force the smoke through the Eustachian 
tube of the ear. If a crack be felt in the ear, the deafness will in all prob- 
ability be removed. This remedy chiefly applies to deafness of some stand- 
ing ; in such cases it has been frequentlj^ employed with success. 

Delirium Tremens. Trembling delirium, or the drunkard's palsy, is a 
disease in which the mucous membrane of the stomach and bowels, as well 
as the lining membranes of the brain, are in a state of clironic inflamma- 
tion, resulting almost always from intemperate habits and excessive indul- 
gence in ardent spirits. This disease is manifested by a total want of sleep, 
and a quivering of tlie lips, hands, and muscles generally ; every attempt at 
speech or motion increasing the tremor, rambling, and constant chattering ; 
the skin is cold and moist, the pulse small and quick, and the tongue furred 
in its centre, with red edges, the countenance is anxious, the patient full of 
suspicion, and oppressed with dreams and frightful images. 

Treatment. The first step to be taken is to tranquillize the system, which 
may be effected by giving one grain of opium as a pill every four hours, 
with two tablespoonfuls of the following mixture every one or two hours. 

Camphor water 5^ ounces. 

Brandy 2 ounces. 

Ether 1 drachm. 

Spirits of sal-volatile 1 J drachm. 

Mix. In addition to the mixture and pills, it is sometimes necessary to give 
brandy and water, wine, or pure spirit. When the trembling is subdued, 
and the system tranquillized, the following mixture is to be given in the 
same dose and quantity as the former, but discontinuing the pills. 

Infusion of roses leaves 8 ounces. 

Epsom salts. . • ^ ounce. 

Syrup of red poppy 2 drachms. 

Diluted sulphuric acid 20 drops. 

Tincture of opium 1-J drachms. 

Mix. When there is much congestion of the head, it will be necessary to 
apply a few leeches to the temples, but as a general rule, all depletion is 
injurious. During the whole attack, the patient is to be steadily watched, 
kept quiet, and as far as possible, amused and interested. 

Dislocations. These accidents are shown by the alteration in the form 
of the joint, one part being unusually prominent, and the other part unnat- 
urally depressed. Dislocation of the Jaw. This often occurs through 
yawning or excessive laughter, and leaves the patient in that awkward pre- 
dicament that he can neitiier close his mouth nor open it wider. Remedy, 
Wrap a handkerchief round each thumb, insert them in the inner angles of 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 203 

the jaw ; a firm but gentle pressure being thus applied, the jaw will be soon 
restored to its proper position. Dislocation of the Arm. Remedi/. Pass 
a sheet or jack-towel over the chest, and tlience secure it to a bed-post or 
some fixed point ; the patient should then gradually extend the arm till the 
head of the bone passes the socket, when by relaxing the strain, it will 
glide into its ])lace with a snap; meanwhile a person should firmly grasp 
the shoulder-blade to prevent its moving. For some four or five days after- 
wards, the limb sliould be kept perfectly still; and if mucli swelling sup- 
ervenes, apply a few leeches or a cold lotion made as follows: Sugar of 
lead, one ounce ; water, one quart ; vinegar, one gill ; mix, and apply to the 
swollen part as long as necessary. Dislocation of the Shoulder. First 
Remedij. The suiferer and another person should lie on their backs in such 
a viixy that the feet of one are at tiie shoulder of tiie other A folded towel 
is then put in the patient's armpit, and the operator places his foot (without 
his boot) on this, grasps the patient's hand, and pulls the arm down steadily. 
At the same moment tlie patient slightly alters his position, and in doing 
this, calls into play other muscles, and thereby favors the success of the 
operation ; the operator then pulls a little more vigorously, and the bone 
returns to its place. Second Remedy. When this accident occurs to a 
person out of doors he ma}' reduce the dislocation himself. All he has to 
do is to get his arm over the top rail of a five barred gate, and then 
having grasped the lowest rail he can reach , hold fast, and let the 
whole weight of his body hang on the other side of the gate ; then if he 
make some attempt to change the position of his body, still letting its weight 
tell on tiie top of the gate, tiie bone will in all probability slip into its place. 
Dislocation of the Hip Joint. Remedi/. The i)atieut and the operator 
lie on their backs ; two other persons holding the patient's hips steady to 
prevent their swaying about. A folded towel is then placed between the 
patient's legs; the operator puts his foot on tiiis, firmly pressing it against 
the " fork " ; he then grasps the patient's ankle with both Ins hands, and 
bidding the patient change his position a little, pulls ; the bone is thus re- 
placed. Observe. As tlie contractile power of the muscles is very great, 
it is advisable, in order to render them more fle.xible, to administer, previous 
to the operation, an emetic. If the patient, however, is sickly and delicate, 
this had better not be done. 

Hysterics. Tiiis conii)laint is confined chiefly to females. First Remedy. 
A fit of hysterics is generally the result of some natural and immediate 
cause, and until this is discovered and removed, the patient will always be 
subject to these fits. When a person is seized with the fit the dress should 
be loosened, fresh air admitted, cold water dashed in the face, and salts, or 
singed feathers, applied to the nostrils. If consciousness does not then re- 
turn, a draught of sal-volatile and water should be given, and if the patient 
be still insensible, the temples and the nape of the neck should be rubbed 
with brandy. When hysterics can be traced to impaired natural action, 
equal portions of pennyroyal and wormwood should be steeped in boiling 
water, and suffered to simmer b}' the fire until the virtue of the herbs is 
extracted. It should then be allowed to cool, and half a pint be taken 
twice or thrice a day, succeeded on each occasion by a compound assafoetida 
pill, until the desired relief is afforded. Second Remedy (Sir A. Carlisle's). 
Hold a piece of polished steel in boiling water for a minute or two ; then 
pass it down the back of the patient overa silk handkerchief. This has been 
known to entirely free persons from attacks of hysterics who had previously 
been periodically subject to tiieni. 

Indigestion. This one of the most common ailments to which mankind 
are subject, there being few individuals who have not experienced it oftener 
than once in their lives. Accidental fits of indigestion are of frequent oc- 
curence, and arise for the most part from overloading the stomach with 
food, and indulging too freely in wine, spirits, or otlier intoxicating liquors. 
Confirmed or chronic iiuligestion may depend on debility or want of tone of 
the stomach, or it may be caused by the lining or mucous membrane of this 



204 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

organ being in a state of irritation or chronic inflammation. One of tlie 
most frequent causes of indigestion is not masticating tlie food we eat 
properly, by wliich sucli food is bolted instead of being reduced to a natural 
pulp, thereby presenting to the digestive organs a hardened mass, which it 
has the greatest difficulty to operate upon. Anotiier cause is habitual 
inattention to diet, both as regards the quality and quantity of food, irre- 
gularity in the times of eating, drinking large quantities of warm relaxing 
fluids, and using malt liquors too freely. A tliird cause is insufficient exer- 
cise ; a fourth cause, impure air ; and besides these, there are numberless 
other causes which in a greater or less degree, exercise their baneful in- 
fluence upon this vital and all-important function of our natures. Before 
we proceed to give the remedies applicable to this disorder, we will lay 
before our readers what is of equal consequence, both as regards prevention 
and cure — namely. Diet and Regimen : — Rise early ; sponge the body freely 
with cold water ; breakfast without taking previous exercise, except a 
saunter in the garden. At breakfast, drink no more than half a pint of tea, 
neither too strong nor too weak, and black tea in preference to any other. 
Eat a slice or two of stale bread, together witli a thin rasher of streaky 
bacon. After a short rest, exercise should then be taken for two hours or 
upwards. The dinuer liour should be not later than four or five hours after 
breakfast, and the best time in the day for this meal is one or two o'clock. 
The food should be plain, without sauces. Roast mutton is the best of all 
meats, both as regards its nourishing properties and the ease with which it 
can be digested. For drink, toast and water, bitter ale, or a little brandy 
and water, weak, are preferable. After diimer, rest and quiet for an hour 
are desirable. About three or four hours after dinner, a cup of tea with a 
biscuit. Supper at nine on light food, with a draught of ale or wine and 
water. To bed between ten and eleven o'clock. Tliis mode of living 
will generally render a person exempt from habitual indigestion ; neverthe- 
less, in spite of these precautions, occasional attacks of this derangement 
will make themselves felt. — First Remedj/. Bay berries, six dracluns ; grains 
of paradise, two drachms ; socotrine aloes, and filings of iron, of each two 
scruples ; oil of turpentine, two drachms ; simple syrup, sufficient for an elec- 
tuary : take a jiiece tlie size of a nutmeg night and morning. Second Re- 
medij. Rhubarb, fifteen grains : sulphate of potass, thirty grains ; tincture 
of senna, half a drachm ; peppermint water, one and a half ounces ; mix, 
and take twice a week until relief is afforded. Third Remedij. Columba 
root, in powder, eiglit grains ; rhubarb, ten grains ; ginger, two grains ; 
ipecacuanlia, three grains ; carbonate of potass, five grains ; dill-water, one 
ounce and a-hajf ; mix for a draught, and take twice a-day on an empty 
stomach. Fourth Remedtj, Infusion of gentian, twelve drachms ; Epsom 
salts, three drachms ; tincture of cascarilla, one drachm ; tincture of orange- 
peel, one drachm ; mix for a draught, which may be taken in the morning 
on rising, and repeated in six hours. Fifth Remedij. Quicklime, half an 
ounce, slaked with a little water ; add one pint and a half of water ; bruised 
cinchona bark, one ounce ; cover and macerate for three hours, occasionally 
stirring them ; decant the clear liquor, and add to it tincture of bark, two 
ounces ; nitric ether, three drachms ; syrup of orange-peel, one ounce ; mix, 
and keep closely corked. Dose : one wineglassful. 

Ear-Ache. — Some persons, especially children, are much troubled with 
this complaint on taking cold. It depends on natural irritability of the in- 
terior of the ear, and sometimes the stomacli and constitution are out of 
order. First Remedij : A dose or two of aperient meilicine, and a piece of 
wool, moistened with sweet oil, worn in the ear. Second Remedy : Foment 
the ear with hops or poppyheads steeped in hot water. Third Remedy : 
Roast an onion, and ])lace the kernel of it in the ear, warm. Fourth Remedy : 
Apply a linseed poultice or a mustard plaster to the back of the ear, and 
take the following : Magnesia, one drachm ; rhubarb, half a drachm ; 
powdered ginger, ten grains, mix, and divide into three doses ; mix each 
dose with a little water, take one instantly, and the others till relief be 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 205 

afforded. Fifth Remedy: Moisten a piece of wool witii two drops of lauda- 
num, one drop of oil of cloves, and a little oil of almonds, and place it in the ear. 

Ear, Abscess in. — First Remedij : Api)Iy bread poultices to the ear, and 
warm fomentations ; syringe tlie ear witli warm milk and water. Wiien 
the abscess has broken and discharged freely, the ear must be kept very 
clean, and a syringeful of a slightly astringent lotion, such as ten grains of 
sulphate of zinc to a quarter of a pint of rose water, be injected lukewarm 
twice a day. Second Remedy : When there is much discharge, injections of 
warm soap and water, blisters beliind tiie ear, or a drop or two of the fol- 
lowing mixture put into the ear will be found beneficial : ox-gall, three 
drachms; balsam of Peru, one drachm; mix. Third Remedy: A few 
grains of musk introduced into the ear with cotton wool, may be employed 
with success in diminisliing the discharge. 

Ear, Noises in. — These unpleasant sensations in the ear, if of long 
standing, are symptoms of an accumulation of wax, or of a determination 
of blood to the iiead. If occasional, they probably arise from indigestion, 
and will be removed as soon as digestion resumes its wonted functions. The 
best plan is to obtain medical advice, so that it may be ascertained beyond 
a doubt from what cause these noises proceed. 

Ear, Hardened Wax in. — Sometimes from neglect, and sometimes from 
natural defect, the wax of the ear forms into a liardened mass. Tiie air 
from without forces its way between this and the wind-passage of the ear, 
and causes that buzzing, roaring, singing, and tingling noise, which is very 
distressing. Tiiese noises are occasionally attended with pain and inflam- 
mation. Remedy: Syringe the ear night and morning with warm water, 
taking care that it is warm only. At niglit, after syringing, fill the ear with 
a bread and milk poultice, and repeat this until the wax comes away, which 
it generally will after tliree or four applications. When tlie ear-tube has 
been cleaned and dressed with some soft linen, a small quantity of warm oil 
should be dropped into it, with a small piece of wool laid against, but 
not pushed into the ear-tube. When persons are affected with this com- 
plaint, they should not, as is too commonly the practice, thrust tlieir nail 
into the ear, or otherwise irritate it, witli a view of obtaining relief. The 
wax, in order to be dislodged, must be first of all softened ; it is useless to 
endeavor to extract it in its liardened state. 

Ears, Things in. — It frequently happens that children, in playing, push 
things into their ears. Remedy: In such cases, the common practice of 
thrusting in a bodkin or other probe, with a view of extracting the foreign 
substance, is very pernicious, and should never be attempted. If it is a 
pea that has found its way into tlie ear, the ear should not be syringed with 
water or any other fluid, as it causes the pea to swell, and increases the 
mischief rather than remedies it. Hot linseed poultices, frequently ajjplied, 
are better. If, however, the substance be a button, bead, shell, or other 
hard body, the employment of tlie syringe may be beneficial ; the water 
probahly will pass lietween the hard body and the drum of the ear, and so 
force the substance out. To accomplish this operation successfully, the 
head should be rested on the table with the affected ear undermost ; in this 
position the water should be injected, the nozzle of the syringe being held 
at some little distance, and not put into the pipe of the ear, as it will pre- 
vent the hard body dropping out. If tliis should fail, a smart blow on the 
upper side of the face will sometimes expel the intruder. We need scarcely 
remind our readers that in this and similar accidents the very best plan is 
to have proper surgical treatment. It is only where such assistance is difficult 
or impossible to be obtained, that these delicate operations are to be performed. 

Eye, Inflammation of. — This disease comes on with pain, lieat, and 
redness of the eyeball, with a hot discharge of tears from tlie eye ; with 
tlie pain there is a sensation as thougli sand wore in the eye. Fiist Remedy : 
Take a strong purgative, and soon after the operation of it, drop into the 
eye from a clean quill pen a drop of the following : sulpliate of zinc, four 
grains ; water, two ounces ; mix, and repeat the application five or six 



206 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

times a day. Second Remedtj : Batlie the eye with a fomentation of camo 
mile flowers. Third Remedy: Acetate of lead, twelve grains; distilled 
vinec^ar, two draclims ; filtered rain water, eiglit ounces ; mix, and batlie 
tlie eye with itfonr or five times a day. Fourth Remedy : Syringe the eyehall 
with a weak solution of alum (two grains to one ounce), or vinegar and water; 
at night smear the edges of the eyelids with a small portion of citrine ointment. 
Eye, Sdbstances in. — When a foreign substance lodges on the surface 
of the e^'e, the necessary consequence is pain and acute inflammation ; if 
neglected, obscurity of vision, and even loss of sight, may result. Remedy : 
If the substance be disengaged on the surface of the eye, it may be easily 
removed by means of a camel-hair pencil dipped in oil, or by a piece of 
soft paper rolled into the size of a quill moistened in the mouth. When the 
substance is fixed on the coats of the eye, a surgeon must be consulted. 

Eyes, Weakness of. — First Remedy : Sulphate of copper, fifteen grains 
camphor, four grains ; boiling water, four ounces ; mix, strain, and when 
cold, make up to four pints with water ; bathe th.e eye night and morning 
with a portion of the mixture. Second Remedy : Spirit of mindererus, one 
ounce ; rose water, seven ounces ; mix, and use occasionally. Third Remedy : 
White vitriol, ten grains; elder-flower water, eight ounces; mix, and apply 
as occasion may demand. 

Ey'elids, Sore. — Redness of the edge. Remedy : Eiib into the roots of 
the eyelashes, with the eyes gently closed, every night, an ointment of 
nitric oxide of mercury. Roughness of the inside of the lid. Remedy : 
Rub gently on the inside of the lid a smooth piece of the sulphate of cop- 
per, taking care to keep the eyelids open until the solution caused by the 
tears is washed off from the eye itself by usmg a syringe with tepid water. 
The application maj' be repeated as soon as the increased redness of the 
white of the eye has disappeared. When the hairs grow inwards, and 
irritate the eye, they may be removed one by one with a pair of fine 
forceps ; or where there are fears of this delicate operation not being skil- 
fully performed, a little collodion may be brushed over the lid, and in dry- 
ing it will contract the skin, and thus for a few hours replace the hairs. 
This process must be repeated every day until the evil is removed. 

Face-Aghe. — First Remedy : Dip a sponge or piece of flannel into boiling 
water, and apply it as hot as can be borne over the site of the pain. 
Second Remedy: Soak a piece of lint in chloroform, and apply it over the 
affected part. Third Remedy : Rub in laudanum. 

Feet, Offensive. — The impleasant smell which the feet of some per- - 
sons give out is generally attributable to some defect in the pores of the 
skin. /?emef/y ; Wash the feet in warm water, to which a little liydro- 
chloric acid, or chloride of lime, has been added. 

Feet, Swollen. — Usually a sign of debility. Remedy : Put on a bandage 
moderately tight, from the toe upwards, giving a uniform degree of pres- 
sure ; take also the following medicine : Squill pill and extract of colocynth, 
of each half a drachm ; calomel, one scruple ; digitalis, ten grains ; mix, 
and make into twenty pills. Take two every day. 

Fingers, Jammed. — This accident frequently occurs through the shutting 
of a door or drawer. If the end only of the finger be nipped, the nail very 
soon blackens, in consequence of the blood breaking from the small vessels, 
and being pent up beneath the unyielding nail. Remedy : The most speedy 
mode of procuring relief after the occurrence of the accident, is to plunge 
the finger into water as liot as it can be borne. By so doing the nail is 
softened, and yields so as to accommodate itself to the blood poured out be- 
neath it, and the pain is soon diminished ; the finger may then be wrapped 
in a bread and water poultice. On the following, or on the third day, the 
blood has clotted, aiul separating into its clots and fluid parts, the pressure 
it makes upon the sensible skin imder the nail may be relieved by scraping 
the nail with a penknife or piece of glass, until it becomes so tliin that the 
scraping causes a sharp pain from its nearness to the sensible skin ; the re- 
maining thin nail then bulges, and the pain is thereby mitigated. But if 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 207 

tlie injured part of the nail be very black, and if it be very tender wlien 
touched, then it is best, after scrajiing, to make carefully, with a penknife, 
a ver\' small nick throu<rh the still remaining nail over the black blood, ami 
immediately it is cut through, tlie watery part of tiie blood oozes out, the 
pressure almost entirely ceases, and instantaneous relief follows, but it rarely 
prevents the nail being tiirown off. If all tiie parts of the end of the finger 
be injured, nearly the same results follow as from an aggravated whitlow, 
and the whole bone, as well as soft parts, may mortify and be thrown off. 
Finger, Broken. — A piece of stiff wood or pasteboard, as wide and as 
long as the finger is, to be applied on the same side as the ])alm of the hand, 
and the finger laid straight, and bound upon it with a roller an inch wide. 
The hand should be kept in a sling for three weeks or a month, and no at- 
tempt made to use it till after that time. The broken finger remains stiff 
long after the bone has become well united. It is a good plan, in order to 
render the joints supple, to inmierse the hand for half an hour daily in 
warm grains or warm water, and afterwards gently bend the fingers back- 
wards and forwards as far as they can be moved without pain. 

Fits, Suffocating or Strangling. — These fits depend generally on a 
spasm or contraction of the nerves in the vesicles of the lungs. Remedy : 
Apply the vapor of heated vinegar to the nostrils ; let the patient drink 
freely of whey, and take the following : Oxymel of squills, one ounce ; 
barley water, six ounces ; cream of tartar, half a drachm ; mix ; dose, a 
wineglassf ul every half hour. 

To Counteract THE Effect OF Poisons. There are four kinds of poi- 
sons : Mineral, animal, vegetable, and aerial. The mineral poisons corrode 
the flesh, and produce inflammation. The vegetable generally stupefy, and 
leave no marks of inflammation. The animal generally affect the wdiole 
body ; and the aerial, the respiratory organs. 

Mineral Poisons. — Remedy. First empty the stomach by giving the 
following emetic : sulphate of zinc, twenty grains ; powdered ipecacuanha, 
ten grains ; mixed in milk. When this has operated, give plenty of barley 
water, milk, a solution of gum-arabic, broth, or olive oil; mix wood-ashes 
with boiling water ; allow them to settle, and give the lees ; or powdered 
charcoal may be given. For arsenic, lime-water, chalk and magnesia are 
recommended. For nitrate of silver, common salt — a tablespoonful in a 
quart of water ; half a pint for a dose. 

Animal Poisons. — Remedy. The parts bitten by a venomous animal 
should, if possible, be immediately cut out, then immersed in warm water ; 
after whicli, some caustic application — such as nitrate of silver — should be 
made to the entire surface of the wounded part. Brandy, ammonia, and 
other stimulants, witli opiates, should be given. In bites "from snakes, the 
use of ligatures above the bitten part should on no account be neglected. 

Vegetable Poisons. — Remedy. The chief of tliese poisons are opium, 
liemlock, digitalis, belladonna, laurel, and various kinds of fungi. In every 
case give an emetic immediately. Sometimes the stomach is so torpid, 
that vomiting cannot be produced. In such cases,' dashing cold water over 
the head will frequently rouse the patient and bring on vomiting. In all 
cases where laudanum or opium has been taken, the patient must be kept 
constantly roused, and made to walk about between two men, or driven with 
speed over very rough roads in a cart; on no account must he be allowed 
to fall asleep. Oxalic-acid is often taken in mistake for salts ; it acts with 
fearful rapidity, and the remedies must be immediate to prove effectual. 
The chief antidotes are magnesia, chalk, or mortar or plaster taken from 
a wall, mixed thick in cold water, and swallowed copiously. After giving 
any of these antidotes, twenty-four grains of sulphate of zinc may he taken. 

Aerial Poisons. — Remedy. The fumes of metals generally produce these 
The fumes of charcoal and coke are also poisonous. Immediately on discjov- 
ering a person who has been suffocated by these fumes, take him into tlie- 
open air and undress him, so that the air may get to every part of his body ; 
place him in a leaning posture on a chair; aher a little time, cover him 



208 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

with flannel, sprinkle the face with vinegar and water, the stomach with 
cold water, and place the legs in a cold bath. After some time, well rub 
the body, apply sal-volatile to the nostrils, put him in a warm bed, and keep 
him quiet. Wlien lie is able to swallow, give him a little vinegar and water. 

Printkr's Disease. — By having tlie eyes continually fixed ujjon the 
black types, the tone of the membranes and fibres of the eye — and especially 
of tlie pupil — becomes greatly weakened. — Remedy. Compositors ought to 
wear spectacles, in order to preserve the tone of the eye ; to'turn tlieir sight 
frequently off tlie types, and gently rub their eyes, in order to rouse their 
languid spirits, and to wet them with the following eye-water: sulphate of 
zinc, one dracJim ; cold water, one pint ; mix. 

Scurvy. — A disease depending on deterioration of the blood, and gener- 
ally the result of inappropriate nourishment. It commences with languor and 
signs of general debility, and great depression of spirits ; the gums become 
swollen and spongy, red or purple looking, project over the teeth, and bleed 
easil3'. The lower extremities become at first stiff, tlien swollen and hard. — 
First Reined;/ : As the deprivation of fresh vegetables and milk is frequently 
the cause of this complaint, so, a return to these will overcome the disease ; 
and this of itself is oftentimes a remedy. — Second Remedy: Dissolve two 
ounces of nitre in one quart of vinegar; take half an ounce of this solution 
two or three times a day. — Third Remedy : Wash the mouth and gums fre- 
quently with the following gargle: Compound infusion of roses, six ounces; 
alum, one and a half draciims ; honey two drachms ; mix. — Fourth Remedy : 
Decoction of Peruvian bark, six ounces ; tincture of mjn-rh, one and a half 
ounces ; muriatic acid, fifteen drops ; mix for a gargle, and use frequently. 

Sea-Sickness. — This depends upon the peculiar state of the brain, appar- 
ently caused by a want of the usual firmness and steadiness of the equilibri- 
um of the body. — First-Remedy (preventive). Persons about to proceed to sea 
should put their stomach and bowels in order by the use of mild aperients, 
and even an emetic if required ; wlien it will be generally found that a glass 
of warm and weak brandy and water, to which one or two drops of creosote 
have been added, will effectually dispel any disposition to sea-sickness. — 
Second Remedy : As the vessel descends draw in the breath, and as it ascends 
exhale the breath. This prevents the movements of the organs which act 
immediately upon sea-sickness. — Third Remedy : Observe perfect quietude 
in the recumbent position, until the body is accustomed to the motion of 
the vessel, take frequently two or three teaspoonfuls of strong coffee; or 
twenty drops of spirit of hydrochloric ether. — Fourth Remedy : Hold fast by the 
ropes on the side of the ship, so as to move with all its motions, becoming 
as it were part of the vessel. — Fifth Remedy: Take of camphorated spirit, 
sal-volatile, and Hoffman's ether, a few drops of each, upon a lump of 
sugar. 

Short Sight. — This defect of vision arises from the cornea of the e3'e 
projecting too much, the consequence being, that the rays wliicli pass through 
it from external objects, placed at the ordinary distance from the eye, are 
too rapidly collected or brought together, so that the image of things is 
formed indistinctly and confusedly. To correct this, a person thus affected 
instinctively brings objects very close to the eye, by doing which, he causes 
the distinct image formed in the eye to be thrown further back. — Remedy: 
Tiie use of glasses known as " concave ; " these counteract the too convex 
cornea of the eye, by partially scattering the rays of light before they reach 
the eye. In choosing proper spectacles, the assistance of a respectable opti- 
cian should be sought. The glasses selected sliould be the lowest pow^er 
which can be used for reading comfortably. If they diminish the size of 
small objects, or if they produce fatigue or dizziness, or if, after taking them 
off, the light is obscured, they are unfit, and should be instantly changed 
If once suited, a change for more concave glasses should not be made has- 
tily. — Caution. Sliort sighted persons should not habituate themselves to 
tlie use of a single eye-glass, as its employment exercises one eye too ac- 
tively, while the other eye becomes still worse from want of exertion, and 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 209 

thus, in course of time, the siglit of both eyes — although from dread of op- 
posite causes — is greatly deteriorated. 

Pains In Side. — Pains in tlie side may arise from a rheumatic affection 
or from dei'angement of tlie stomach. — Remedy: Regulate the state of tlie 
bowels by mild aperients, and if the system seems impoverished, and there 
has been much debility of the digestive organs, take twenty grains of the 
sesquioxide of iron twice or thrice a day. Employ tiie warm bath frequent- 
ly, and apply to the part atTected a muslin bag filled with hops and well 
soaked in hot water ; also rub in every fourth hour the following : Tincture 
of aconite, half an ounce ; soap liniment, one and a half ounces ; mix. If 
the pains be situated high up in the region of the chest, they may be oc- 
casioned by inflammatory affection of the lungs, but in this case will be 
accompanied with more or less fever, and other symptoms indicative of the 
disorder. Pain on the right side, lower down, maybe owing to an affection 
of the liver ; on the left side, to affection of tlie pain on the left side ; it, 
however, often occurs as a sympathetic affection, sometimes of the heart or 
lungs, in either sex. It is common in females, at'times of functional disorder. 
Obstinate and increasing pain of the side, wliich will not go away with the 
treatment above indicated, must on no account lie neglected. Tliere is evi- 
dently sometinng radically wrong in the system, and the advice of a medical 
man must be taken. 

Dimness of Sight. — This may arise from effusion on the external coat 
of the eye, or from disease of the retina — that internal lining, coating of tlie 
eye, which receives the impression of external objects ; but frequently a 
dimness of sight arises from a partial derangement of the retina, owing to 
a bad state of the digestive organs ; for as the retina is an expansion of the 
optic nerve, and as the optic nerve has its source from that part of the brain 
where the nerves of the stomach arise, it is natural to think that when the 
■ stomach is deranged a partial effect must be evident on the eyes. — Remedy : 
When a person feels a dimness of sight, which upon examination he finds 
does not arise from external derangements of the coats of the eye, he should 
direct his attention to the treatment of the stomach ; an emetic should be 
first taken, commencing on the day following with small doses of tincture 
of rhubarb, and continuing tlie dose daily ; take also ever}- morning a tea- 
spoonful of the acidulated decoction of bark, and every seventh or eighth 
day a five-grain blue-pill. The shower bath, good diet, change of air, and 
sea-bathing are all excellent remedial measures. Bathe the eye with cold 
water, and use the following lotion : Sulphate of zinc, one grain ; elder-flower 
water, one ounce ; mix. When the eyes are watery and irritable, great 
benefit will be derived from laudanum, or sedative solution of opium, paint- 
ed several times over the lids and around the eye at night, and allowed to 
dry on, and washed off in the morning. 

Want of Sleep. — The want of sleep, so distressing in itself, and so 
wearing to the system, may arise from a variety of causes : pain of the body 
and anxiety of mind are chief among these. But a person may be kept a- 
wake from some simple causes, as over fatigue, want of out-door exercise, 
or overloaded stomach, cold feet, &c. Again, sleeplessness may exist with- 
out any assignable reason. — First Remedy : Adopt an easy, recumbent posi- 
tion, inclining the head towards the chest, shut the e\'es, and take several 
deep inspirations with the mouth closed. — Second Remedy : Tie a decanter- 
stopper, with a bright metalli(! top, a pencil case or any other bright object, 
on the forehead, in such a position that the eyes must be distorted or strain- 
ed in order to see it. By resolutely gazing in this way for a short time, with- 
out winking, with the mind fully absorbed in the effort, the muscles of the 
eyes gradually relax, and the person falls asleep. — Third Remedy : Just be- 
fore lying down, drink a tumbler-full of cold spring water with a few grains 
of carbonate of potash in it.-Fourth Remedy: Having placed the body in a 
comfortable position, coniuKmce rolling the eyeballs backwards and forwards, 
and upwards and downwards ; continue doing this until sleep comes on, which 
will be generally in three or four minutes. — Fifih Remedy: Count slowly, aud 



210 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

with the ej'es shut, from No. 1 to 1000, or any other number necessary ; in 
the miflst of the counting, tlie person will in all probability fall asleep. — 
Sixth Rcmedji : Take a warm bath just before going to bed. A warm foot- 
bath will sometimes answer the purpose. — Seventh Remedy : Rub the body 
well-with a rough towel or a flesli-brusli for a quarter of an hour, and go to 
bed immediately. — Eighth Remedi/ : Take a walk in tlie garden, or up and 
down the room, until the whole bodj' feels in a warm glow, then go to bed 
immediately. — Ninth Remedy : Cut a Spanisii onion into shreds, place it in a 
basin, and pour boiling vinegar over it; after letting it steep for a short time 
eat it either alone, or with the ordinary supper food. This mode of treating 
the onion de[)rives it in a great measure of its unpleasant taste and smell, 
while its sleep-inducing properties are but little impaired. — Tenth Remedy: 
Take twenty grains of carbonate of soda the last thing on going to bed. — 
Eleventh Remedy: Camphor twenty-five grains; rectified spirit, five drops ; 
rub the camphor and the spirit well together in a mortar, then add powdered 
gum-arabic, four drachms ; syrup of lemons, half an ounce ; peppermint, 
seven ounces ; mix ; and take tbree tablespoonf uls at bedtime. — Twelfth Rem- 
edy : Get out of bed, turii down the bed-clothes, and walk up and down tlie 
room for a few minutes, and tlien return to bed. — Thirteenth Remedy : Take 
a teaspoonful of paregoric elixir in a wineglassful of water justbefore lying 
down. — Caution. The habit of procuring sleep by indulgence in opium is 
exceedingly hurtful, for opium is injurious to the stomach, and loses its 
etfect unless the dose be increased from night to night, which renders it still 
more injurious. 

Sore Throat. — This disease is most prevalent during the spring 
and autumn of the year, particularly among young people. It is 
usually the effect of cold caught after dancing, or by wet feet. — First 
Remedy: Wlien the throat is threatened, gargle it with diluted spirit of 
hartshorn, not so strong as to burn the mouth ; rub in also, under the jaw 
below tlie chin, the volatile liniment. Take meanwhile a saline purgative 
— Second Remedy : On tlie first appearance of diSiculty in swallowing take 
of senna tea a cupful, and dissolve in it three drachms of Epsom salts. 
Bathe the legs and feet in warm water, and go to bed with three or four 
folds of flannel about the neck ; take of sj)irit of mindererus, one ounce ; 
antimonial wine, thirty drops ; water, three ounces ; syrup of squills, one 
drachm ; mix, and take a tablespoonful everj' hour until perspiration is 
freely induced. — Third Remedy : Decoction of bark, seven ounces ; tinc- 
ture of myrrh, two drachms ; purified nitre, three drachms ; make into 
gargle, and employ it frequently. Fourth Remedy: Put into the mouth 
a small piece of purified nitre, and let it partially dissolve tiiere ; then re- 
move it, and apply it again in a few seconds, and swallow the saliva. — 
Fifth Remedy: Decoction of bark, six ounces; diluted vitriolic acid, one 
drachm ; honey of roses, one omice ; make into a gargle, to be used, mixed 
with port wine, frequently during the day. — Sixth Remedy : Nitre, two 
drachms ; honey, four drachms ; water, six ounces ; mix for a gargle ; 
to be Tfted frequently. 

Spasms. — Persons subject to confined bowels, if they have eaten any- 
thing which disagrees with them, are liable to this complaint. — First Remedy: 
Take two teaspoonfuls of antimonial wine every quarter of an hour, till the 
stomach be thoroughly relieved. Two hours afterwards, take one drachm 
of sal-volatile, with one ounce of castor-oil. — Second Remedy: Oil of aniseed, 
ten drops ; calcined magnesia, one scruple ; tincture of rhubarb, two 
drachms ; peppcrmit water, ten drachms ; mix for a draught. — Third 
Rsmedy : Camphor julep, ten draciuns ; Hoffmann's ether, compound 
spirit of lavender, of each one drachm ; sal-volatile, fifteen drops ; laud- 
anum, ten drops ; mix ; to be taken during tlie spasm, drinking after- 
wards plentifully of warm water. — Fourth Remedy : Apply to the pit of the 
stomach hot flannels moistened with compound camphor liniment and tur- 
pentine ; drink, also, a glassful of hot brandy and water. — Fifth Remedy: 
Sal-Tolatile and Hoffmann's ether, of each one and a-half drachm; acetate 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 211 

of morphine, lialf a grain ; camphor julep, two ounces ; mix, and take a 
spoonful when necessary. — Sixth Reinedi/ : Immeiliately the attack comes 
on, stand perfectly upright, and ruh the stomach with tlie hand until relief 
is afforded. Take also a teaspoonful of sal-volatile in a wineglassful of 
water. 

Sprains. — When a joint is twisted or strained in a direction contrary to 
its natural range of motion, or is moved to too great an extent in a natural 
direction, the injury flone to the part is called a sprain. — First Remedy : 
Keep the joint perfectly at rest, tlie limb being elevated higher tlian tiie 
body generally, in order to diminish the flow of blood to the part,keep tiie part 
constantly wet with Goulard water,or vinegar and water. When the inflamma- 
tion is abated, pump water upon the limb every day for several minutes. — 
Second Reined//. If great pain and swelling set in, ajjply warm fomentations of 
camomile and water ; and if the pain and swelling do not tiien subside, a 
few leeches must be applied. — Third Remedij. Wrap round the limb thin 
folds of rag wetted with cold water; this must be renewed as fast as it 
dries. When the pain and inflammation have subsided, rub tlie joint once 
or twice a day with soap liniment. — Fourth Remedi/. Bathe the part well 
with warm water by means of a piece of soft linen, till quite easy, then 
rub the part gently by the hand, with cold vinegar and water, once 
every hour or so for a few daj's. — F'iflh Remedy. In order to support the 
parts and restore their tone, a laced stocking should be worn, or a flannel 
roller applied. It will answer the purpose, also, to apply strips of adhesive 
plaster in oj)posite directions round the joint. — Caution. The most essential 
part of the treatment of this complaint consists in keeping the joint at rest. 
Recovery is often retarded by premature attempts at using the limb ; by 
this imprudence tlie inflammation is apt to be renewed, and permanent in- 
jury done to the limb. 

Stammering. — This singular defect of speech sometimes proceeds from 
functional disorder, sometimes from nervousness, sometimes the result of 
irritation. From whatever cause it originates, it is in the majority of cases 
to be cured by an exertion of the will. — First Remedy. It is an undoubted 
fact, that stammerers, although they cannot speak a single sentence with- 
out hesitation, can sing a song of many verses as fluently as any person, 
and it is almost as true that stammerers can read with equal ease. It is 
therefore to be recommended that those who stammer should begin with 
a set of exercises of common-place sentences, chant to the first bars of the 
simplest melody, and from that, practise those sentences upon one note, 
ending a note lower or higher, slowly at first, but gradually increased to 
rapidity. — Second Rewedy. Take between the fingers a pen or pencil, or 
small stick, or with the finger, write down upon the table, or upon the knee, 
or anything else, the words spoken, calling out every word as it is written 
down, and if the stammerer write quickly, he may speak the sentences 
sutficiently fast and connected. This plan serves to guide the impression 
of the words upon the brain with proper arrangement. — Third Remedy. 
With every word or syllable the stammerer utters, he should tap his finger 
on the table or on his knee, and by thus, as it were, " keeping time," he 
will be able to control his utterances into a certain measure, which will 
render stammering almost impossible. 

Stiff Neck. — A complaint brought on by sitting or sleeping in a draught 
at an open window, &c. — Remedy. Rub the neck well with hartshorn and 
sweet oil two or three times a day, and wear round the neck a piece of new 
flannel, moistened with the hartshorn and oil. 

Stitch in the Side. — This is frequently brought on by hurried walking 
or running, or by taking exercise immediately after a meal ; in such cases, 
it soon subsides, and calls for no remedy. — Remedy. Some persons are 
peculiarly liable to this complaint, and we would advise such persons to 
keep a peppermint lozenge in their mouths on long pedestrian journeys, 
&c. It happens sometimes, however, that stitch in the side is a sj-mptora 
of some other disease existing or coming on j as inflammation of the lungs, 



212 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

local injury, &c. Wlien the pain is very acute and protracted, from five to 
twenty or thirty leeclies, according to age and strength, should be applied 
to the part affected ; wlien tliey liave left off bleeding, a large blister to be 
applied over the most painful part. When tlie person is weak, the blis- 
ter should be applied witliout the leeches. Take also of calomel twelve 
grains; powdered opium, three grains; tartar emetic, one grain ; treacle, 
one drop, or enougii to make a mass, to be divided into six pills, one every 
six or eight hours. 

Stomaoh-Ache. — A complaint which usually arises from taking un- 
wholesome or indigestible food — First Remedy. Take of magnesia one 
drachm; rhubarb, half a draclim ; powdered ginger, ten grains; divide 
into three powders ; take one of tliese instantly, mixed in a little water, un- 
til it is quite smootli. — Second Remedy ( for babies). Mix twenty grains of 
carbonate of magnesia in one ounce of dill-water, to wliicli add ten drops of 
sal-volatile, give a teaspoonful wiien the child appears to be in pain. — Third 
Remedy (for children). Give to the child from a half to a teaspoonful of 
antimonial wine in half a wineglassfid of warm water, and repeated every 
quarter of an liour, until tlie stomacii is tliorougldy relieved by vomiting. 
When this has been effected, give a dose of simple aperient medicine at 
bedtime, succeeded by a senna draught containing tincture of ginger. — 
Fourth Remedy. Ipecacuanlia, four grains ; rhubarb, twenty grains ; mix 
and divide into six pills. In cases of persistent stomacii-ache, one of tliese 
pills to be taken every morning fasting. — Fifth Remedy. Cayenne pepper 
six grains ; rhubarb, 20 grains ; mix, and divide into six pills, one to betaken 
lialf an hour before dinner or any other substantial repast. 

Stuns. — Stunning or insensibility is usually caused by a blow on the 
head ; it may be of greater or less severity, and requires prompt relief. — 
Remedy. Place the sutl'erer in a recumbent position with the head raised. 
Dash cold water from the hand over the face, or place a wetted handker- 
chief on the forehead ; apply warmth to the feet and legs, and hartshorn or 
smelling-salts to the nostrils. Keep the patient quiet, and recovery parti- 
ally or wholly will soon ensue. 

St. Vitcs's Dance. — This disease is a convulsive action in the muscles, 
mostly of one side of the body, and principally the arm or leg, or both, 
Fright is a very common cause of this complaint. — First Remedy. Regulate 
the bowels by a purgative of calomel and rhubarb, repeated every third 
night; then go through a course of tonics — such as carbonate of iron, one 
drachm twice a day. Use the shower-l)atli regularlj^ ; take plenty of exer- 
cise, with wholesome and nourishing food. — Second Remedy. Give three 
times a da^',- two grains of the valerianate of zinc, with an occasional gen- 
tle aperient. — Third Remedy. Apjdy a blister to tlie nape of the neck, and 
continue to do so three or four times a week, until relief is afforded. 

Stye in the Eye. — This complaint is most frequently seen in children 
of fair complexions, and in those of a scrofulous habit of body. In more 
advanced life it is usually connected with a disordered condition of the di- 
gestive organs. — First Remedy. Refrain from touching or doing any thing to 
the swelling until it becomes wliite, then prick it with a needle to allow 
of the escape of the accumulated matter. — Second Remedy. Take an active 
purge of calomel and jalap, and constantly apply Goulard water, or vinegar 
and water; this, if observed in time, will often arrest the progress of the tumor. 
— Third Remedy. Apply to the eye three or four times a day a linseed meal 
poultice enclosed in a small linen bag, and on each application foment the 
eye well with warm milk and water. This treatment to be continued until 
the tunu)r bursts and the matter is discharged. 

Sunburns. — A discoloration of the skin caused by exposure to the sun. 
— First Remedy. Sweet cream, one ounce ; new milk, eight ounces ; juice 
of lemon, one ounce ; alum, one ounce ; sugar one drachm. Boil and skim, 
and when the liquid is cool aj)ply as a lotion to the face. — Second Remedy. 
Borax, fifteen grains ; lemon juice, one ounce ; sugar candy, half a drachm ; 
mix the powders with the juice, and let them stand in a bottle, shaking 



lIIiALTll AND MEDICAL. 213 

them occasionally until they are dissolved. — Third Remedy. Wash the face 
niglit and morning with hutterinilk. — Fourth Remedjj. Alum, one drachm; 
borax, ten drachms ; water one pint; mix, and wash the face with it every 
hot day just previous to going out. 

Sunstroke. — A peculiar form of congestion of the brain, occasioned by 
long exposure to the heat of tliesun, especially wiien accompanied by over- 
exertion. — Remedy. It is essential to set about the cure of this complaint 
immediately it is discovered. Throw cold water on the sufferer's head, and 
plunge his legs into warm water. Let him also take the following mixture : 
Infusion of senna leaves, a teaspoonful ; nitre, half a drachm. Mix. Half 
to be taken immediately, tlie other half in three liours. He should also 
drink plentifully of lemonade or vinegar and water. Linen cloths dipped 
in cohl water and vinegar of roses may be applied to the forehead, temples, 
or all over tlie head. As consciousness returns, slight stimulants may be 
carefully administered. — Observe. In this painful visitation the grand aim 
is to find a prevention ratlier than a remedy. If a person stand still in the 
violent heat of the sun, he is more like to receive a sunstroke than if he walk 
about. The wearing a white hat, or having some folds of clean white pa- 
per placed under a black hat, may sensibly contribute to ward off tliis 
dangerous malady. A freshly gathered cabbage-leaf placed on the head 
beneath the hat is also an excellent protection. Persons whose employment 
renders them liable to these attacks should pay attention to timely warn- 
ings ; and when they begin to feel violent pains in the head, increasing 
every moment, they should lose no time in retiring into the shade. 

Swooning. — Persons of weak nerves or delicate constitutions are liable to 
fits of swooning. The general causes are sudden transition from cold to 
heat, breathing air deprived of its proper elasticity, great fatigue, hiss of 
blood, long fasting, fear, grief, and other violent passions or affections of 
the mind. — Remedy. When anyone falls into a swoon, remove him imme- 
diately to a cooler apartment, ap[)ly ligatures above his knees and elbows, 
and sprinkle his hands and face with vinegar or cold water. He should like- 
wise be made to smell the vinegar, and should have a spoonful or two of 
water, if he can swallow, with about a tiiird part of vinegar mixed with it, 
poured into his mouth. If these should not remove the complaint, bleeding 
must be resorted to. — When a person sivoons from beituf exposed to vitiated air, 
as that of a theatre, ball-room. Sec, he ought immediately to be carried into 
the open air ; his temples should be rubbed with strong vinegar or brandy, 
and salvolatile held to his nostrils. He should be laid upon his back with 
his head low, and have a little wine or some other cordial poured into his 
mouth as soon as he is able to swallow it. If the person has been subject 
to hysterical fits, burnt feathers should be applied to the nostrils. — Observe. 
Persons who are subject to swooning in public assemblies should place tlieni- 
selves near a door or window. 

Teething. — Although this is, strictly speaking, a natural development 
incidental to childhood, it is, nevertheless, usually accompanied by a consid- 
erable degree of pain and generally bodily derangement, which to a certain 
extent gives it the character of a disease. The process generally commences 
with drivelling, the gums swell, and become hot; a rash sometimes breaks 
out upon the face or the head, oftentimes behind the ears; the child is 
peevish and fretful, starts during sleep, often shrieks out suddenly, and 
crams its fingers into its mouth. — First Remedy. Give a gentle emetic of 
ipecacuanha, rub the gums with syrup of poppies, and administer a dose of 
castor-oil. If the child go into convulsions, put it immediately into a hot 
bath, observing to keep the head raised and out of the water. The bowels 
should be kept open, the child have plenty of pure air, wholesome food, and 
everything else conducive to health. — Second Remedy. If the child appears 
to suffer much pain, the gums should be lanced. A pinch of saltpetre 
mixed with honey, and rubbed on the gums, also gives ease. — Third Remedy. 
The looseness of the bowels wliicli often accompanies teetliing is, within 
bounds, advantageous ratlier than not; but when it is attended with any 



214 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

signs of inflammation about tlie belly, warm fomentations sliouldbe applied, 
and two grains of ipecaciianlia every tliree or four hours may be given, un- 
less vomiting accompany the diarrhoea. As an astringent, one oi the best 
that can be employeil is the compound Icino powder, in doses of two grains. 
Teeth, Preservation of. — The preservation of the teeth ought to form 
an important item in the care of the person. The possession of sound teeth 
is a great blessing, as tiiey not only promote the process of digestion, but 
keep the breath sweet and pure. Unsound and unclean teeth are also most 
unsightl}' and unpleasant for other persons to l)e brought in contact with ; 
for these combined reasons, the greatest care should l)e observed in the 
management of these important organs. It must be understood that the 
teeth are bones thinly covered over with a fine enamel, and this enamel is 
more or less substantial in different persons. Whenever this enamel is 
worn through by too coarse a powder or too frequently cleansing the teeth, 
or eaten through by a scorbutic humor in the gums, the tooth cannot long 
remain sound. The teeth, therefore, are to be cleaned but with great pre- 
caution, for if the enamel is worn off faster by cleaning the outside than 
nature supplies it within, the teeth will probably suffer more by this 
method than by neglect. A butcher's skewer, or the wood with which they 
tliey are made must be bruised and bit at the end, till with a little use it 
will become the softest and best brush for this purpose ; and in general the 
teeth may be cleaned with this brush without any powder. It is necessary 
to observe that, very near the gums of persons whose teeth are otherwise 
good, there is apt to grow a false kind of enamel, both within and without, 
and this false enamel or tartar, if neglected, pushes the gums higher and 
higher till it leaves the fangs of the teeth quite bare, above the true enamel, 
so that sound teeth are destroyed, because the gum has forsaken that part 
which is not sheathed and protected. In the summer months this tartar 
may be effectually removed by partaking daily of strawberries ; eating 
plentifully of watercress is also considered a good remedy. An excellent 
tincture for this defect will be found as follows :— Mix six ounces of tincture 
of Peruvian bark with half an ounce of sal-ammoniac. Shake these well 
for a few moments every time before the tincture is used. The method of 
using it is, to take a spoonful and hold it near the teeth, then with a finger 
dii)ped in, rubbing the gums and teeth, which are afterwards to be washed 
with warm water. Another method of preserving the teeth is to wash out 
the mouth with water after every meal, especially if animal food has been 
eaten ; by these means the particles of food lodging about the teeth and 
gums are dislodged, which, when allowed to remain and accumulate, prove 
excessively injurious. Much harm is frequently done to the teeth b}' clean- 
ing them with too hard a brush or deleterious dentifrices, in either case the 
enamel being scratched and otherwise injured. As a matter of course, the 
preservation of the teeth is greatly influenced by what is eaten and drunk. 
All things that are either very hot or very cold are extremely bad ; acids 
are especially injurious, as are also sweets. The decai/ing of teeth is partly 
due to chemical decomposition of the food lodged between the teeth in eat- 
ing. When there is jomed to this an unhealtln' or weak condition of the 
ivory, which is thus rendered incapable of resisting the action of external 
causes, and also the continual pressure of the adjacent teeth, when too close 
together, then decay is almost sure to take place in some part or other of 
the crown. When it occurs in the sides of tiie necks, just below the 
enamel, the cause always is in the food, and generally so when in the middle 
of the crown of the molars ; but sometimes decay takes place beneath the 
enamel, and long before the slightest fissure in this part can be detected by 
any ordinary observation, or, at all events, while there is no opening large 
enough to admit the food. Besides these causes, another exists in the un- 
covered state of the roots, or fangs, or in these being covered by tartar in- 
stead of gum, both of which circumstances tend to produce decomposition 
and decay, and should be cautiously guarded against. When a cavity is 
actually developed, the sooner it is filicd the better. When it is small and 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 2L5 

lias not openeJ into tlie natural cavity' of the tootli, gold leaf is the best 
material, tlie dentist previously cutting away tlie deca^'ed matter and press- 
ing in the gold with great force. Wlien, however, this cavity is exposeil, 
gold is useless under ordinary circumstances. Tlie following are some of 
the best methods of filling teeth when beginning to decay :— L Mi.x thirteen 
parts of ])uie finely powdered caustic lime with twelve parts of anliydroiis 
phosphoric acid. This powder is moist during the mixing, and while in that 
state is to he introduced into the decayed tooth, The place in the tooth is 
to be made dry before receiving the mixture. This khid of filling must be 
used two or three minutes after being prepared. Soon after it is lodged in 
the decayed cavity, it becomes very solid. 2. Take pure anhydrous phos- 
phoric acid, forty-eight grains, pure caustic (unslaked) lime, f(jrty-two 
grains. Finely pulverize eacli separately, and keep them separate in well- 
stopped bottles till wanted. For use, mix the required quantit_v in a small 
mortar, as rapidly and perfectly as possible, and at once press the dry mix- 
ture in tlie cavity of the tooth. The surface should then be smoothed off 
and finished by moistening with water. This cement soon acquires great 
hardness; it is very white and durable, and in its composition resembles 
the natural earthy matter of the teeth. Tlie wiiole process requires ex- 
pertness to succeed; but the latter, when attained, will amply repay for 
one or two failures. If the composition be not mixed and api)lied quickly 
it becomes moist, and is therefore unfit for use. In many cases the oilor 
arising from carious teeth is very offensive ; to remedy this, the mouth 
should be well rinsed with a teaspoonful of the solution of chloride of soda 
in a tumbler of water, which will have the desired effect. 

Toothache. — This well-known and very distressing pain may proceed 
from a variety of causes — from sitting in draughts, inattention to the cover- 
ing of tlie feet or the head ; food or drink eitlier too Jiot or too cold, and 
lastly, from the presence of decay in the tooth itself. For a complaint so 
common there are, of course, innumerable remedies, and from these we se- 
lect such as we believe to be the most efficacious. — First Remedy. Apply 
stick-caustic to the part whence tlie pain proceeds.— .S'''co«c/ Remedj/. Take 
of tincture of opium, and rectified spirits of wine, of each tiiree ounces ; 
camphor, six draciims ; opium powdered, one and a half drachms ; pellitory 
of Spain, half an ounce ; macerate for eight days. Dip a small piece of 
lint into this tincture, and place it in the cavity of the tooth.— -Third Reme- 
dy. Apply oil of cloves on cotton wool.— Fourth Remedy. Moisten a piece of 
lint with a strong spirituous solution of creosote, and closely ram it into the 
cavity of the tooth. — Fifth Remedy. Alum, in powder, two drachms ; spirit 
of nitre, seven drachms ; mix ; and apply to the tooth. — Sixth Remedy. 
Sal-volatile, three ounces ; laudanum, one ounce ; mix, and apply. — Seventh 
Remedy. Dry the cavity with lint, then a piece of cotton wool moistened in 
water of anmionia, with half the quantity of tincture of opinm.—Ei(/hlh 
Remedy. Creosote, one drachm ; spirit of camphor, two drachms ; laud- 
anum, one drachm ; mix, and apply with a piece of lint. — Ni)tth Remedy, 
Pellitory, ginger, cloves, camphor, of each one ounce ; tincture of opium, 
four ounces ; spirit of wine, sixteen ounces ; macerate for eight days and 
strain. — Tenth Remedy. Camphor, one drachm ; ether, four drachms ; ilppl3^ 
— Eleventh Remedy. Opium, two ounces ; mastic, half an ounce ; balsam of 
tolu, one drachm ; camphor, one ounce ; oil of cloves, one drachm ; recti- 
fied spirit, sixteen fluid ounces ; oil of bitter almonds, eight drops ; mix.— - 
Tivelfth Remedy. Cherry-laurel water, two ounces ; acetate of morphia, one 
grain. Wasli the mouth with warm water, to a glass of which a few drops 
of this mixture have been uddad.— Thirteenth Remedy. Oil of rosemary, two 
ounces; tincture of galbanum, one ounce; mix. Dip into this mixture a 
piece of cotton wool and introduce it into the ears. — Fourteenth Remedy. 
Tannin, twenty grains; mastic, five grains; ether, two drachms. Wash 
the month witli warm water containing a little carbonate of soda ; lance the 
glims, and apjily the tincture to the cavity of the tooth on cotton.— Fifteenth 
Remedy. Apply caustic ammonia to the surface repeatedly, care being taken 



216 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

tjiat tlie ammonia does not touch the mouth or tougne.— Sixteenth Remedy. 
Heat a wire to a white heat, and insert it into the cavity of tiie tootli ; this 
operation, if properly performed, will destroy the nerve, while it renders 
the tooth insensihlo, and consequently serviceahle. This opei-ation is now 
performed in a more ai^reeable manner hy means of electric heat. The 
wire is fitted into the tootli cold, and moment:irily heated.— Oiserye. If 
neither of the above remedies avail, the tooth must be extracted ; if suf- 
fered to remain, the teeth on either side will become a,&.eciQA.— Seventeenth 
Remeth/ (For toothache from inflamed gums). Mix thirty drops of laudanum 
with one ounce of water, take mouthf uls of this, and hold it in the mouth. 
Or, apply etiier or chloroform lisflitly to the gum, also to tlie cheek outside, 
covering it with a piece of oilskin, or apply a mustard plaster to the cheek ; 
or apply a bag of camomile flowers heated, and sprinkled with brandy, to 
the face ; to be reheated and applied every ten minutes till relief be ob- 
tained. — Ei(]hteenth Remedij (For tootiiache from cold, extending over 
several teeth and the face). Red spirits of lavender, spirits of sal-volatile, 
and laudanum, equal parts ; mix. Soak in this a pledget of lint or linen 
rag, and lay it along the gums and" around the aciiing tooth.— Nineteenth 
Remedji (For rheumatic toothache). Take twice or thrice a day four grains 
of compound ipecacuanha powder; foment tlie part with a decoction of 
poppy-heads and camomile flowers. A blister behind the ears will also be 
found of great service.— P;rye»f(ue. Those wiio are subject to toothache 
ought to be particular in keeping the teeth clean by tlie frequent use of a 
soft brush and water. The tooth powders most suitable are flowers of sul- 
phur and charcoal powder; the former may be used every day, the latter 
twice a week. The best common charcoal powder should be employed, not 
the prepared charcoal, wliicii is too of ten a compound of hurtful ingredients. 
When the gums are loose or spongy, the teeth should be cleaned three or 
four times a week, with a powder composed of equal parts of Peruvian 
bark, powder of catechu, and Armenian bole. 

Uvula, Relaxed.— Tlie uvula is the projection seen at the back part of 
the mouth, at the entrance to the throat. From the middle of the soft 
palate, the uvula hangs down into the throat, acting as a valve. It is liable 
to be inflamed and relaxed, occasioning a troublesome cough, by its length 
irritating the upper part of the windpipe. The usual mode of treatment is 
by astringents. First Remedy. Take of powdered kino six drachms ; pow- 
dered alum, and powdered cinnamon, of each two drachms ; syrup a suffi- 
cient quantity' to form an electuary ; mix, and take a dessertspoonful occa- 
sionally. Second Remedy. Cayenne pepper, one scruple ; boiling water, six 
ounces ; let this stand in a covered vessel for three hours ; then add, com- 
mon vinegar, three ounces ; tincture of myrrh, three drachms ; honey of 
roses, four drachms ; mix, and gargle the throat witii it frequently. Third 
Remedy. Bruised oak-bark, one ounce ; water, one and a half pint ; boil 
down to one pint ; strain and add powdered alum, half a drachm ; brandy, 
two ounces; mix, and use as a gargle. CantioH. Persons of scrofulous 
habit of body are very subject to this complaint, especially in cold, damp, 
and foggy weather. They should wear out of doors a piece of flannel 
round tlie neck, and witliin doors a piece of narrow velvet, or a neckerchief. . 
The feet also should be kept warm and dr_v. In order to prevent the com- 
plaint making any way, it would be as well, for persons thus subject, to 
keep one of the above remedies ready mixed for instant use. 

Voice, Loss of. — Public speakers, singers, actors, &c., are subject to 
loss of voice, amounting, in some instances, to extinction. First Remedy. 
Smoke camphor cigarettes, made as follows: Select a sound and regular 
stalk of wheat straw ; cut it evenly about an inch below and two or three 
inches above the knot, perforate tiie knot upwards with a stocking needle, 
and push down upon it, through tiie larger end of the stalk, with a knitting 
needle, a small square of tissue paper. Tliis paper covering the upper sur- 
face of the perforated knot forms a kind of medium between it and the air. 
Tlie long end of the straw is then filled with some small pieces of camphor, 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 217 

loosely packed, and kept in place with a little plug of tissue paper. Close 
tiie lips firmly round tlie cigarette and draw as you would in smoking a 
pipe or cigar, but of course without the application of fire. The camphor 
thus inlialed finds its way direct to the respiratory organs, and affords con- 
siderable and speedy relief. A properly made cigarette will last a week ; 
the camphor is to be renewed every night. The cigarette must be held be- 
tween tiie lips alone, not by the teeth. Second Remedy. Where loss of voice 
results from the abuse of mercurial preparations, take of sarsaparilla-root a 
liandful ; water, one quart ; boil for twenty minutes, and after taking the 
decoction off the fire add fifteen grains of iodide of potassium ; dose, a 
wineglassful twice a day. Also, gargle the throat occasionally with salt 
water. 

Washerwoman's Scall. — The popular name for a soreness and tender- 
ness of the skin, which frequently appears on the arms and wrists after 
much washing, and is occasioned by the irritation of the soap. Remedy. 
Apply a little spermaceti ointment to the parts, and avoid the washtub un- 
til the skin is healed. 

Wasting. — The rapid or gradual reduction of the size of the whole body, 
or of parts thereof, frequently comes on without any evident cause. It is 
seldom accompanied by pain, difficulty of breathing, cougii, or fever, but is 
usually attended with loss of appetite and impaired digestion, depression of 
spirits and general languor. Remedy. This disease is very difficult of cure, 
and for its treatment we must endeavor to find out the cause, and, if pos- 
sible, remove it. If occasioned by worms, these must be destroyed by ap- 
propriate medicines; if by excess of any kind, this must be wholly discon- 
tinued ; if from a scrofulous disposition, tonic medicines must be resorted 
to ; and in like manner the treatment will be the same with that of every 
other disease which it may either accompany or of which it may be the ef- 
fect. The diet should be nutritious, generous, and such as is easy of diges- 
tion ; milk, calves' feet jelly, together with a moderate proportion of beer 
and wine, and when the stomach is very feeble, spirits ; regular walking 
exercise should be taken in the open air. The surface of the body should 
be well rubbed, and change of scene and sea-bathing may be resorted to. 
Of medicines, cod-liver oil is likely to prove the most effectual. Observe. 
It often occurs, more particularly in children, that wasting takes place 
without derangement of any other process than that of nutrition. In these 
cases a teaspoonful of cod-liver oil two or three times a day may often be 
followed by very decided and permanent benefit. 

Watery Eye. — If we look closely at the inner corner of the eyelids, we 
may perceive a little point at each, which is the opening of a duct that runs 
into tiie nose. These openings convey the tears from the eye ; every time 
the eye is shut in winking the fluid is forced into those pipes. Now, when 
either or both become so thickened as to be stopped up, the tears of neces- 
sity fall over the cheek, and this is called watery eye. — Remedy. As the 
cause of thi^disease is most commonly inflammation, it may be relieved in 
its early stages by a plan directed towards the lessening of that inflamma- 
tion, and tlie best is as follows : Free tiie bowels well with salts ; repeat 
this in three days afterwards, and apply the following eye-water : Take of 
common water two ounces ; sulphate of zinc, four grains ; laudanum, half 
a drachm ; mix, and apply frequently. Cold must be strictly avoided. — 
Observe. If the complaint be not removed by the adoption of this treatment, 
surgical assistance must be obtained immediately, for if the disease be al- 
lowed to proceed unchecked, the consequence will be a far more serious 
and troublesome affection. 

Wen. — A tumor mostly situated on the head or neck, and containing a 
Buetty or curd-like substance. They are usually harmless, and except from 
their situation and unsiglitliness, do not require interfering with. The most 
certain mode of proceeding is their being extirpated by a surgeon; the 
operation is neither difficult nor dangerous. We, nevertheless, present the 
following palliative remedies. — First Remedy. Take of the compound tinc- 

10 



218 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

ture of iodine from five to ten drops three times a day in a little water, ap- 
ply also the following ointment night and morning: Iodide of potassium, 
one drachm, to be rubbed very fine and dissolved with a few drops of water ; 
lard, one ounce ; camphor (finely powdered), half a drachm ; mix. — Second 
Remedy. Paint the wen over with the compound tincture of iodine for a 
time, and afterwards bathe it with the following lotion : Muriate of am- 
monia, half an ounce ; spirits of wine, one ounce ; elder-flower water, three 
. ounces ; mix. — Third Remedy. Peruvian bark, one ounce ; conserve of roses, 
two ounces ; burnt sponge, half an ounce ; simple syrup sufficient to form an 
electuary. A piece the size of a nutmeg to be taken three times a day. — 
Fourth Remedy. Dissolve forty-eigiit grains of iodine in one ounce of pure 
spirits of wine. Give to an adult ten drops of tliis tincture in half a wine- 
glassful of capillaire and water every morning fasting, give a second dose at 
ten o'clock, and a third at bedtime. At the end of the first week the dose 
may be increased to fifteen drops three times a day, and a week afterwards 
to twenty drops. 

White Swelling. — This is a disease of one of the larger joints. It is 
mostly of a slow or chronic character, and occurs chiefly in tiie knee, al- 
tliough tiie elbow-joint, hip-joint, and even ankle-joint are not unfrequently 
the seat of it. Tiiis comphiint may result from blows, falls, bruises, cold, 
fevers, and constitutional disorders. — First Remedy. Early attention to this 
disease will prevent, in almost every case, its dreadful consequences. Wiien 
the pain commences in the knee, a blister sliould be put on, and perfect rest 
strictly observed. If the pain continue after the blister be healed, not a 
moment should be lost in putting on a caustic issue. Tlie mere application 
of caustic has been known to cure the disease, but it is indispensable that 
the patient sliould not stand a moment on the limb. — Second Remedy. In the 
early stage apply leeches and warm fomentations. If not reduced, put on a 
plaster made as follows : Reduce to a fine powder two ounces of gum-am- 
moniac ; and then add as mucii vinegar of squills to it as will form it into a 
paste, and spread it on a piece of leatlier and apply. — Third Remedy. Melt 
together in an eartlien pipkin two ounces of soap, and half an ounce of 
litharge piaster; when nearly cold, stir in one drachm of sal-ammoniac, in 
fine powder, spread upon leather, and apply to the diseased joint. — Fourth 
Remedy. The following is the mode of treatment employed by the late Mr. 
Scott, of the London Hospital, who effected numerous cures of this disease, 
and achieved thereby a great reputation : In the first place, the surface of 
the joint is to be carefully cleanse'! by a sponge, soft brown soap, and warm 
water, and then thorougiily dried ; next, the surface is to be rubbed with a 
sponge soaked in camphorated spirits of wine, and this is continued a min- 
ute or two. until the affected part begins to feci warm, smarts somewhat, 
and appears red. It is now covered with a soft cerate, made of equal parts 
of soap cerate and strong mercurial ointment, with camphor. This is to be 
thickly spread on large square pieces of lint and applied entirely around 
the joint, extending for at least six inches above and below i^ Over this, 
to the same extent, strips of lead-plaster about an inch and a half broad, 
are to be applied around the plasters. These strips must be longer or 
shorter, selected according to the size of the part ro^iiid which they are to be 
applied. Over this comes an additional covering of soap-plaster, spread on 
buckskin leather, cut into four broad pieces, one for the front, one for the 
back, and the two others for the sides of the joint. Lastly, the whole is to 
be secured by means of a calico bandage, which is to be put on very gently, 
and rather with the view of securing the plaster, and giving greater thick- 
ness and stability to the whole, than for compressing the joint. Tiiese 
dressings, which need not be disturbed oftener than once a week, if applied 
in the earlier stages of the disease, seldom fail of effecting a cure. 

Whitlow.- — An inflammation of the extremity of the finger, which is 
usually caused by a small quantity of humor being stagnant in that part; 
whether this has happened in consequence of a bruise, a sting, or a bite. — 
First Remedy. As soon as the disorder is manifest, plunge the finger affected 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 219 

into water as warm as can be borne, and keep it there for some time, add- 
ing hot water every now and then to keep up the desired heat ; also direct 
tlie steam of liot water into it ; doing tliis constantly for the first day, will 
often dry the whitlow away. Second Remedy. Apply to the whitlow com- 
pression with the hand in a degree which can be easily borne, with the 
view of preventing the formation of tlie matter, tiien hinil it round with a 
narrow fillet. Repeat this three or four times in the course of two days, 
when in all probability the pain and swelling will disapjjear, leaving a single 
speck of matter at the point of the finger, immediately under the skin. If 
vent be given to this by the slightest touch of a needle, the wound will heal 
up immediately. Third Remedy. When an abscess cannot be prevented, .a 
poultice of bread and milk should be applied to favor the formation of mat- 
ter, and as soon as the abscess is ripe, or what is termed " come to a head," 
it must be opened with a lancet ; afterwards dress the wound with tincture 
of calendula. 

Watch the Pulse. — Every intellectual person should know how to 
ascertain the state of the pulse in health ; then, by comparing it with what 
It is when he is ailing, he may have some idea of the urgency of his case. 
Parents should know the healthy pulse of each child, — as now and then a 
person is born with a peculiarly slow or fast pulse, ami the very case in 
hand may be of that peculiarity. An infant's pulse is a hundred and forty ; 
a child of seventeen, about eighty ; and from twenty to sixty years is se- 
venty beats a minute, declining to sixty at four-score. A healthful grown 
person's pulse beats seventy times in a minute. There may be good health 
down to sixty ; but if the pulse always exceeds seventy there is a disease, — 
the machine is working itself out ; there is a fever or inflammation some- 
where, and the body is feeding on itself, — as in consumption, when tlie ptdse 
is quick, that is, over seventy, gradually increasing with decreased chances 
of cure, until it reaches a hundred and twenty, when death cornea before 
many days. When the pulse is over seventy for months, and there is a 
slight cough, the lungs are affected. 

Necessary Rules for Sleep. — Tliere is no fact more clearly establish- 
ed in the physiology of man than this, that the brain expends its energies 
and itself during the hours of wakefulness and that these are recuperated 
during sleep. If the recuperation does not equal the expemliture, the brain 
withers ; this is insanity. Thus it is in early English history, persons who 
were condemned to death by being prevented from sleeping alwa\'s died 
raving maniacs, and those who are starved to deatli become insane ; the 
brain is not nourished and they cannot sleep. The practical inferences are 
three; 1st. Those who think most, who do the most brain work, require the 
most sleep. 2d. The time "saved" from necessary sleep is infallibly 
destructive to mind, body and estate. 3d. Give yourself, j-our children, 
your servants, give all that are under you, the fullest amount of sleep they 
will take, by compelling them to go to bed at some regular early hour, and 
to rise in the morning at the moment they awake; and, within a fortnight. 
Nature, with almost the regularity of the rising sun, will unloose the bonds 
of sleep tiie moment enough repose has been secured for the wants of the 
system. This is the only safe and efficient rule. 

To A.scertain the State of the Lungs. — Draw in as much breath as 
you conveniently can, then count as long as possible in a slow and audible 
voice without clrawing in more breath. The number of seconds must be 
carefully noted. In a consumptive the time does not exceed 10, and is 
frequently less than 6 seconds ; in pleurisj' and pneumonia it ranges from 
9 to 4 seconds. When the lungs are sound the time will range as high as 
from 20 to 35 seconds. To expand the lungs, go into the air, stand erect, 
throw back the head and shoulders, and draw in the air through the nostrils 
as much as possible. 

After having then filled the lungs, raise your arms, still extended, and 
suck in the air. Wiien you have thus forced the arms backward, witii the 
chest open, change the process b}' which you draw "in your breath, till the 



220 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

lungs are emptied. Go tlirough the process several times a day, and it will 
enlarge tlie cliest, give tlie lungs better play, and serve very much to ward 
off consumption. 

Syrup for Consumptives. — Of tamarac bark, take from the tree, with- 
out rossing, 1 peck ; spikenard root, ^ lb. ; dandelion root, i lb. ; hops, 2 oz. 
Boil tliese sufficient to get the strength in 2 or 3 gals, water; strain, and boil 
down to 1 gal. ; when blood-warm, add 3 lbs. best honey, and 8 pints best 
brandy' ; bottle and keep in a cool place. Dose, drink freely of it 3 times 
per day before meals, at least a gill or more ; cure very certain. 

Inhalation of Tar for Consumption.— Mix together 16 ozs. of liquid 
tar and one fluid oz. liquor of potassa, boil them for a few minutes in the 
open air, then let it simmer in an iron vessel over a spirit or other lamp in 
the chamber of the patient. This may at first excite a disposition to cough, 
but in a sor^ time it allays it, and removes any tendency to it. 

Sleep.— If you wish to sleep well eat sparingly of early suppers. Avoid 
all arguments or contested subjects near night, as these are likely to have 
a bad effect upon one who is trouble*! with sleeplessness at night. Avoid 
having too much companj'. Many persons become so excited with the 
meeting of friends that sleep departs for a time. There is probably nothing 
better, after cultivating a tranquil mind, than exercise in the open air. By 
observing these simple rules, sleeplessness, in the majority of instances, may 
be wholly cured. 

Hygienic Rules.— Never eat when much fatigued ; wait until rested. 
Never eat just before 3'ou expect to engage in any severe mental or physical 
exercise. Never eat while in a passion, or when under any great mental 
excitement, depressing or elevating. Never eat just before taking a bath 
of any kind, or just before retiring for the night. Never eat between regu- 
lar meals. 

Dynamic Power of Various Kinds of Food.— One lb., of oatmeal will 
furnish as much power as 2 lbs., of bread, and more than 3 lbs. of lean veal. 
One lb. of butter gives a working force equal to that of 9 lbs. of potatoes, 
12 lbs. of milk and more than 5 lbs. of lean beef. One lb. of lump sugar is 
equal in force to 2 lbs., of ham, or 8 lbs. of cabbage. The habitual u.se of 
spirituous liquors is inimical to health, and inevitably tends to shorten life. 
A mechanic or laboring man of average size, requires, according to Mo- 
leschott, 23 ozs., of dry solid matter, daily, one fifth nitrogenous. Food, as 
usually prepared, contains 50 per cent, of water, which would increase the 
quantity to 46 ozs., or 3 lbs. 14 ozs., with at least an equal weight of water 
in addition daily. The same authority indicates as healthy proportions, of 
albuminous matter 4.587 ozs., fatty matter 2.964, carbo-hydrate 14.250, salts 
1.058, total 22.859 ozs., for daily use. This quantity of food will vary 
greatly in the requirements of individuals engaged in sedentary employ- 
ments, or of persons with weak constitutions or impaired digestion, as also 
whether employed in the open air or within doors; much, also, depending 
on the temperature. Preference should be given to the food which mosti- 
readily yields the materials required by nature in the formation of the 
human frame. Beef contains about 4 lbs. of such minerals in every 100 lbs. 
Dried extract of beef contains 21 lbs. in each 100 lbs. Bread made from 
unbolted wheat flour is also very rich in such elements, much more so than 
superfine flour ; hence the common use of Graham bread for dyspepsia and 
other ailments. Tiie analysis of Liebig, Johnston, and others, give, in 100 
parts, tlie following proportions of nutritious elements, viz., Indian corn 
12.80, barley 14.00, wheat 14.06, oats 19.91. A fish diet is well adapted to 
sustain intellectual, or brain labor. What is required may be best known 
from the fact that a human body weighing 154 lbs., contains, on a rough 
estimate, of water 14 gals, (consisting of oxygen 111 lbs., of liydrogen 14 
lbs.), carbon 21 Ibs,^ nitrogen 3 lbs. 8 ozs., calcium 2 lbs., sodium 2j{ ozs., 
phosphorus 1^4!" lbs., potassium -J oz., sulphur 2 ozs. 219 grs., fluoririe 2 ozs., 
chlorine 2 ozs. 47 grs., iron 100 grs., magnesium 12 grs., silicon 2 grs. After 
death, the human body is, by gradual decay, slowly resolved into these its 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 221 

component parts, wliicli elements are acrain usefl in tlie complex and won- 
flerful laboratory of nature, to vivify tlie countless forms of voffetable life, 
these iti tlieir turn fulfil their appointed law by yieldinjj up tlieir substance 
Fir tiie formation of other bodies. Wiiat a suggestive comment on mortal 
ambition to witness the present inhabitants of Egypt engaged in wliat tliey 
consider the lucrative commerce of quarrying out the bones of tlie ancient 
inhabitants from the catacombs where they have been entombed for tiious- 
ands of years and transporting them b}' the sliip-load to England, in order 
to fertilize the crops which are destined to assist in forming the bone and 
sinews of the British nation ! 

Breath, Impure.— There is nothing more anno3'ing to a person of refined 
feeling, or disagreeable to all who approach him, than to be afl[licted with 
an impure breath ; and as the causes are so limited from which it proceeds, 
and tlie mode of treatment so simple and attainable by all, it becomes a 
great social dereliction in any one so afflicted not to immediately avail 
himself of a remedy. Impure breath can only proceed from three causes, 
an unhealthy state of the stomach, unclean or decayed teeth, and salivation. 
For the latter condition there is no remedy till the course of medicine that 
lias produced it has been withdrawn. When depending upon an impure 
state of the stomach, the best remedy is wormwood or camomile tea, taken 
in cuy)fuls, tliree times a day, with half a teaspoonful of carbonate of soda 
in each dose, with an aloetic or colocynth pill, twice a week. Bj' this means, 
persisted in for a short time, the worst case of fetid breath may be conquer- 
ed, when dependent on a depraved state of the digestive organs. For im- 
pure breath, the consequence of tlie state of the mouth and teeth, the only 
cure is cleanliness, and where it is inconvenient or impossible to stop the 
decayed teeth, and the patient is disinclined to have any stumps or shells of 
teeth removeil, the mouth may always be kept clean and perfectly inoffen- 
sive by the daily use of the tooih-brush and the following powder. 

Powdered cuttlefish 2 drachms. 

Powdered myrrh ^ a drachm. 

Carbonate of Soda 1 drachm. 

Charcoal powder 1 ounce. 

This powder should be used freely, and allowed to remain some minutes 
in the mouth and over the teeth before being washed away. 

To effect the same object, but in habitual and long standing cases, the 
teeth may be cleaned with warm water in which a small quantity of the 
chloride of lime has been dissolved, in the proportion of half a spoonful to 
a pint of water. By a simple adherence to one 01* more of these plans this 
most unpleasant annoyance can always be mastered, and its repetition 
prevented. 

Pulmonic WArERS.— Lump sugar, licorice, and starch, of each 2 parts ; 
gun), 10 parts ; squills and ipecacuanha, of each 5 parts ; lactucarium, 2 
parts. Mix, ami divide into 8 grain lozenges. 

The Best Way to take Castor Oil. — It is not generally known 
that castor oil may most easily be taken mingled with orange juice, a little 
sugar being added if the juice of the orange is not sweet. The difference 
between this and any other mode of taking this valuable medicine is sur- 
prising. 

Signs of Death. — The tying of a tight ligature around one of the fingers 
of a person supposed to be dead will determine whether life is extinct. If 
there is still life, the extremity of the finger soon becomes red, the depth of 
the color increasing to dark red and violet, while the skin above the ligature 
remains white. This arises from the fact that if there be any circulation of 
the blood, the ligature prevents the return of the venous blood, while the 
arteries continue to convey it to the cajiillaries. 

New Method of Embalming. — Mix together 5 pounds dry sulphate of 
alumine, 1 quart of warm water, and 100 grains of arsenious acid. Inject 3 
or 4 quarts of this mixture into all the vessels of the human body. This 
applies as well to all animals, birds, fishes, &c. This process supersedes the 



222 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

old and revolting mode, and has been introduced into the great anatomical 
schools of Paris. 

Shaving. — This is a process which may be performed in a slovenly and 
bungling manner, or it may be done witli great art and dexterity. In the 
first place, tiie hair sliould be softened by soaking it in water or a latiier of 
soap, b\' vvhicii it is rendered much more soft and more readily cut. A 
strong lather of soap is usually applied ; which, in the first place, acts as a 
softener from tlie water ; next as a lubricating fluid it prevents tlie razor 
from sticking to the skin, or, as it were, stumbling over its asperities ; and 
lastly, from its semi-solid consistence, it affords a support to the hair when 
opposed to tiie edge of the razor. Tlie soap used should be of such a nature 
as to make a strong lather full of small bubbles, and it should be as free 
from all superfluous alkali as possible, to avoid irritating the skin. In 
applying it, it is better to wash the skin beforehand, then brush on the 
lather with tlie shaving brush, working it well into the skin, and let it 
remain to soften the hair for a few minutes, during which any other part of 
the toilet may be performed. Then apply anotli£r coat of lather, and at 
once proceed to take off the beard with the razor, warmed to the tempe- 
rature of the skin, or rather above it. Most people find it better to stretch 
the skin by the other hand, but a very skilful shaver manages the act with- 
out this process. The razor should be drawn in a gently sawing manner 
across the beard, not exactly at right angles to it, but nearly so ; the art 
consisting in getting the two angles correctly, and in avoiding the chop in- 
stead of the proper sawing motion. By the two angles are meant that made 
by the surface of blade with the surface of the skin, ami that between its 
edge and the axis of the hair. The angle with the skin should be as slight 
as possible, close contact causing adhesion, and thereby impeding the free 
play of the blade ; but an3'tliing short of this is the proper mode of holding 
it. Practice here, however, is the grand point, and without it no one will 
ever succeed as a shaver. When the head is to be shaved it is better to 
remove the hair with the scissors to within half an inch, or even less, of the 
scalp, after which the razor may be used as for the beard, following the 
direction of the hair, and not meeting it. 

Rules for Action, very Short but very Safe. — In health and disease 
endeavor always to live on the sunny side. Sir James Wylie, late physi- 
cian to the Emperor of Russia, remarked during long observation in the 
hospitals of tliat country, that the cases of death occurring in rooms averted 
from the light of the sun, were four times more numeroiis than the fatal 
cases in the rooms exposed to the direct action of the solar rays. When 
poison is swallowed, a good off-hand remedy is to mix salt and mustard, 1 
heaped teaspoonful of each, in a glass of water and drink immediately. It 
is quick in its operation. Then give the whites of 2 eggs in a cup of coffee, 
or the eggs alone if coffee cannot be had. For acid poisons give aci<ls. In 
cases of opium poisoning, give strong coffee and keep moving. For light 
burns or scalds, dip the part in cold water or in flour, if the skin is des- 
troyed, cover with varnish. If j-ou fall into the water, float on the back, 
with the nose and mouth projecting. For apoplexy, raise the head and 
body ; for fainting, lay the person flat. Suck poisoned wounds, unless your 
mouth is sore. Enlarge the wound, or better cut out tlie part without delay, 
cauterize it with caustic, the end of a cigar or a hot coal. If an artery is 
cut, compress above the wound ; if a vein is cut, compress below. If 
choked, get upon all-fours and cough. Before passing through smoke take 
a full breath, stoop low, then go ahead ; but if you fear carbonic acid gas, 
walk erect and be careful. Smother a fire with blankets or carpets ; water 
tends to spread burning oil and increase the danger. Remove dust from 
the eyes by dashing water into them, and avoid rubbing. Remove cinders, 
&c., with a soft, smooth wooden j)oint. Preserve health and avoid catching 
cold, b}' regular diet, healthy food and cleanliness. Sir Astley Cooper said: 
" The methods by which I have preserved my own health, are temperance, 
early rising, and sponging the body every morning with cold water, im- 



HEALTH. AND MEDICAL. 223 

mediately after getting out of bed ; a practice which I have adopted for 30 
years without ever catcliing cold. " AVater diluted with 2 per cent, of car- 
bolic acid will disinfect any room or building, if liberally used as a sprinkle. 
Diphtiieria can be cured by a gargle of lemon juice, swallowing a little so 
as to reach all the affected parts. To avert cold from the feet, wear two 
pairs of stockings made from different fabrics, one pair of cotton or silk, the 
other of wool, and the natural heat of the feet will be preserved if the feet 
are kept clean. In arranging sleeping rooms the soundest and most refresh- 
ing slumber will be enjo^-ed when the head is towards the north. Late 
hours and anxious pursuits exhaust vitality, producing disease and pre- 
mature death, therefore the hours of labor and study should be short. Take 
abundant exercise and recreation. Be moderate in eating and drinking, 
using simple and plain diet, avoiding strong drink, tobacco, snuff, opium and 
every excess. Keep the body warm, the temper calm, serene and placid ; 
shun idleness ; if j'our hands cannot be usefully emploj'ed, attend to the 
cultivation of your minds. For pure health giving fresh air, go to the 
country. Dr. Stockton Hough asserts that if all the inhabitants of the 
world were living in cities of the magnitude of London, the human race 
would become extinct in a centurj- or two. The mean average of human 
life in the United States is 39^ years, while in New York and Philadelphia 
it is only 23 years ; about 50 per cent, of the deaths in these cities being of 
children under five years of age. A great percentage of this excessive 
mortality is caused by bad air and bad food. 

Complexion. — The beautj' of the complexion is an interesting matter, 
especiall}' among females. To ensure this important boon, natural means 
are far better than any artificial ones that can be conceived. Painting the 
face is a most injurious habit as well as an unnatural one, for as it chokes 
up the pores of the skin and drives the humors back into the blood, its ill 
effects may be readily imagined. It totally changes the texture of the skin, 
and produces pimples ; attacks the teeth, destroys the enamel, and loosens 
them. It also affects the eyes, and renders them painful and watery. 
Lastl}', it penetrates the pores of the skin, acting by degrees on the spongy 
substance of the lungs and inducing disease. Violet powder is no further 
injurious than by stopping the pores of the skin ; but this is quite injury 
enough to preclude its use. The effect of painting and powdering the face 
is bad morally as well as physically ; the former habit especially is always 
associated with immodesty and lax principles. Again, tlie object in view 
is thwarted rather than attained. A female subjects her complexion to 
artificial tints under the impression that they will be mistaken for the bloom 
of nature, and that she will be admired accordingly. But, although to her 
partial view the artifice may be hidden, in the eyes of others it becomes 
palpable enough ; and, instead of evoking admiration, only inspires disgust 
and contempt. Those who live temperately, keep regular hours, are active- 
ly employed, and take a due amount of air and exercise, will, generally 
speaking, have no cause to be ashamed of their complexions. But, if some 
insuperable defect does exist in spite of every precaution, all the nostrums 
that it is capable to conceive will not efface the defect; and it is therefore 
wiser and better to reconcile one's self to the misfortune, than to struggle 
fruitlessly against it. 

Taylor's Eemedy for Deafness. — Digest 2 ozs. bruised garlic in 1 lb. 
oil of almonds for a week, and strain. A drop poured into the ear is effect- 
ive in temporary deafness. 

Hiccough or Hiccup. — A spasmodic affection of the stomach and 
diaphragm, arising from some peculiar irritation. It is generally sympto- 
matic, but in some instances it appears as a primary disease. When pre- 
vailing as a primary affection, hiccough is never attended with danger, and 
may, in general, be easily removed ; but when it arises in any acute 
disorder, or after a mortification has taken place, it may always be looked 
upon as the forerunner of death. 

Treatment. — A common hiccough is often removed by taking a few sips 



224 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

of cold water in quick succession, or by a sudden excitement of some degree 
of fear or surprise. Wlien simple means do not answer, recourse must 
be had to antispasmodics, tlie most useful for which, in this instance, 
seem to be ether, musk, and opium, combined, or given separately. In tlie 
hiccougli incidental to youth or old age, an almost certain remedy is, a 
small quantity of any powerful acid, as a teaspoonful of vinegar or lemon- 
juice, or a little peppermint water acidulated with a few drops of sulphuric 
acid. 

Cough Stkdp. — Syrup of squills, 2 ozs. ; tartarized antimony, 8 grs. ; 
sulphate of morphine, 5 grs. ; pulverized gum arabic, J oz. ; honey, 1 oz. ; 
water, 1 oz. : mix. Dose for an adult, 1 small teaspoonful ; repeat in half 
an hour if it does not relieve ; child in proportion. 

Cold in the Head. — Dr. Pollion, of France, says that cold in the head 
can be cured by iniialing liartshorn. The inhalation by the nose should be 
seven or eight times in five minutes. 

To Cuke a Cold. — Before retiring soak the feet in mustard water as 
hot as can be endured, the feet should at first be plunged in a pail half full 
of lukewarm water, adding by degrees very hot water until tlie desired 
heat is attained, protecting the body and knees witii blankets so to direct 
the vapor from the water as to induce a good sweat. Next, to 2 table- 
spoonfuls of boiling water, add 1 table spoonful of white sugar and 14 drops 
of strong spirits of camplior. Drink the whole and cuddle in bed under 
plenty of bedclothes and sleep it off. 

Sore Eyes. — Mercurial ointment is a sovereign remedy for sore and 
inflamed eyelids. Try it. 

India Pkesceiption for Sore Eyes. — Sulphate of zinc, 3 grs. ; tincture 
of opium (laudanum), 1 dr. ; rose water, 2 oz, ; mix. Put a drop or two in 
the eye, 2 or 3 times dally. 

Another. — Sulphate of zinc, acetate of lead, and rock salt, of each i oz. ; 
loaf sugar, 1 oz. ; soft water, 12 oz. ; mix without heat, and use as other 
eye waters. If sore eyes shed much water, put a little of the oxide of zinc 
into a phial of water, and use it rather freely. This will soon effect a cure. 
Copperas and water lias cured sore eyes of long standing ; and used quite 
strong, it makes an excellent application in erysipelas. Alum and the 
white of an egg is good. 

Indian Eye Water. — Soft water, 1 pt. ; gum arabic, 1 oz. ; white vitriol, 
1 oz. ; fine salt, •} teaspoon ; put all into a bottle, and shake until dissolved. 
Put into the eye just as you retire to bed. 

Eye Pkepakations. — Eye Water. — Table salt and white vitriol, of 
each 1 tables{)oon; heat them upon copperplates or In earthenware until 
dry ; the heating drives off the acrid water, called the water of cr^'stal- 
lization, making them much milder in their action ; now add to them soft 
water i pt. ; putting in white sugar, 1 tablespoon; blue vitriol, a piece 
the size of a common pea. If it should prove too strong in any case, add 
a little more soft water to a phial of it. Apply it to the eyes 3 or 4 times 
daily. 

Wash for removing Particles of Zinc or Iron from the Eve. — 
Muriatic acid, 20 drops ; mucilage, 1 dr. ; mix with 2 fluid ozs. rose water. 
Iron or steel particles may be extracted by holding near them a powerful 
magnet. 

English Remedy for Cancer. — Take chloride of zinc, bloodroot pulver- 
ized, and flour, equal quantities of each, worked into a paste and applied. 
First spread a common sticking-plaster ?«!(cA larger than the cancer, cutting 
a circular piece from the centre of it a little larger than the cancer, applying 
it, which exposes a narrow rim of healthy skin; tiien apply the cancer plas- 
ter and keep it on 24 hours. On removing it, the cancer will be found to be 
burned into, and appears the color of an old shoe-sole, and tiie rim outside 
wdi appear white and parboiled, as if burned by steam. Dress with slippery 
elm poultice until suppuration takes place, tlien heal with any common 
salve. 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 225 

Cod Liver Oil, as usually prepared, is nothing more or less than cod oil 
clarified, by wliich process it is in fact deprived in a great measure of it3 
virtue. Cod oil can be purcliased from any wholesale oil dealer for one 
thirteenth part of the price of cod liver oil as usually sold, and it is easy to 
clarify it. Dealers might turn this information to good account. To make 
it more palatable and digestible, put 1 oz. of fine table salt to eacii quart 
bottle. 

How TO CnRE Cancer. — The following is said to be a sure cure for 
cancer : A piece of sticking plaster is put over the cancer, with a circular 
piece cut out of the centre, a little larger tlian the cancer, so that the cancer 
and a small circular rim of tlie healthy skin next to it is exposed. Then a 
plaster, made of chloride of zinc, blood-root, and wlieat flour, is spread on a 
piece of muslin tlie size of this circular opening, and applied to the cancer 
for 24 hours. On removing it, the cancer will be found burned into and ap- 
pear of the color and hardness of an old shoe sole, and the circular rim out- 
side of it will appear white and parboiled, as if scalded by hot steam. The 
wound is now dressed, and the outside rim soon separates, and the cancer 
comes out in a hard lump and the place heals up. The plaster kills tlie 
cancer, so that it sloughs like dead flesh, and never grows again. Tiie rem- 
edy was discovered by Dr. Fell, of London, and had been used by him for 
six oreight j'ears with unfailing success, and not a case has been known 
of the reappearance of the cancer when this remedy has been applied. 

Cancer Ointment. — VViiite arsenic, sulphur, powdered flowers of lesser 
spearwort, and stinking camomile, levigated together, and formed into a 
paste with white of egg. 

Dropsy Pills — Jahip, 50 grs., gamboge, 30 grs., podophyllin, 20 grs., elat- 
erium, 12 grs., aloes, 30 grs., cayeime, 35 grs., castile soap shaved and pul- 
verized, 20 grs., croton oil, 90 drops ; powder all finely, and mix thoroughly; 
tiien form into pill mass, by using a tliick mucilage made of equal parts of 
gum arabic and gum tragacanth, and divide in three-grain pills. Dose, 1 
pill every two days for the first week ; tlien every 3 or 4 days, until the 
water is evacuated by the combined aid of the pill with the alum s3-rup. 
This is a powerful medicine, and will well acomplish its work. 

Dropsy — Syrup and Pills — Queen-of-tiie-meadow root, dwarf-elder flow- 
er berries, or inner bark, juniper berries, horse-radish root, pod milkweed, 
or silkweed, often called, root of each, 4 oz. ; prickly-ash bark or berries, 
mandrake root ; bittersweet; bark of the root of each, 2 oz. ; white mustard- 
seed, 1 oz. ; Holland gin, 1 pt. Poui boiling water on all except the gin, and 
keep hot for 12 hours ; tlien boil and pour off twice, and boil down to 3 qts., 
and strain, adding 3 lbs. of sugar, and lastlj' the gin. Dose, take all the 
stomach will bear, say a wine glass a day, or more. 

Cure for Ague. — Cut 3 lemons into thin slices and poimd them with a 
mallet, tlien take enough coffee to make a quart, boil it down to a pint and 
pour it while quite hot over the lemons. Let it stand till cold, then strain 
through a cloth, and take the whole at one dose, immediately after tlie chill is 
over, and before the fever comes on. 

Cure for Tape Worm. — Take at one dose ether % oz.; 2 hours after this 
take castor oil, 1 oz. The worm is discharged entire or almost so and 
always with the head intact. 

Cure for Drunkenness. — Warranted a certain Remedy. Confine the 
patient to his room, furnish him with his favorite liquor at discretion, dilu- 
ted with % of water, as much wine, beer, coffee, and tea as he desires, but 
containing }^ of spirit ; all the food— the bread, meat, and vegetables — 
steeped in spirit and water. On the fifth day of this treatment he has an 
extreme disgust for spirit, being continually drunk. Keep up this treatment 
till he no longer desires to eat or drink, and the cure is certain. 

Chronic Gout. — To Cure. — Take hot vinegar, and put into it all tlie 
table salt which it will dissolve, and bathe the parts affected with a soft 
piece of flannel. Rub in with the liand and dry the foot, etc., by the fire. 
Repeat this operation 4 times in 24 hours, 15 minutes each time, for four 

10* 



226 HKALTH AND MEDICAL. 

days ; then twice a day for the same period ; then once ; and follow this 
rule whenever tlie symptoms show themselves at any future time. 

For a Weak Back. — Take a heef's gall, pour it into 1 pt. of alcohol, and 
bathe frequently. It works like a charm. 

Dr. Davies' Go0t Mixture. — Wine of colchicum, one ounce ; spirit of 
nitrous ether, one ounce ; iodide of potassium, two scruples ; distilled water 
two ounces. Mix. A teaspoonful in camomile tea two or three times a 
day. 

Gout Tincture. — Veratrum viride (swamp hellebore),^ oz. ; opium, ^ 
oz. ; wine, i pt. ; let them stand for several days. Dose, 15 to 30 drops, ac- 
cording to the robustness of the patient, at intervals of 2 to 4 hours. 

Stings AND Bites, are often instantaneously cured by washing them 
■with hartshorn or turpentine. Another excellent remedy for the sting of a 
bee, or wasp, or other insect is to wash thoroughly the parts affected with 
salt and water. 

Be Careful About Paring Your Corns. — A man used a knife freely on 
his feet the other day, causing the corns to bleed freely, and died with the 
lock-jaw. 

Headache Cure. — Borax has been found by many to be of invaluable 
service in the case of nervous headache. If applied in the same manner as 
in washing the hair the result is wonderful. It maybe used quite strong, 
after which rinse the hair carefully with clean water; let the person thus 
suffering remain in a quiet, well ventilated room until the hair is nearly or 
quite dry, and if possible, indulge in a short sleep, and there will hardly 
remain a trace of the heailache. 

Remedy for Headache — A Parisian physician has published a new rem- 
edy for headaches. He uses a mixture of ice and salt, in proportion of 1 to -J 
as a cold mixture and this he applies by means of a little purse of silk 
gauze, with a rim of gutta percha, to limited spots on the head, wiien 
rheumatic headaches are felt. It gives instantaneous relief. The application 
is from | minute to 1-J minutes, and the skin is rendered white and hard by 
the applications. 

Charcoal a Cure foe Sick Headache.— It is stated that 2 teaspoons 
of finely powdered charcoal, drunk in ^ a tumbler of water, will, in less than 
15 minutes, give relief to a sick headache, when caused, as in most cases it 
is, by superabundance of acid on the stomach. We have frequently tried this 
remedy, and its efficacy in every instance has been signally satisfactory. 

Trichina is the term applied to a minute, slender, and transparent worm, 
scarcely l-20th of an inch in length, which has recently' been discovered to 
exist naturally in the muscles of swine, and is frequently transferred to the 
binnan stomach when pork is used as food. Enough of these filthy paras- 
ites have been detected in half a pound of pork to engender 300,000,000 
more, the females being very prolific, each giving birth to from 60 to 100 
young, and dying soon after. The j'oung thread-like worm at first ranges 
freely througli the stomach and intestines, remaining for a short time within 
the lining niembrance of the intestines, causing irritation, diarrhoea, and 
sometimes death, if present in sufiicient numbers. As they become stronger 
they begin to penetrate tlie walls of the intestines in order to effect a lodg- 
ment in the voluntary muscles, causing intense muscidar pain and severe 
enduring cramps, and sometime tetanic symptoms. After 4 weeks migration 
they encyst themselves permanently on tlie muscular fibre, and begin to se- 
crete a delicate sac which gradually becomes calcareous. In this torpid st^te 
they remain during the person's lifetime. 

Stammering. — Impediments in the speech may be cured, where there is 
no malformation of tiie organs of articulation, 1)3' jierse vera nee, for three 
or four months, in the simple remedy of reading aloud, with the teeth closed, 
for at least two hours each day. 

To Remove Tumors.— Dr. Simpson, of Edinburgh, introduces a hollow 
acupuncture needle, or ver}' fine trocar (a surgical instrument in the form of 
a fine hollow needle) into their tissue, and injects a few drops of some irri- 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 227 

tant liquid, such as a solution of chloride of zinc, perchloride of iron, or 
creosote. Tlie effect is to destroy the vitality of the tumors so treated, and 
admit of separating tiieni. 

Broxchocele. — ExLARGED Neck. — To CuRE. — lodide of potassium (often 
called iiydriodate of potash) 2 drs; iodine, 1 dr. ; water 2J- oz. ; mix and shake a 
few minutes, and pour a little into a piiial for internal use. Dose, 5 to 10 
drops before each meal, to be taken in a little water. External Applica- 
tion.— With a feather, wet the enlarged neck, from the other bottle, night 
and morning, until well. It will cause the scarf skin to peel off several 
times before the cure is perfect, leaving it tender ; but do not omit the ap- 
plication more than one day at most, and you may rest assured of a cure, if 
a cure can be performed by any means whatever. 

Cure for Snake Bites. — Tiie Inspector of Police in the Bengal Govern- 
ment reports that of 939 cases in which ammonia was freely administered 
207 victims have recovered, and in the cured instances the remedy was not 
a<lministered till about 2^ hours after the attack, on the average of the fatal 
cases the corresponding duration of time was i^ hours. 



Doses of Medicine Generally Used. 

Hive Syrup.— Dose for children of one year, ten to twenty drops ; from 
eight to ten years, twenty to forty drops. For sudden croup attacks, the dose 
should be repeated every fifteen minutes until it operates as an emetic. 
For ndults as an expectorant, from one-half to a teaspoonful. 

Syrup Ipecac— This is a valuable medicine, and should always be kept 
in families where there are children subject to croup, being peculiarly adap- 
ted in such cases by its mildness and efficiency ; preferable and safer than 
Hive Syrup. Dose for children from one to four years, a half to one teas- 
])oouf 111 ; from six to eight years, one teaspoonful ; to be repeated every fif- 
teen minutes until the patient vomits. 

A towel wrung out in hot water and placed upon the chest and throat, 
changing ever\' ten minutes, with a dry towel thoroughly covering it, will 
often materially' assist in relieving an attack of croup. 

N. B. Croup is a dangerous disease, and although the above remedy should 
be given in the first symptom of an attack, medical aid should be present. 

Aromatic Syrup of Rhubarb.— Tliis is a warm stomachic laxative, well 
calculated for the bowel complaints of infants. The dose for an infant diar- 
rhoea is a teaspoonful. A cliild two to four years old, two or three tea- 
spoonfuls. 

Syrup of Senna.— A pleasant cathartic for children, to whom it may be 
given in doses of one or two spoonfuls. 

Tincture of Guaiacum.— Dose. One teaspoonful in a tablespoonful of 
milk or sugar and water, three times a day, to be gradually increased if 
necessary. Used for rheumatism, gout, etc. 

Laudanum.— Dose for an adult, fifteen to thirty drops ; for a child four 
years old, two drops. It should not be given to younger children except by 
the advice of a physician. 

Elixir Proprietatis.— Used for a constipated state of the bowels as a 
stomachic laxative. Dose, from one to two teaspoonfuls in sugar and hot 
water. 

Paregoric— Dose for an adult, one to two teaspoonfuls ; for a child one 
year old, the dose is from three to ten drops. 

Sweet Spirits of Nitre.— Dose for an adult, from one-half to a tea- 
spoonful in a wineglass of water; children two to four years, ten drops ; six 
to ten years, twenty drops. 



Egyptian Cure foe Cholera. — Best Jamaica ginger root, bruised, 1 oz., 
cayenne, 2 teaspoonfuls ; boil all in 1 qt. of water to | pt., and add loaf sugar 



228 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

to form a thick syrup. Dose, 1 tablespoonful every 15 minutes, until vomiting 
anil purging ceases ; then follow up with a blackberry tea. 

Indian Prescription for Cholera. — First dissolve gum camphor, ^ oz. 
in 1^ oz., of alcohol; second, give a teaspoon of spirits of hartshorn in a wine- 
glass of water, and follow it every 5 minutes witli 15 drops of tiie camplior 
in a teaspoon of water, for 3 doses ; then wait 15 minutes, and commence 
again as before; and continue tlie camphor for 30 minutes, unless there is a 
returning heat. Should this be tlie case, give one more dose, and tlie cure is 
effected ;let them perspire freely (whicii the medicine is designed to cause), 
as upon tliis the life depends, but add no additional clotliing. Another, — 
Tincture kino, 1 ounce, tincture opii, 4 drachms, amylum (common starcli), 
1 ounce, tepid water, 6 ounces. Mix. Inject slowly into tlie bowels. The 
injection mi.xture should be of the consistency of thin gruel. If it siiotild 
come away it should be immediately repeated. If the injection be proper- 
ly administered and in sufficient quantities it will stop the discharge from 
the bowels in fifteen minutes, and notliing will pass tliera for several days. 
The patient is then safe. 

Isthmus Cholera Tincture. — Tincture of rhubarb, cayenne, opium, and 
spirits of camphor, with essence of peppermint, equal p.irts of each, and 
each as strong as can be made. Dose, from 5 to 30 drops, or even to 60, and 
repeat, until relief is obtained, every 5 to 30 minutes. 

Sir James Clarke's Diarrh(ea and Cholera Mixture.— Tincture of 
opium, tincture of camphor, and spirits of .turpentine, of each 3 drs. ; oil 
of peppermint, 30 drops ; mix. Dose, 1 teaspoonful for cholera. 

To Prevent a Felon. — When soreness is felt, immerse tlie finger in a 
basin of ashes and cold water, set in the stove wliile cold, and stir it con- 
tinually without taking it out, till the lye is so hot that it cannot be borne 
any longer. If the soreness is not gone in half an hour repeat it. 

A Sure Remedy for a Felon. — This very painful eruption, with all 
the remedies recommended, is seldom arrested until it has run a certain 
course, after causing great suffering during two or three days and nights. 
The following remedy is vouched for by " Tiie Buffalo Advocate " as a 
certain thing, from its own knowledge : " Take a pint of common soft 
soap, and stir in air-slacked lime until it is of the consistency of glazier's 
putty. Make a leatlier thimble, fill it with this composition, and insert the 
finger therein, and a cure is certain. 

Felons.— If Recent to Cure in Six Hours.— Venice turpentine, 1 oz. ; 
and put into it half a teaspoonful of water, and stir witii a rough stick until 
the mass looks like candied honey ; then spread a good coat on a clotli, and 
wrap around the finger. If the case is only recent it will remove the pain 
in six hours. 

Cure for Bone Felon. — An old physician gives the following as an in- 
fallible remedy : As soon as the parts begin to swell, get the tincture of 
lobelia and wrap the part affected with cloth thoroughly saturated with 
tiie tincture, and tlie felon is dead. 

Remedy FOR Neuralgia. — Hypophosphite of soda taken in 1 dr. doses 
3 times per day in beef tea is a good remedy for this painful affection. So 
is 'the application of bruised horse-radish, or the application of oil of pep- 
permint applied lightly with a camel-hair pencil. 

Cure for Lock Jaw. — Said to be Positive.. — Let any one who has an 
attack of lock jaw take a small quantity of spirits of turpentine, warm it, 
and pour it on the wound — no matter where the wound is, or what its 
nature is — and relief will follow in less than one minute. Turpentine is 
aJso a sovereign remedy for croup. Saturate a piece of flannel with it, and 
place the flannel on the throat, and chest — and in very severe cases three to 
five drops on a lump of sugar may be taken internally. 

Spasms. — Acetate of morphia, 1 gr. ; spirit of sal volatile, 1 oz.; sulphur- 
ic ether, 1 oz., camphor julep, 4 ozs. Mix. Dose, 1 teaspoonful in a glass 
of cold water, or wine, as required. Keep closely corked, and shake well 
before using. 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 229 

For Disease of the Kidneys. — Boil 1 oz. of pareira brava in 3 pints of 
water down to 1 pint Dose, a wineglassful 3 times a day. 

Boils. — Boils are popularly said to be " liealtliy, " but tliis is an error ; 
for although tliey oftener make tlieir appearance on tlie bodies of the robust 
than on those of tiie sickly and delicate, tiiey undoubtedly arise from some 
derangement of the system, and clearly denote that moderation in diet, and 
regularity of liabit, are needed. 

First Remedy. — As boils must go through a regular course of forming 
and coming to a liead, the first tiling is to hasten tlieir progress, and for 
this, nothing is better than a poultice of linseed-meal. When tlie head is 
formed, it should be lanced, and linseed-poultices again applied, until the 
core of the boil comes away. When this takes place, the wound may be 
healed as spee<lily as possible ; and to facilitate thi«, the part should be cov- 
ered with a little pure hog's-lard spread on a linen rag. In the meantime, 
the regularity of the bowels should be attended to. 

In Case of Excessive Bleeding. — If the blood comes from a v/ound by 
jets or spirts, be spry, or the man will die in a few minutes, because an art- 
ery is severed ; tie a handkerchief loosely around near tlie part between 
the wound and tlie lieart. Put a stick between the handkerchief and the 
skin, twist it around until tlie blood ceases to flow, and keep it there until 
the doctor arrives ; if in a position where the handkerchief cannot be used, 
press the thumb on the spot near the wound, between the wound and the 
lieart, increasing the pressure until the bleeding ceases, (do not lessen the 
pressure until tlie physician arrives, for an instant), so as to glue up the 
wound by coagulation or hardening of the cooling blood. 

Remedy for Diphtheria. — Tiie treatment consists in tliorongbly swab- 
bing the back of the mouth and throat with a wash made thus: Table salt, 
2 drs. ; black pepper, goldenseal, nitrate of potash, alum, 1 dr. each; 
mi.x and pulverize ; put into a teacup half full of water ; stir well, and then 
fill up with good vinegar. Use every half hour, 1, 2 and 4 hours, as recov- 
ery progresses. The patient may swallow a little each time. Apply 1 oz. 
each time of spirits of turpentine, sweet oil, and aqua-ammonia, mixed, 
every hour to the whole of the throat, and to the breast bone every four 
hours, keeping flannel to the part. 

Warts and Corns. — To Cure in Ten Minutes. — Take a small piece of 
potash and let it stand in the open air until it slacks, then thicken it to a 
paste with pulverized gum arable, which prevents it from spreading where 
it is not wanted. 

Celebrated Pile Ointment. — Take carbonate of lead, ^ oz. ; sulphate 
of morphia, 15 grs. ; stramonium ointment, 1 oz. ; olive oil, 20 drops. Mix 
and apply 3 times per day, or as the pain may require. 

Another. — Powdered nut gall, 2 drs. ; camphor, 1 dr.; melted wax, 10 
oz. ; tincture of opium, 2 drs.; mix. 

Russia Salve. — Take equ.al parts of yellow wax and sweet oil ; melt 
slowly, carefuUj' stirring; when cooling, stir in a small quantity of glycer- 
ine. Good for all kinds of wounds, &c. 

London Liniment. — Take chloroform, olive oil, and aqua ammonia, of 
each 1 oz. ; acetate of morphia, 10 grains. Mix and use as other liniments. 
Very valuable. 

Magnetic Ointment. — Said to be Trask's. — Hard raisins cut in pieces, 
and fine-cut tobacco, equal weights ; simmer well together, then strain, and 
press out all from the dregs. 

Ointments. — For Old Sores. — Red precipitate, half oz. ; sugar of lead, 
half oz. ; burnt alum, one oz. ; white vitriol, quarter oz., or a little less ; all 
to be very finely pulverized ; have mutton tallow made warm, half lb. ; stir 
all in, and stir until cool. 

French Remedy for Chronic Rheumatism. — Dr. Bonnet, of Granlbet, 
France, states, in a letter to the " Abeilie Medicale," that he has been long 
in the habit of prescribing " the essential oil of turpentine by friction for 
rheumatism ; and that he has usi d it himself with perfect success, having 



230 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

almost instantaneously got rid of rheumatic pains in both knees and in the 
left shoulder." 

German Rheumatic Fluid. — Oils of hemlock and cedar, of each half oz., 
oils of origanum and sassafras, each one oz. ; aqua ammonia, one oz. ; cap- 
sicum pulverized, one oz. ; spirits of turpentine and gum camplior, each lialf 
oz. ; put all into a quart bottle, and fill with 95 per cent, alcohol. Dose, for 
colic, for man, half a teaspoonful ; for a horse, half to one oz., iu a little 
warm water, every 15 minutes, till relieved. 

Remedy for Rheumatism and Stiff Joints. — Strong camphor spirits, 
one pt. ; neat's-foot, coon, bear's, or skunk's oil, one pt. ; spirits of turpen- 
tine, half pt. Shake the bottle when useil, and apply three times dailj', by 
pouring on a little at a time, and rubbing in all you can for twenty or thirty 
minutes. 

Inflammatory Rheumatism. — Sulphur and saltpetre, of each one oz. ; 
gum guaiacum, quarter oz. ; colchicum root, or seed, and nutmegs, of each, 
quarter oz. ; all to be pulverized and mixed with simple syrup, or molasses, 
two oz. Dose, one teaspoonful every two hours until it moves tl»e bowels 
rather freely ; then three or four times daily until cured. 

Infant's Sykup. — The syrup is made thus : One lb. best box raisins ; 
half oz. of anise seed ; two sticks licorice ; split the raisins, pound the anise 
seed, and cut the licorice fine ; add to it three quarts of rain water, and boil 
down to two quarts. Feed three or four times a day, as much as tiie child 
will willingly drink. The raisins strengthen, the anise expels the wind, and 
the licorice is a pliysic. 

Soothing Syrup. — Alcohol, oil of peppermint, castor oil, of each one 
oz. ; mix ; add oil of anise, half drachm ; magnesia, 60 grains ; pulverized 
ginger, forty grains ; water, two oz. ; white sugar to form a syrup. 

Soothing Syrup. — Take one lb. of honey ; add two tablespoonfuls of 
paregoric, and the same of oil of anise seed ; add enough water to make a 
thick syrup, and bottle. For children teething, dose, teaspoonful occa 
sionally. 

Compound Strup of Hypophosphites and Iron. — Dissolve 256 grs. each 
of hypophosphites of soda, lime and potassa, and 126 grs. hypophosphite of 
iron, in 12 oz. water, by a water bath. Filter and add sufficient water to 
make up for the evaporation. Add 18 ozs. sugar by gentle heat, to make 21 
fluid ozs. syrup. Ench fluid oz. contains 12 grs. each of the hypophosphites 
of soda, lime and potassa, and 6 grs. hypophosphite of iron. 

Compound Syrup of Hypophosphites. — Take of hypophospliite of 
lime, one and half oz. ; liypophosphite of soda, half oz. ; liypophosphite of 
potassa, half oz. ; cane sugar, one lb. troy ; hot water, 20 fluid ozs. ; orange 
water, one fluid oz. Mix a solution of the mixed salts in the hot water, fil- 
ter tlirough paper, dissolve the sugar in the solution by heat, and strain, and 
add the orange flower water. Dose, a teaspoonful, containing nearly five 
grains of the mixed salts. 

Cathartic Syrup. — Best senna leaf, one oz. ; butternut, the inner bark 
of the root, dried and bruised, two oz. ; peppermint leaf, half oz. ; fennel 
seed, half oz. ; alcohol, half pt. ; water, one and a half pts. ; sugar, 2 lbs. ; 
put all into the spirit and water, except the sugar, and let it stand two weeks, 
then strain, pressing out from the dregs, adding the sugar and simmering a 
few minutes only, to form the syrup. If it should cause griping in any case, 
increase the fennel seed and peppermint leaf. Dose, one tablespoon, once a 
day, or less often if tiie bowels become too loose, up to the next period when 
the headache might have been expected, and it will not be forthcoming. 

Whooping Cough Syrup. — Best rum, one pt. ; anise oil, two ozs. ; honey, 
one pt. ; lemon juice, 4 ozs. ; mix. Dose for adults, one tablespoonful, three 
or four times per day ; children, one teaspoon, with sugar and water. 

Composition Powder. — Thompson's. — Buyberry bark, two lbs. ; hem- 
lock bark, one 11). ; ginger root, one lb. ; caj'enne pepper, two ozs. ; cloves, 
two ozs. ; all finely pulverized and well mixed. Dose, half a teaspoon of it, 
and a spoon of sugar ; put them into a teacup, and pour it half full of boiling 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 231 

water; let it stand a few minutes, and fill the cup with milk, and drink 
freely. If no milk is to be obtained, fill up the cup with hot water. 

Vegetable or Composition Powder. — Fine bayberry bark, one lb. ; 
ginger, eight oz. ; common cayenne, 3 ozs. ; mix. Dose, one teaspoonful in 
a cup of boiling water, sweeten and add milk. 

Indian Balsam. — Clear, pale resin, tliree lbs., and melt it, adding spirits 
of turpentine, one qt. ; balsam of tolu, one oz. ; balsam of fir, four ozs. ; oil of 
hemlock, origanum, with Venice turpentine, of each, one oz. ; strained 
honey, four ozs. ; mix well, and bottle. Dose, six to twelve drops ; for a 
ciiild of six, three to five drops, on a little sugar. The dose can be varied 
according to tiie ability of the stomach to bear it, and tlie necessity of the 
case. It is a valuable preparation for coughs, internal pains, or strains, and 
works benignly upon the kidneys. 

Vegetable Substitute for Calomel. — Jalap, one oz. ; senna, two oz. ; 
peppermint, one oz. (a little cinnamon if desired), all pulverized and sifted 
through gauze. Dose, one teaspoonful put in a cup with two or three spoon- 
fuls of hot water, and a good lump of white sugar ; when cool, drink all ; 
to be taken fasting in the morning ; drink freely ; if it does not operate in 
three hours repeat half the quantity ; use instead of calomel. 

Daley's Carminative. — Magnesia, two drs. ; oil peppermint, three 
drops ; oil nutmeg, seven drops ; oil anise, nine drops ; tinct. of castor, one 
and a half drs. ; tinct. of assafoetida, forty-five drops; tinct. of opium, eigh- 
teen drops ; essence pennyroyal, fifty drops ; tinct. of cardamoms, ninety-five 
drops ; peppermint water, seven ozs. ; mix. 

Sweating Drops. — Ipecac, saffron, boneset, and camphor gum, of each, 
three ozs. ; opium, one oz. ; alcohol, two qts. Let stand two weeks and fil- 
ter. A teaspoonful in a cup of hot sage or catnip tea every hour until free 
perspiration is induced; good in colds, fevers, infiammaticms, &c. Bathe the 
feet in hot water at the same time. 

Substitute for Arrowroot. — Finest potato starch, seventy-five lbs. ; 
lump sugar, four Ihs. ; finel3'-ground rice, twenty-one lbs. Mix, and sift 
through lawn ; yields one hundred lbs. excellent arrowroot. 

Liquid Opodeldoc. — Warm brandy one qt. ; add to it gum camphor, 
one oz. ; sal ammoniac, quarter oz. ; oils of origanum and rosemary, each 
half oz. ; oil wormwood, quarter oz. ; when the oils are dissolved, add six 
ozs. soft soap. 

Brandreth's Pills. — Take two lbs. of aloes, one lb. of gamboge, four 
ounces of extract of colocynth, half lb. of Castile soap, three fluid drachms 
of oil of peppermint, and one fluid drachm of cinnamon. Mix, and form 
into pills. 

Diuretics — Pills. — Solidified copaiba, two parts; alcoholic extract 
of cubebs, one part; formed into pills with a little oil of juniper. Dose, 
one or two pills three or four times daily. This pill has been found very 
valuable in affections of the kidneys, bladder, and urethra, as inflammation 
from gravel, gonorriioea, gleet, whites, leucorrhcea, common inflammations, 
&c. For giving them a sugar coat, see that heading, if desired. 

Diuretic Drops. — Oil of cubebs, quarter oz. ; sweet spirits of nitre, half 
oz. ; balsam of copaiba, one oz. ; Harlem oil, one bottle ; oil of lavender, 
twenty drops; spirits of turpentine, twenty drops; mix. Dose, ten to 
twenty-five drops, as the stomach will bear, three times daily. It may be 
used in any of the above diseases with great satisfaction. 

Diuretic Tincture. — Green or growing spearmint mashed, put into a 
bottle, and covered with gin, is ;-n excellent diuretic. 

Diuretic for Children. — Spirits of nitre, a few drops in a little spear- 
mint tea, is all sufficient. For very young children, pumpkin-seed, or water- 
melon-seed tea is perhaps the best. 

Pills. — To Sugar Coat. — Pills to be sugar coated must be very dry, 
otherwise they will shrink away from the coating, and leave it a shell easily 
crushed off. When they are dry, you will take starch, gum arable, and 
white sugar, equal parts, rubbing them very fine in a marble mortar, and if 



232 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

damp, they must be dried before rubbing together ; then put tlie powder 
into a suitable pan, or box, forsliaking ; now put a few pills into a small 
tin box liaving a cover, and pour on to them just a little simple syrup, shak- 
ing well to moisten the surface only ; then throw into the box of powder, 
and keep in motion until completely coateil, dry, and smooth. If you are 
not very careful, you will get too much syrup upon the pills ; if you do, put 
in more, and be quick about it to prevent mr)isteiiing tiie pill too much, get- 
ting them into the powder as soon as possible. 

Fly Paper. — Coat paper with turpentine varnish, and oil it to keep the 
varnish from drying. 

Court Plaster. — Brush silk over with a solution of isinglass, in spirits 
or warm water, dry and repeat several times. For tlie last application apply 
several coats of Balsam of Peru. Used to close cuts or wounds, by warming 
it and applying. It does not wash off until the skin partially heals. 

Liver Pill. — Leptandrin, 40 grs. ; podophyllin and cayenne, 30 grs. each ; 
sanguinarin, iridin, and ipecac, 15 grs. each ; see that all are pulverized and 
well mixed ; then form into pill mass by using half dr. of the soft extract of 
mandrake and a few drops of anise oil ; then roll out into three-grain pills. 
Dose, two pills taken at bed-time will generally oj>erate by morning ; but 
some persons reqiiire three. 

Abernethy's Pills. — Each pill contains two grains of blue pill and three 
grains compound extract of colocynth. 

Medical Use of Salt. 

In many cases of disordered stomach a teaspoon of salt is a certain cure. 
In the violent internal agony termed cholic, add a teaspoon of salt to a pint 
of cold water, drink it, and go to bed ; it is one of the speediest remedies 
known. The same will revive a person who seems almost dead from a 
heavy fall. 

In an apoplectic fit no time should be lost in pouring down water, if suffi- 
cient sensibility remains to allow of swallowing ; if not, the head must be 
sponged witii cold water until the sense returns, when salt will completely 
restore the patient from the lethargy. 

In a fit, the feet should be placed in warm water, with mustard added, 
and the legs briskly rubbed, all bai\d<iges removed from the neck, and a cool 
apartment procured, if possible. In many cases of severe bleeding at the 
lungs, and when other remedies fail. Dr. Rush found that two teaspoons of 
salt completely stayed the blood. In case of a bite from a mad dog, wash the 
part with a strong brine for an hour, and then bind on some salt with a rag. 

In toothache, warm salt and water held to the part, and removed two or 
three times, will remove it in most cases. If the gums be affecteil, wash the 
mouth with brine. If the teeth be covered with tartar, wash them twice a 
day with salt ami water. 

In swelled neck, wash the part with brine, and drink it, also, twice a day, 
until cured. 

Salt will expel worms, if used in food in a moderate degree, and aid di- 
gestion ; but salt meat is injurious if used much. 

Ink stains should never be put into soa)\v or soda-water, or ley, as they 
directly become iron moulds; but should be instantly wetted with clean 
water, and may be at once removed by the application of a little lemon 
juice or salt of lemon. 



Camphor Ice. — Spermaceti, one and a half oz. ; gum camphor, three-q"ar- 
ters oz. ; oil sweet almonds, four teaspoonf uls ; set on the stoVe in an 
earthen dish till dissolved ; heat just enough to dissolve it. While warm 
pour into small moulds, if desired to sell; then paper, and put into tinfoil; 
used for chaps on hands or lips. 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 233 

Druggist's Colors. — Yellow, take iron filings, hydrochloric acid to dis- 
Bolve, dilute with cold water. Red, solution of sal ainmonica, cochineal, to 
color. Blue, indigo, one part ; oil of vitriol, two parts ; dissolve, then dilute 
with water. Green, verdigris, one part; acetic acid^ three parts; dilute 
with water. Purple, cochineal, 25 grs. ; sugar of lead, one oz. ; dissolve. 

Holloway's Ointment and Pills. — Butter, 22 oz. ; beeswax,8 oz. ; yellow 
rosin, 3 oz. ; melt ; add vinegar of cantharides, 1 oz. ; evaporate ; and add 
Canada balsam, 1 oz. ; oil of mace, | dram ; balsam of Peru, 15 drops. Pills : 
Aloes, 4 parts ; myrrh, jalap, and ginger, of each 2 parts ; mucilage to mix. 

Jcdkin's Ointment. — Linseed oil, 1 pt. ; sweet oil, 1 oz. ; and boil them 
in a kettle on coals for nearly 4 hours, as warm as you can ; then have pul- 
verized and mixed borax, i oz. ; red lead, 4 oz. ; and sugar of lead, 1^ oz. ; 
remove the kettle from the fire, and thicken in the powder; continue the 
stirring until cooled to blood heat, then stir in 1 oz. of spirits of turpentine ; 
and now take out a little, letting it get cold, and if not tlien sufficiently 
thick to spread upon thin soft linen as a salve, you will boil again until this 
point is reached. It is good for all kinds of wounds, bruises, sores, burns, 
white swellings, rlieumatisms, ulcers, sore breasts ; and even where there 
are wounds on the inside, it has been used with advantage, by applying a 
plaster over the part. 

Green Ointment. — Honey and beeswax, each i lb. ; spirits of turpentine, 
1 oz. ; wintergreen oil and laudanum, each, 2 oz. ; verdigris, finely pulverized, 
i oz. ; lard, 1^ lb. ; mix by a stove fire, in a copper kettle, heating slowly. 

To Extract Essential Oil from Wood, Barks, Roots, Herbs, &c. — 
Take balm, mint, s^ige, or any other herb, &c., put it into a bottle, and pour 
upon it a spoonful of ether ; keep in a cool place a few hours, and then fill 
the bottle with cold water ; the essential oil will swim upon the surface and 
may be easily separated. 

Green Mountain Salve. — For Rheumatism, burns, pains in the back or 
side, &c., take 2 lbs. resin, burgundy' pitch, i lb. ; beeswax, J lb. ; mutton 
tallow, i lb. ; melt slowly ; when not too warm, add oil hemlock, 1 oz. ; 
balsam fir, 1 oz. ; oil of origanum, I oz. ; oil of red ce<lar, 1 oz. ; 
Venice turpentine, loz. ; oil of wormwood, 1 oz. ; verdigris, ^ oz. The ver- 
digris must be finely pulverized and mixed with the oils ; then add as above, 
and work in cold water like wax till cold enough to roll ; rolls 5 inches long, 
1 inch diameter, sell for 25 cents. 

Downer's Salve. — Beeswax, 4 oz. ; opium, J oz. ; sugar of lead, 1 oz. ; 
melt the beeswax, and rub the lead up in the wax, then the opium, then l 
gill of sweet oil, incorporate all thoroughly together, spread lightly on cloth ; 
good for burns, piles, &c. 

Another Salve. — Burgundy pitch, beeswax, white pine pitcli, and resin, 
1 oz. each ; mutton tallow, 8 oz. ; goose oil, 1 gill ; tar, 1 gill ; melt and mix 
thoroughly. A first-rate salve. 

Cook's Electro-Magnetic Liniment. — Best alcohol, 1 gal. ; oil of am- 
ber, 8 oz. ; gum camphor, 8 oz. ; Castile soap, shaved fine, 2oz. ; beef's gall, 
4 oz. ; anmionia, 3 F.'s strong, 12 oz. ; mix and siiake occasionally for 12 
liours, and it is fit for use. This will be found a strong and valuable liniment. 

Mead's Salt-Rheum Ointment. — Aquafortis, 1 oz. ; quicksilver, 1 oz. ; 
good hard soap, dissolved so as to mix readily, 1 oz. ; prepared chalk, 1 oz. ; 
mixed with 1 lb. of lard ; mix the above by putting the aquafortis and 
quicksilver into an eartlien vessel, and when done effervescing, mix with the 
other ingredients, putting the chalk in last ; add a little spirits of turpentine. 
Bay i tablespoon. 

Barrell's Indian Liniment. — Alcohol, 1 qt. ; tincture of capsicum, 1 
oz. ; oil of origanum, sassafras, pennyroyal, and hemlock, of each ^oz. Mix. 

Itch Ointment. — Unsalted butter, 1 lb. ; burgundy pitch, 2 oz. ; spirits of 
turpentine, 2 oz. ; red precipitate, pulverized, 1^ oz. ; melt the pitch and 
add the butter, stirring well together ; then remove from the fire, and when 
a little cool add the spirits of turpentine, and lastly the precipitate, and stir 
until cold. 



234 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

Lip Salve. — Dissolve a small lump of wliite sugar in a tablespoonful of 
rosewater, (common water will do, but is not as good.) Mix it with acouple 
of large spoonfuls of sweet oil, a piece of spermaceti, of the size of half a 
butternut. Simmej^tlie whole well together eight or ten minutes, then turn 
it into a small box. 

Felon Ointment. — Take sweet oil, ^ pt., and stew a 3-cent. plug of to- 
bacco in it until the tobacco is crisped ; then squeeze it out, and add red 
lead, 1 oz., and boil until black; when a little cool, add pulverized camphor 
gum, 1 oz. 

Magnetic Pain Killer, for Toothache and Acute Pain. — Laudanum, 
1 dr. ; gum camphor, 4 drs. ; oil of cloves, ^ dr. ; oil of lavender, 1 dr. ; add 
to them 1 oz. alcohol, 6 drs. sulphuric ether, and five fluid drs. chloroform. 
Api)ly with lint, or for toothache rub on the gums, and upon the face against 
the teeth. 

Davis' Pain Killer Improved. — Powdered guaiac, 20 lbs. ; camphor, 2 
lbs. ; powdered cayenne pepper, 6 lbs. ; caustic liquor of ammonia, 1 lb. ; 
powdered opium, ^ lb. ; digest these ingredients in 32 gals, alcohol for two 
week.*, and filter. 

Radway's Renovating Resolent. — A vinous tincture of ginger and 
cardamon, sweetened with sugar. 

Radway's Ready Relief. — According toPeckolt, is an ethereal tincture 
of capsicimi, vvitii alcohol and camphor. 

Bogle's Uyperion Fluid. — To 8 oz. of 90 or 95 per cent, alcoliol, colored 
red with alkanet, add 1 oz. of castor oil ; perfume with geranium and verbena. 

Medicated Cough Candy. — To 6 lbs. candy just ready to pour on the 
slab, add the following mixture, and form it into sticks to correspond with 
the price asked for them : Tinct. squills, 2 oz ; camphorated tinct. of opium 
and tinct. of tolu, of each ^ oz. ; wine of ipecac, ^ oz. ; oils of gaultheria, 4 
drops ; sassafras, 3 drops ; and of anise seed oil, 2 drops, and use this freely 
in common couglis. 

Ague Pill. — Quinine, 20 grs. ; Dover's powders, 10 grs. ; subcarbonate 
of iron, 10 grs. ; mix with mucilage of gum arable and form into 20 pills. 
Dose, 2 each hour, commencing 5 hours before the chill should set in. I'hen 
take 1 niglit and morning until all are taken. 

Worm Lozenges. — Powdered lump sugar, 10 oz. ; starch, 5 oz. ; mix with 
mucilage ; and to every ounce add 12 grains calomel ; divide into 20 grain 
lozenges. Doze, two to six. ^ 

Swaim's Vermifuge. — Wormseed, 2 oz. ; valerian, rhubarb, pinkroot, 
white agari'^, of each l^ oz. ; boil in sufficient water to yield 3 quarts of de- 
coction, and add to it 10 drops of oil of tansy and 45 drops of oil of cloves, 
dissolved in a quart of rectified spirits. Dose, 1 teaspoonful at night. 

Fahnestock's Vermifuge. — Castor oil, oil of worm seed, each 1 oz. ; 
oil anise, i oz. ; tincture myrrh, ^ dram ; oil turpentine, 10 minims. Mix. 

Ayer's Sarsaparilla. — Take 3 fluid ozs. each of alcohol, fluid extracts 
of sarsaparilla and of stillingia ; 2 fluid ozs. each, extract of yellow-dock and 
of podophj'llin, 1 oz. sugar, 90 grs. iodide of potassium, and 10 grs. iodide 
of iron. 

Tinctures are made with 1 oz. of gum, root, or bark, &c., dried, to each 
pint of proof spirits ; let it stand one week, and filter. 

Essences are made with 1 oz. of any given oil, added to 1 pint alcohol. 
Peppermints are colored with tinct. turmeric; cinnamon with tinct. of red 
Sanders ; wintergreen with tinct. kino. 

Atkinson's Infant's Preservative. — Carbonate of magnesia, 6 drs. 
sugar, 2 oz. ; oil of anise seed, 20 drops ; sal-volatile, 2^ drs. ; laudanum, 1 
dr. ; syrup of saffron, 1 oz. Make up 1 pint with caraway water. 

Vermifuge Lozenges. — Santonin, 60 grs. ; pulverized sugar, 5 oz. ; 
mucilage of gum tragacanth, suflicient to make into a thick paste, worked 
carefully together, that the santonin shall be evenly mixed througliout the 
whole mass ; then if not in too great a hurry, cover up the mortar in which 
you have rubbed them, and let stand from 12 to 24 hours to temper ; at 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL, 235 

which time tliey will roll out better tlian if done immediately ; divide into 
120 lozenges. Dose, for a child 1 year old, 1 lozenge, night and morning ; 
of 2 years, 2 lozenges ; of 4 years, 3 ; of 8 years, 4; of 10 years or more, 5 
to 7 lozenges ; in all cases to be taken twice daily, and continuing until the 
worms start on a voyage of discovery. 

Fumigating Paper. — Dip light paper in a solution of alum ; strength 
of alum, 1 oz. ; water. 1 pt. Dry thoroughly, and on one side spread a mix- 
ture of equal parts of gum benzoin, galbanum, or Peruvian balsam ; melt 
the gums in an earthenware dish and spread with a hot spatula; slips of 
the paper are held over a liglit, when the odorous matter will be evaporated, 
the alum preventing the i)aper from igniting. 

Imperial Drops for Gravel and Kidney Complaint. — Oil of origanum, 
1 oz. ; oil of hemlock, i oz. ; oil of sassafras, };( oz. ; oil of anise, J oz. ; al- 
cohol, 1 pint ; mix. Dose, from i to 1 teaspoonful 3 times a day, in sweet- 
ened water, will soon give relief wiien constant weakness is felt across the 
small of the back, as well as gravelly affections causing pain about the 
kidneys. 

Positive Cure for Gonorrhcea. — Liquor of potass, i oz. ; bitter apple, 
J oz. ; spirits of sweet nitre, | oz. ; balsam of copaiba, h oz. ; best gum, ^ 
oz. To use, mix witii peppermint water ; take J teaspoonful 3 times per 
day ; cure certain in 9 days. 

Paregoric— Best opium, i dr. ; dissolve in about 2 tablespoonfuls of 
boiling water; then add benzoic acid i dr. ; oil of anise, ^ a fluid dr. ; clarified 
lioney, 1 oz. ; campiior gum, 1 scruple ; alcohol, 76 per cent., 11 fluid oz. ; 
distilled water, 4 fluid oz. ; macerate (keep warm) for two weeks. Dose for 
children, 5 to 20 drops ; adults, 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls. 

Compound Extract Buchu. — Buchu, in coarse powder, 12oz8.; alcohol, 
3pts. ;water, 6 pts. are sufficient. Treat the leaves by maceration and 
displacement, first with a portion of the alcohol and then with the remainder 
mixed with the water, evaporate the resulting liquid with a gentle heat to 
three pints, and add 2^ lbs. sugar ; continue tiie heat till it is dissolved, and 
after removing from the fire, add oil of cubebs, oil of juniper ; of eacii 1 
fluid dr. ; spirits of nitric ether, 12 fluid ozs., previously mixed, stir together. 

Harlem Oil or Welsh Medicamentum. — Sublimed or flowers of sul- 
phur and oil of amber, of each 2 oz. ; linseed oil 1 lb. ; spirits of turpentine 
sufficient to reduce all to the consistency of thin molasses. Boil tiie sulphur 
in the linseed oil until it is dissolved, then add the oil of amber and turpen- 
tine. Dose from 15 to 25 drops, morning and evening. Amongst tiie 
Welsh and Germans it is extensively used for strengtliening tiie stomach, 
kidneys, liver, and lungs; for asthma, sliortness of breatii, cough, inward or 
outward sores, dropsy, worms, gravel, fevers, palpitation of tiie heart, gid- 
diness, headache, &c.,by taking it internally; and for ulcers, malignant sores, 
cankers, &c., anointing externally, and wetting linen with it, and applying 
to burns. 

• King of Oils, for Neuralgia and Rheumatism. — Burning fluid, 1 pt. ; 
oils of cedar, hemlock, sassafras, and origanum, of each 2 oz. ; carbonate of 
ammonia, pulverized, 1 oz. ; mix. Directions. — Apply freely to the nerve 
and gums around the tooth ; and to the face, in neuralgic pains, by wetting 
brown paper and laying on the parts, not too long, for fear of blistering; to 
the nerves of teeth by lint. 

Black Oil. — Best alcoiiol, tincture of arnica, British oil, and oil of tar, 
of each 2 oz. ; and slowly add sulpliuric acid, | oz. These black oils are 
getting into extensive use as a liniment, and are indeed valuable, espec- 
ially in cases attended with much inflammation. 

Common Castor Oil.— Pale vegetable oil, 1 gal. ; castor oil, 3 gals. ; 
mix. 

Cerate Simple. — A composition of equal parts of yellow wax and olive 
oil, used alone as an emollient application to sores, or as a base to compound 
more active ointments. 

Paralytic Liniment. — Sulphuric ether, 6 oz. ; alcohol, 2 oz. j lauda* 



236 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

num, 1 oz. ; oil of lavender, loz. ; mix and cork tightly. In a recent 
case of paralysis let the whole extent of the numb surface be tiioroughly 
batiied and rubbed with this preparation, for several minutes, using the 
hand, at least three times daily ; at the same time take internally, 20 
drops of tlie same, in a little sweetened water. 

Nerve and Bone Liniment. — Beef's gall. 1 qt. ; alcohol, 1 pt. ; volatile 
liniment, 1 lb. ; spirits of turpentine, 1 lb. ; oil origanum, 4 oz. ; aqua ammonia, 
4 oz. ; tincture of cayenne, % pt. ; oil of amber, 3 oz. ; tincture Spanisli flies, 
6 oz. ; mix well. 

Liniment for Old Sores. — Alcohol, 1 qt. ; aqua ammonia, 4 oz. ; oil of 
origanum, 2 oz. ; camphor gum, 2 oz. ; opium, 2 oz. ; gum myrrh, 2 oz. ; 
common salt, two tablespoons. Mix, and shake occasional!}' for a week. 

Liniment for Sprains, Swellings, &c. — Aqua ammonia, spirits cam- 
phor, each two ounces ; oil origanum and laudanum, each one-half ounce. 
Mix. 

Liniment. — Good Samaritan. — Take 98 per cent, alcohol, 2 qts. ; and 
add to it the following articles : Oils of sassafras, hemlock, spirits of tur[)en- 
tine, tincture of cayenne, catechu, guaiac (guac), and laudanum, of eacli 1 
oz. ; tincture of myrrh, 4 oz. ; oil of origanum, 2 oz. ; oil of wintergreen, ^ 
oz. ; gum camphor, 2 oz. ; anil chloroform, \% oz. This is one of the best 
applications for internal pains known : it is superior to any other enumerated 
in tills work. 

Great Pain-Extractor. — Spirits of ammonia, one ounce ; laudanum, one 
ounce ; oil origanum, one ounce ; mutton tallow, half ounce; combine the 
articles with the tallow, when it is ne.arly cool. 

Cough Mixture. — An excellent remedy. — Procure 5 cts. worth of eaoh of 
the following articles : 

Sweet Spirits nitre. 
Syrup Squills. 
Sweet oil. 
Paragoric. 
Mix, with ^ gill Molasses or Syrup. For adults one tablespoonful 3 or 4 
times a day or even more if the cough is troublesome. For children a propor- 
tionate quantity. 

Syrups for Soda Fountains, &c. — 1. Simple si/rup. White sugar, 10 lbs ; 
water, 1 gal. ; best isinglass, J oz. Dissolve the isinglass in hot water, and 
add it to the hot syrup. The syrup is to be made with gentle lieat 
and then strained. 2. Lemon — a — Grate off tlie yellow rind of lemons and beat 
it up with a sufficient quantity of granulated sugar. Express the lemon 
juice, add to each pt. of juice 1 pt. of water, and 3 lbs. of granulated sugar, 
including that rubbed with the rind; warm until the sugar is dissolved and 
strain. 8. Lemon — b — Simple syrup 1 gal., oil of lemon 25 drops, citric acid 
10 drams. Rub the oil of lemon with the acid, add a small portion of syrup, 
and mix. 4. Strawberry — a — Strawberry juice 1 pt., simple syrup 3 pints, 
solution of citric acid 2 drams. 5. Stnuvberri/ — b — Fresh strawberries 5 qts. 
white sugar 12 lbs., water, 1 pt. Sprinkle some of the sugar over the fruit 
in layers, and allow tlie whole to stand for several hours ; express the juice 
and strain, washing out the pulp with water; add the remainder of the sugar 
an<l water, bring the fluid to the point of boiling, and then strain. This 
will keep for a long time. 6. Rdspberri/, Raspberry juice 1 pt., simple s,vrup 
3 pts., citric acid 2 drams. Raspberry syrup may also be made in a way 
similar to No. 5 for strawberry. 7. Vanilla. — Fluid extract of vanilla 1 oz., 
citric acid, ^ oz., simi)le syrup 1 gal. Rub the acid with some of the syrup, 
add the extract of vanilla, and mix. 8. Vanilla Cream. — Fluid extract of 
vanilla 1 oz., simple syrup 3 pts., cream or condensed milk 1 pt. ; may be 
colored with carmine. 9. Cream. — Fresh cream 1 pt., fresh milk 1 pt., 
powdered sugar 1 lb. ; mix by shaking, and keep in a cool place. The ad- 
dition of a few grains of bicarbonate of soda will for some time retard sour- 
ing. 10. Ginger. — Tincture of ginger 2 fluid ozs. simple sj'rup 4 pts. 11 
Orange. — Oil of orange 30 drops, tartaric acid 4 drams, simple syrup 1 gal. 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 237 

Rub the oil with the acid, and mix. 12. Pineapple. — Oil of pineapple 1 dram, 
tartaric acid 1 dram, simple syrup 6 pts. 13. Orgeat. — Cream sj-rup 1 pt., 
vanilla sj'rup 1 pt., oil of bitter almonds 4 drops. 14. Nectar. — Vanilla 
syrup 5 pts., pineapple syrup 1 pt., strawberry, raspberry or lemon 2 pts. 
15. Sherbet. — Vanilla syrup 3 pts., pineap[)le 1 pt., lemon syrup 1 pt. 16. 
Grape. — Brandy 3^ of a pt., spirits of lemon 5 oz., tincture of red Sanders 2 
oz.s., simple syrup 1 gal. 17. Banana. — Oil of banana 2 drams, tartaric acid 
1 dram, simple syrup 6 pts. 18. Coffee. — Coffee roasteil ^ ll)s., boiling water 
1 gal. Enough is filtered to make about -^ gal. of the infusion, to wtiicli add 
granulated sugar 7 lbs. 19. Wild Chernj. — Wild Clierry bark coarse pow- 
der, 5 ozs. Moisten, the bark with water, and let it stand for 24 hours in a 
close vessel. Then pack it firmly in a percolator, ami pour water upon it 
until 1 pt. of fluid is obtained. To this add 28 ozs. of sugar. 20. Winter- 
green. — Oil of wintergreen 25 drops, simple syrup 5 pts., and a sufficient 
quantity of burnt sugar to color. 21. Sarsaparilla — -a — Oil wintergreen 10 
drops, oil of anise 10 drops, oil of sassafras 10 drops, fluid extract of sarsa- 
parilla 2 ozs., simple syrup 5 pts., powdered e.xtract of licorice 1 oz. 22. 
iSarsaparilla — b — Simple syrup 4 pts., compound sj-rup of sarsaparilla 4 fluid 
ozs., caramel 1^ ozs., oil of wintergreen 6 drops, oil of sassafras 6 drops. 23 
Maple. — Maple sugar 4 lbs., water 2 pts. 24. Chocolate. — Best chocolate 8 
ozs., water 2 pts., white sugar 4 lbs. Mi.x tlie chocolate in water, and stir 
thoroughly over a slow fire. Strain, and add the sugar. 25. Coffee Cream.^ 
— Coffee syrup 2 pts., cream 1 pt. 26 Ambrosia. — Raspberry syrup 2 pts., 
vanilla 2 pts., hock wine 4 ozs. 27. Hock and Claret. — Hock or claret wine 

1 pt., simple syrup 2 pts. 28. Sol/'erino. — Brandy 1 pt., simple syrup 2 pts,, 
29. Fruit Acid. — (Used in some of the syrups). Citric acid 4 ozs., water, 8 
ozs. Most of the syrups not made from fruits may have a little gum arable 
added in order to produce a rich froth. 

Soda Svrdps. — Loaf or crushed sugar, 8 lbs., pure water, 1 gallon, gura 
arable, 2 oz. ; mix in a brass or copper kettle. Boil until the gum is dissol- 
ved, then skim and strain through white flannel, after which add tartaric 
acid, 5 oz. ; dissolve in hot water ; to flavor, use extract of lemon, orange, 
vanilla, rose, sarsaparilla, strawberry, &c., &c., J oz. or to your taste. If 3'ou 
use juice of lemon, add 2^ lbs. of sugar to a pint, you do not need any tartar- 
ic acid with it ; now use two tablespoonfuls of syrup to 3^ of a tumbler of 
water, and ^ teaspoonful of super-carbonate of soda, made fine ; drink 
quick. For soda fountains, 1 oz. of super-carbonate of soda is used to 1 gal- 
lon of water. For charged fountains no acids are needed in the syrups. 

Lemon Syrup. — Havana sugar, 1 lb., boil in water down to a quart, drop 
in the white of 1 egg, and strain it. Add J oz. tartaric acid ; let it stand 2 
days ; shake often ; 12 drops essence of lemon will much improve it. 

Raspberry Syrop without Raspberries. — First make a syrup with 
36 lbs. of white sugar, and 10 gallons of water, and put it into a clean mix- 
ing barrel. Then dissolve | lb. of tartaric acid in 1 qt. of cold water, and add 
to the syrup. Next take ^ lb. orris root and pour over it half a gallon of 
boiling water ; let it infuse until cold, then filter, and put it into the mixing 
barrel, stirring it well. 

KissiNGEN Water for Fountains. — Bicarbonate of soda, 1 dr.; carbon- 
ate of lime, 2 drs., and 2 scr. ; precipitate carbonate of lime, 2 scr. ; common 
salt, 8 ozs. ; muriate of ammonia, 4 grs ; sulphate of soda, 2'drs. and 2 scr. ; 
sulphate of magnesia, 2 ozs. ; phosphate of soda, 13 grs. ; phosphate of lime 

2 drs. and 2 scr. Mix. Add water 3^ of a gal. Let it stand for 6 hours, 
filter, add carbonate of magnesia, 3 drs. and 1 scr., and charge with ten gals. 
of water. 

Genuine Seidlitz Powders. — Rochelle salts, 2 drs. ; bicarb, soda, 2 
scr. ; put these into a blue paper, and 35 grains tartaric acid into a white 
paper. To use, put each into different tumblers, fill i with water, adding a 
little loaf sugar to the acid, then pour together and drink quick. 

Vichy Water for Fountains. — Sulphate of potass, 2 drs. ; sulphate of 
soda, 25 grs. ; common salt, 6 drs. ; bicarbonate of ammonia, 10 grs. Mix. 



238 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

Add water, 1 gal. Let it stand J. day, filter and then charge with 10 gals, of 
water. 

Bottled Seidlitz Water. — Fill soda-water bottles with clear water ; 
add to each as below ; cork and wire immediately : Rochelle salts, 3 drops ; 
bicarbonate of soda, 35 grs. ; sulphuric acid, 11 drops. 

Congress Water for Fountains. — Common salt, 7^ ozs. ; hydrate of 
soda, 20 grs. ; bicarbonate of soda, 20 grs. ; calcined magnesia, 1 oz. Add to 
10 gal. of water, and then charge with gas. 

Mineral Water. — Epsom salts, 1 oz. ; cream tartar, ^ oz. ; tartaric acid, 
J oz. ; loaf sugar, 1 lb. ; oil of birch, 20 drops ; put 1 qt. cold water on 2 
tablespoonfuls yeast (winter green oil will do), let it work 2 hours and then 
bottle. 

Tunbridge Wells Water. — Chloride of sodium, 5 grains ; tinct. steel, 
20 drops ; distilled water, IJ pints. 

Irritating Plaster. — Extensively Used by eclectics. — Tar, 1 lb. ; 
burgundy pitch, I oz.; wiiite-pine turpentine, 1 oz. ; resin, 2 oz. J3oil tlie 
tar, resin, and gum together a short time, remove from the fire, and stir in 
finely pulverized mandrake root, blood root, poke root, and Indian turnip, 
of each, 1 oz. 

Cephalic Snuff. — Take asarabacca leaves, marjoram, light Scotch snuff 
equal parts ; grind and sift, use like common snuff. 

Artificial Skin. — For Burns, Bruises, Abrasions, &c. — Proof 
Against Water. — Take gun cotton and Venice turpentine, equal parts of 
each, and dissolve them in 20 times as much sulphuric ether, dissolving the 
cotton first, tlien adding the turpentine ; keep it corked tightly. Water does 
not affect it, hence its value for cracked nipples, chapped hands, surface 
bruises, &c., &c. 

Rat Exterminator. — Warm water, 1 qt. ; lard, 2 lbs. ; phosphorus, 1 oz.; 
mix, and tliicken with flour; to be spread on bread and covered with sugar. 

Bug Poison. — Alcohol, i pint ; turpentine, ^ pint ; crude sal ammoniac, 
1 oz. ; mix all together, and let it digest in a warm place for a few days, and 
it is ready for use. 

Sealing-wax, Red. — Shellac (very pale), 4 oz. ; cautiously melt in a 
bright copper pan over a clear charcoal fire ; when fused, add Venice tur- 
pentine, li oz. Mix, and f urtiier add vermilion 3 oz. ; remove the pan from 
the fire, and pour into a mould. For a black color, use ivory black, or lamp- 
black instead of the verniilion ; for a blue color, use Prussian blue, instead 
of tiie vermilion ; same quantity. Each color must be well mixed with the 
composition ; of the lampblack use only sufficient to color. 

Gold-colored Sealing-wax. — Bleached shellac, 3 lbs. ; Venice tur- 
pentine 1 lb.; Dutch leaf, ground fine, 1 lb., or less. The leaf should be 
ground, or powdered sufficiently fine, without being reduced to dust. Mix 
with a gentle heat, and pour into moulds. 

Bottle Wax — Black. — Black resin, 6| lbs. ; beeswax, ^ lb. ; finely pow- 
dered ivory black, IJ lbs. Melt together. Red, as the last, but substitute 
Venetian red, or red lead, for the ivory black. 

Liquid Mucilage. Fine clear glue 1 lb. ; gum arable, 10 oz. ; water, 1 
qt. ; melt by heat in a glue kettle or water batli ; wlien entirel3' melted, add 
slowly 10 ozs. strong nitric acid, set off to cool. Then bottle, adding in a 
couple of cloves to each bottle. 

Bed-bug Poison. — One ounce of quicksilver beat up with the whites of 
two eggs, and put on with a feather, is the cleanest and surest metliod of 
destroying bedbugs. What remains should be thrown awa^, as it is ex- 
ceedingly poisonous. 

Eau de Cologne. This favourite perfume may be compounded in a 
variet3' of ways ; the following are some of tlie most approved : 

1. Oil of nepoli, citron, bergamot, orange, and rosemary, 12 drops each; 
cardamom seeds, 1 drachm ; spirits of wine, 1 pint ; infuse for a week. 

2. Rectified spirits of wine, 4 pints ; oil of berganiot, 1 oz. ; oil of lemon, 
i oz. ; oil of rosemary, ^ drachm ; oil of neroli, ^ draclun ; oil of English 
lavender, 1 drachm ; oil of oranges, 1 drachm ; mix well and filter. 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 239 

3. Essence of citron, 2 drachms ; essence of bergamot, 2 drachms ; essence 
of cedrat, 1 drachm ; essence of lavender, ^ drachm ; essence of orange- 
flowers, 10 drops; tincture of musk, i drachm; tincture of benjamin, 3 
drachms; otto of roses, 2 drops; proof spirit, 2 pints. Mix and filter. 

4. (Farina's). Infuse in a quart of spirits of wine a piece of benzoin 
about the size of a filbert, and a drachm and a half of cardamon seed ; when 
these have stood forty-eight hours, add half an ounce of animal charcoal, 
shaking the bottle well, and when it has stood for an hour filter it through 
blotting paper; when filtered add a drachm and ahalf of bergamot, half a 
drachm of oil of rosemary, two drachms of essence of lemon, half a draichm 
of oil of lavender, fifteen drops of neroli, and two drops of oil of cloves ; 
shake these together, and filter again. 

Eau de Bouquet. — Take two ounces each of storax, lemon-peel, and 
nutmeg ; six ounces each of ooriander and calamus aromaticus ; one ounce 
and a half of cloves ; four ounces of iris of Florence ; half an ounc>e of es- 
sence of bergamot ; a drachm of essence of lemon, a drachm of rosemary ; fif- 
teen drops of otto of roses ; a quarter of a drachm of ambergris; half a 
drachm of vanilla ; three gallons and a half of spirits of wine ; and a quart of 
orange-flower water. Bruise all the solid substances, except the amber, the 
iris, and the vanilla, and infuse them in the spirits of wine for several days ; 
then distil and add to the product the amber, vanilla, and iris ; infuse 
them for several days, then filter the mixture, and add the orange-flower 
water. When used as a cosmetic, this mixture must be greatly diluted 
•with water. 

Oil of Roses. — Olive oil, 1 lb. ; otto of roses, 50 drops ; oil of rosemary, 
25 drops ; mi.x. Another, roses (hardly opened) 12 oz.; olive oil, 10 oz., beat 
them together in a mortar ; let them remain for a few days, then express 
the oil. 

Lisbon Water. — To rectified spirit, 1 gallon, add essential oils of 
orange peel and lemon peel, of each 3 ounces, and of otto of roses, }^ 
ounce. 

Balm of a Thousand Flowers. — Deodorized alcohol, 1 pint ; nice whibe 
bar soap, 4 oz.; shave the soap witen put in, stand in a warm place till dis- 
solved ; then add oil of citronella, 1 drachm, and oils of neroli and rosemary, 
of each ^ drachm. 

Frangipanni. — Spirits, 1 gal. ; oil bergamot, 1 oz. ; oil of lemon, 1 oz. ; 
macerate for 4 days, frequently shaking; then add water, 1 gal. ; orange- 
flower water, 1 pint, essence of vanilla, 2 oz. Mix. 

Jockey Club. — Spirits of wine, 5 gals. ; orange-flower water, 1 gal.; bal- 
sam of Peru, 4 oz ; essence of bergamot, 8 oz. ; essence of musk, 8 oz. ; 
essence of cloves, 4 oz. : essence of neroli, 2 oz. 

Extract of Patchouli. — Mix 1% oz. ottar of Patchouli, and ^ oz. otto 
of rose, with 1 gal. rectified spirits. 

Esprit de Bouquet. — Oil of lavender, oil of cloves, and oil of bergamot, 
each 2 drachms ; otto of rose, and oil of cinnamon, each 20 drops ; essence 
of musk, 1 draciim ; rectified spirits, 1 pint. Mix. 

Balm of Beauty. — Pure soft water, 1 qt. ; pulverized Castile soap, 4 oz.; 
emulsion of bitter almonds, 6 oz. ; rose and orange flower water, of each, 
8 oz. ; tincture of benzoin, 2 drs. ; borax, 1 dr. ; add 5 grs. bichloride of mer 
cury to every 8 oz. of the mixture. To use, apply on a cotton or linen cloth 
to the face, &c. 

Bloom of Youth. — Boil 1 ounce of Brazil wood in 3 pints of water for 
15 minutes-; strain. Add ^ oz. isinglass, X oz. cochineal, 1 oz. alum, | oz. 
borax. Dissolve by heat, and strain. 

Hungary Water. — Spirit of rosemary, 4 pints ; orange-flower water, }( 
pint ; essence of neroli, 4 drops. 

Phalon's Instantaneous Hair-Dye. — No. 1. To 1. oz. pyrogallic acid, 
and }^ oz. of tannia, dissolved in 2 oz. of alcohol, add 1 qt. of soft water. 
No. 2. To 1 oz. crystallized nitrate of silver, dissolved in 1 oz. concentrated 
aqua-ammonia, add 1 oz. gum arable and 14 oz., soft water. Keep in the dark. 



240 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

Phalon's (One Preparation). To 1 oz. crystallized nitrate of silver, 
dissolved in 2 oz. of aqua-amiiionia, add 5 oz. soft water. Tliis is not an 
instantaneous dye ; but after exposure to tiie light and air, a dark color is 
pro<luced upon tlie surface to wliich it is applied. Remember to remove all 
grease, &c., from the hair before applying these dyes. 

Christadoro's Hair-Dye. — No. 1. To 1 oz. of pyro-gallic acid, dissolved 
in 1 oz. alcoiiol, add i qt. soft water. No. 2. To 1 oz. crystallized nitrate 
of silver, dissolved in 1 oz. concentrated aqua-ammonia and 1 oz. soft water, 
add i oz. gum arable and 3 oz. soft water. Keep covered from the light. 

Batchelor's Hair-Dye. No. I. To 1 oz. of pyro-gallic acid, dissolved 
in 1 oz. alcohol, add 1 qt. of soft water. No. 2. To 1 oz. nitrate of silver, 
dissolved in 1 oz. of concentrated ammonia, add 4 oz. of soft water. Apply 
each No. alternately, vvitli separate brusiies, to the hair. 

Harrison's. No. 1. To 1 oz. pyro-gallic acid, 1 oz. of tannin dissolved in 
2 oz. alcohol, add 1 qt. soft water. No. 2. To 1 oz. crystallized nitrate of 
silver, dissolved in 1 oz. of concentrated aqua-am moniii, add 6 oz. soft water 
and ^ oz. gum arable. No. 3. 1 oz. iiydro-sulphate of potassa, dissolved in 
1 qt. of soft water. This last ingredient is intended to produce a deep black 
color if the others should fail. Keep away from tlie light. 

Professor Wood's. To 8 oz. vinegar, diluted with an equal part of soft 
water, add 2 drs. sulplmr, and 2 drs. sugar of lead. 

Mrs. Allen's. To 16 oz. of rose water, diluted with an equal part of 
salt water, add { oz. sulphur and )^ oz. of sugar of lead ; let the compound 
stand five days before using. 

Phalon's Hair Restorative. To 8 oz. of 90 per cent, alcohol, colored 
by a few drops tincture of alkanet root, add 1 oz. of castor oil, and perfume 
witii a compound of bergamot, neroli, verbena, and orange. 

Lyon's Celebrated Kathairon for the Hair — the Original Pres- 
cription OF the Inventory. Two gallons castor oil, 3 gallons alcohol. 
Mix first. Ten oz. tincture cauthanile (officinal), 12 oz. bergamot; dissolve 
in small alcohol. Tincture red sanders, — proportions say 1 lb. to 5 gal., 95 
per cent, alcohol — to suit 4 oz. color 30 gallons. 

Alpine Hair-Balm. To 16 oz. of soft water add 8 oz. of alcohol and 
i oz. spirits turpentine, ^ oz. sulphur, and ^ oz. sugar of lead. 

Cold Cream. Take of the oil of almonds two ounces, of spermaceti half 
an ounce and white wax half an ounce. Put them in a close vessel, and set 
tiie vessel in a skillet of boiling water. When melted, beat the ingredients 
witli rosewater until cold. Keep it in a tight box, or wide-mouthed bottle, 
corked up close. 

Pink Saucer. This is employed for imparting an artificial bloom to the 
cheeks, and may be prepared as follows : Take eight ounces of dried saf- 
fiower, previously washed in water, until it no longer gives out any color, 
two ounces of subcarbonate of soda, and two gallons of water. Infuse, and 
afterwards strain it, add four pounds of French chalk, scraped fine witii 
Dutch rushes, and precipitate the color upon it, with citric or tartaric 
acid. 

Nitrate op Silver. Pure silver, IJ oz. ; nitric acid, 1 oz. diluted with 
water, 2 oz. ; heat by a sand-bath until ebullition ceases, and tiie water is 
expelled ; then pour into moulds. This substance must be kept from the 
ligiit. 

Glycerine Preparation. New rum, 1 qt. ; concentrated spirits of am- 
monia, 15 drops ; glycerine oil, 1 oz. ; lac sulphur, 5J drs. ; sugar of lead, 
6J drs. ; put the liquor into a bottle, add the ammonia, then the other com- 
ponents. Shake the compound occasionally for four or five days. 

Oriental Cold Cream. Oil of almonds, 4 oz. ; white wax and sperma- 
ceti, of eacli, 2 drs. ; melt, and add rose water, 4 oz. ; orange flower water, 
1 oz. ; used to soften the skin, apply as tlie last. 

Shaving Cream. White wax, spermaceti, almond and oil, of each 3^ oz.; 
melt, and while warm, beat in 2 squares of Windsor soap previously reduced 
to a paste with rose water. 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 241 

Circassian Cream. Take 2 ounces of perfectly fresli suet, eitlier mutton 
or venison ; 3 ounces of olive oil ; 1 oz. gum benzoin in powder, and % oz. 
of alkanet root. Put the whole into a jam jar, which, if without a lid, must 
be tied over with a bladder, and place the jar in a sauce pan containing 
boiling water, at the side of the fire. Digest for a whole day, then strain 
away all that is fluid through fine muslin, and stir till nearly cold. Add, 
say 1 drac!im of essence of almonds, roses, bergamot or any other perfume 
desired. 

Crystalline Cream. Oil of almonds, 8 oz. ; spermaceti, 1 oz. ; melt to- 
gether. Wiien a little cooled, add \ oz, or less of essence of bergamot or 
other perfume ; put into wide-mouthed bottles, and let it stand till cold. 
Camphoraled crystalline cream may be made by using camphorated oil. 
(OLCamphorce) instead of oil of almonds. 

Macassar Oil. Olive oil, 1 qt. ; alcohol, 2^ oz. ; rose oil, 1^ oz. ; then 
tie 1 oz. of chipped alkanet root in a muslin bag, and put it in the oil, let it 
alone for some days till it turns the color of a pretty red, then remove to 
other oils. Do not press it. 

Ox Marrow. Melt 4 oz. ox tallow ; white wax, 1 oz. ; fresh lard, 6 oz. ; 
when cold, add IJ oz. oil of bergamot. 

Liquid for Forcing the Beard. Cologne, 2 oz. ; liquid hartshorn, 
1 dr. ; tincture cantharides, 2 drs, ; oil rosemary, 12 drops ; lavender, 12 drops. 
Apply to the face daily and await results. Said to be reliable. 

Clifford's Hair-Dye. No. 1. Pyrogallic acid, 1 oz. ; water, 1 qt. No. 2. 
Nitrate of silver, 1 oz, ; water, 4 oz. ; ammonia, 1 oz. Keep j'our materials 
free from grease, cool, and in the dark. Apply each No. alternately to the 
hair, first cleaning the hair well. 

Pyrogallic Hair-Dye. P3'rogallic acid, ^ oz. ; dissolve it in hot distil- 
led water, 1^ oz. ; when the solution cools add gradually rectified spirit, ^ 
fluid oz. 

Fine Shampoo Liquid. Dissolve ^ oz. carbonate of ammonia, and 1 oz. 
of borax in 1 qt. water, then add 2 oz. glycerine, 3 qts. of New England 
rum, and 1 qt. of bay rum ; moisten the hair with this liquor, shampoo 
with the hands until a slight lather is formed, then wash off with clean 
water. 

Barber's Shampoo Mixture. Soft water, 1 pint ; sal soda, 1 oa.; cream 
tartar, ^ oz. Apply thoroughly to the hair. 

Hair Invigorator. Bay rum, 2 pints ; alcohol, 1 pint ; castor oil, 1 oz. ; 
carb. ammonia, -J oz. ; tincture of cantharides, 1 oz. Mix them well. This 
compound will promote the growth of the hair, and prevent it from falling 
out. 

Sea Foam for Barbers. Alcohol, 4 oz. ; castor oil, 1 oz. ; ammonia, 
J oz. ; water, 1 pint. Dissolve the castor oil and ammonia in the alcohol, 
then add the alcohol mixture to the water. 

Clifford's Shampoo Compound. Mix borax ^ lb. with salts tartar X 
lb. and dissolve 1 oz. of the mixture in 1 pint water. 

Razor-Strop Paste. Wet the strop with a little sweet oil, and apply a 
little flour of emery evenly over the surface. 

New- York Barbers' Star Hair Oil, Castor oil 6|- pints ; alcohol, 1^ 
pints ; citronella and lavender oil, each -J- oz. 

Bay Rum. French proof spirit 1 gal. ; ext. Bay 6 ozs. Mix and color 
with caramel, needs no filtering. 

Cheap Bay Rum. Saturate a X ^^- l^lock of carb. of magnesia with oil 
of Bay ; pulverize the magnesia, place it in a filter, and pour water through 
it until the desired quantity is obtained, then add alcohol. The quantity of 
water and alcohol employed depends on the desired strength and quantity 
of the Bay rum. Another. Oil of Bay, 10 fluid drs. ; oil of pimento, 1 fluid 
dr. ; acetic ether, 2 fluid drs. ; alcohol, 8 gals. ; water, 2-J gals. Mix, and 
after 2 weeks' repose, filter. 

Yankee Shaving Soap. Take 3 lbs. white bar soap ; 1 lb. Castile soap ; 
1 quart rain water ; ^ pint beef's gall ; 1 gill spirits of turpentine. Cut the 

n 



212 HEALTH AND 3IEDICAL,. 

soap into thin slices, and boil five minutes after the soap is dissolved, stir 
while boiling ; scent with oil of rose or almonds. If wished to color it, use 
i oz. vermilion. 

Chinese Depilatory {to remove superfluous hair). Crystallized hydro- 
stilpliiite of soda, 3 parts; quicklime, in powder, 10 parts ; starch, 10 parts. 
Mix. To he mixed witli water, and applied to the skin, and scraped off in 
2 or 3 minutes, with a wooden liuife. 

2. QuickUme, 16 ounces ; pearlash, 2 ounces ; reduce to fine powder and 
keep in a close bottle. Use as above. 

Perfumed Powder for Boxes and Drawers. Coriander powder, 
Florentine orris powder, powdered rose leaves, powdered sweet-scented 
flag-root, of each 2 ounces : lavender flowers, powdered, 4 ounces; musk, 
1 scruple ; powder of sandalwood, 1 drachm. Mix. 

Scott's Wash to Whiten the Nails. Tincture of myrrh, one dr. ; 
diluted sulphuric acid, two drachms ; spring water, four ounces. Mix. Cleanse 
tlie nails witli wiiite soap, then dip into the wash. 

To Whiten the Hands. Take two cakes of brown Windsor soap, 
scrape to a powder, and add Eau de Cologne, two ounces ; lemon juice, two 
ounces ; mix well and form into cakes. This is an excellent soap to make 
the hands soft and white. 

Excellent Tooth Powder. Suds of castile soap and spirits of cam- 
plior, of each an equal quantity ; thicken with equal quantities of pulverized 
chalk and charcoal to a thick paste. Apply with finger or brush. 

To Remove Pimples. Take white vinegar, four ounces ; sulphur water, 
two ounces ; acetated liquor of ammonia, one-half ounce ; liquor of potassa, 
.two grains ; distilled water, four ounces. Mix, and apply twice a day. 

To Clean Hair Brushes. Melt a piece of common soda in hot water, 
and put it in a large basin, and when nearly cold, dip your brush in, with 
the back upward (do not let the water get over the back;) shake it in the 
water till it becomes clean, then pour cold water over the back ; take it out 
of the water, shake as dry as you can, and then let it dry in the air without 
any rubbing witli a clotli, which spoils the bristles. 

Paste for Chapped Hands, and which will Preserve them Smooth 
BY CONSTANT USE. MIx a quarter of a pound of unsalted hog's lard, wliich 
lias been washed in common, and then in rose-water, with the yolks of two 
new-laid eggs, and a large spoonful of honey. Add as much fine oatmeal, or 
almond-paste, as will work into a paste. 

Alloys for Dentists' Moulds and Dies. 1. Tin, very hard. Tin, 16 
parts ; antimony, 1 part ; zinc, 1 part ; 2. Tin, softer than the fast. Tin, 8 parts; 
zinc, 1 part ; antimony, 1 part ; 8. Copper Alloy, very hard. Tin, 12 parts ; 
antimony, 2 parts ; copper, 1 part ; 4. Cadmium Alloy, about the hardness of 
zinc. Tin, 10 parts ; antimony, 1 part; cadmium, 1 part. 

Base for Artificial Teeth. Proportions. India-rubber, 1 lb. ; sul- 
pliur, ^ lb. ; vermilion, 1 lb. 4 oz. 

Dentists' Emery Wheels. Emery, 4 lbs. ; shellac, i lb. ; melt the 
shellac over a slow fire ; stir in the emery, and pour into a mould of plaster 
of Paris. When cold it is ready for use. 

Dentists' Composition for Filling Decayed Teeth. Gold, 1 part; 
mercury, 8 parts ; incorporated hy lieating together ; when mixed pour them 
into cold water. Or, tinfoil and quicksilver; melt together in a convenient 
vessel, take a small quantity, knead it in the palm of the hand, and apply 
quick. Or, mix a little finely-powdered glass with some mineral succeda- 
neuin ; apply as usual. Or, take some mineral succedaneum, and add some 
steel dust. Or, mineral succedaneum mixed with levigated porcelain or 
china. Or, gyjisum, 1 part ; levigated porcelain, 1 part ; levigated iron fil- 
ings, 1 part ; make into a paste with equal parts of quick-drying eopal and 
mastic varnish. Or, quicksilver, 40 grains ; steel filings, 26 grains. Or, sil- 
ver, 72 parts ; tin, 20 parts ; zinc, 6 parts. Better than any, pure gold, 1 part; 
silver, 3 parts; tin, 2 parts; melt the first two, add tlie tin, reduce all to 9 
fine powder, use with an equal quantity of pure mercury. 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 243 

Gutta-percha, softei.pcl by lieat, is recommended. Dr. Rollfs advises 
melting a piece of caoutchouc at the end of a wire, and introducing it while 
warm. 

Amalgams for tlie teeth are made with gold or silver, and quicksilver, 
the excess of tlie latter being squeezed out, and tlie stiff amalgam used 
warm. Inferior kinds are made witii quicksilver and tin, or zinc. A ])opu- 
lar nostrum of this kind consists of 40 grains of quicksilver and 20 of fine 
zinc filings, mixed at the time of using. The following is said to be the 
most lasting and least objectionable amalgam : Melt 2 parts of .tin with 
1 of cadmium, run it into an ingot, and reduce it to filings. Form tliese 
hito a fluid amalgam with mercury, and squeeze out the excess of mercury 
tlirough leather. Work up the solid residue in the hand, and press it into 
the tooth. Another cement consists of about 73 parts of silver, 21 of tin, 
and G of zinc, amalgamated with quicksilver. Beyond all doubt, gold foil 
is the best filling in use. 

A sure cure for pain in a hollow tooth is a mixture of powdered alum and 
common salt, applied with a lock of cotton wool. A sensation of coldness 
follows the application, after which the pain gradually subsides. 

Dentists' Nerve Paste. — Arsenic, 1 part; rose pink, 2 parts. To des- 
troy the nerve, apply tliis preparation on a pledget of cotton, previously 
moistened.with creosote, to the cavity of the tooth, let it remain 4 hours, 
then wash out thoroughly with water. Another. Arsenious acid, 30 grs. ; 
acetate of morphia, 20 grs. ; creosote, q. s. for paste. Mix. 

Wash for the Teeth. Dissolve two ounces of borax in three pints of 
warm water. Before the water is quite cold add one teaspoonful of tincture 
of myrrh and one table-spoonful of spirits of camphor. Bottle the mixture 
for use. One wine-glassful of the mixture added to half a pint of tepid 
water is sufficient for each application. This solution used daily beautifies 
and preserves the teeth. 

Nitrous Oxide, or Laughing Gas. — Take two or three ounces of ni- 
trate of ammonia in crystals and put it into a retort, taking care that the 
heat does not exceed 500° ; wiien the crystals begin to melt, the gas will be 
produced in considerable quantities. Tlie gas may also be procured, though 
not so pure, by pouring nitric acid, diluted witli five or six times its weight 
of water, on copper filings or small pieces of tin. The gas is given out till 
the acid begins to turn brown ; the process must then be stopped. 

To Inhale the Laughing Gas. — Procure an oiled or varnished silk 
bag, or a bladder, furnished with a stop-cock, into the mouth, and at the 
same time hold the nostrils, and the sensation produced will be of a highly 
pleasing nature ; a great propensity to laughter, a rapid flow of vivid ideas, 
and an unusual fitness for muscular exertion, are the ordinary feelings 
which it produces. The sensations, produced by breathing tliis gas, are 
not the same in all persons, but they are of an agreeable nature, and not 
followed by any depression of spirits like those occasioned by fermented 
liquors. 

PouDRE Metallique. — Tlic article sold under this name in Paris appears 
to be an amalgam of silver, mercury, and ammonium, with an excess of 
mercury, whicii is pressed out before using it. 

Certain Remedy for Offensive Breath. — Take from six to ten drops 
of Labarraque's solution of chloride soda (can be purchased at any drug 
store) and put it in a wine-glassful of pure water. Taken immediately after 
the operations of the morning are completed, this will instantly sweeten the 
breath by disinfecting the stomach, which far from being impaired, will be 
benefited by tlie medicine. If necessary, the dose may be repeated in the 
middle of the day. In some cases the odor arising from carious teeth is 
combined witli that of the stomach ; if the mouth be well rinsed witii a 
teaspoonful of the solution in a tumblerful of water, the bad odor of the 
teeth will be removed. 

To Extract Teeth with Little or no Pain. — Tincture of aconite, 
chloroform, and alcohol, of each 1 oz. ; mix ; moisten two pledgets of cotton 



244 HEALTH AMD MEDICAL. 

with the liquid, and apply to tlie gums on each side of the tooth to be ex- 
tracted, holding them in their place with pliers or other instruments for 
from five to ten minutes, rubbing the gum freely inside and out. 



THE TREATMENT OF INFANTS. 

Would that parents generally were aware of the importance, and ade- 
quately understood the principles of properly taking care of children. One- 
half of tlie diseases of mature life have tiieir origin in our early years. 

In the following treatise may be found a complete code of precepts for 
the bringing up of cliildren. It is from the liighest medical autiiority, and 
I cannot too highly commend it to the attention of all parents, and all those 
who ever expect to become sucli. 



Rules for Treatment of the Child after Birth and before Weaning. 

Give the breast within twelve or eighteen hours after birth, at least. 

Foment the breast witli warm water if the milk does not flow ; avoid rub- 
bing tlie breasts with spirits. 

If there be too much milk, drink little, and take opening medicine. 

As a nurse, wear easy dresses about the bosom and cliest. 

Keep down tiie tendency of the abdomen to enlarge, hy exercise. 

If the nipple is small or turned in, liave it drawn by an older or stronger 
infant, not by artificial means ; but let the new-born child have the first 
milk. 

Ciioose a hired wet nurse [when required] nearly of the same age with 
the mother, like her in constitutional peculiarities, and who has been con- 
fined about the same time. 

Wlien nursing, live on nutritious but not heavy diet. A full habit re- 
quires less nutriment tlian a delicate constitution. Stimulating liquors are 
to be avoided. Simple diluents, such as tea, are quite enough as drinks for 
many mothers. 

The mother's milk is the best food for the new-born child for three 
months. 

An infant from two to four months old requires to be suckled once about 
every three hours. 

Tlie best substitute for the breast, but as temporary as possible, is asses* 
or diluted cows' milk ; but on no account should farinaceous food be given 
at this early period. 

Apply a flannel bandage to the lower part of the body in bowel com- 
plaints. A warm bath soothes irritation. 

After six months an approacli may be made to more solid diet. 

Raise up the child after feeding. 

Give no stimulants, caraway-seeds, carminatives, &c. ; they are most per- 
nicious. 

Give as little medicine to a child as possible, and always by advice. 

Never over-feed, and never stop crying by feeding. 

Avoid rough jolting and patting of the back. 

Train an infant to regularity in all its wants. 

Rides for Weaning. 

Wean gradually, discontinuing suckling in the night ; the gradual change 
is beneficial to botli mother and cliild. Avoid weaning in severe weather. 
Take for yourself a cooling purgative, and refrain from fluids and stimulat- 
ing diet. 

In weaning, apply to the breasts three ounces compound soap liniment, 
three drachms laudanum, one drachm camphor liniment. If tliis be too 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 245 

irritating, foment with warm water, or poppy-heads and camomile flowers 
boiled together in water. Avoid tightness or pressure from the dress, and 
all roughness, for fear of abscess. Avoid drawing the breasts; avoid ex- 
posure to cold. 

Utiles for Treatment after Weaning — Food. 

Study the child's constitution, digestive powers, teeth, strength, and pro- 
portion the kind and quantity of food. 

Animal food, in small quantity, once a day, if the teeth can masticate, is 
necessary when there is rapid growth. 

Avoid too nourishing a diet with a violent tempered child. 

Give a nourishing diet to a white-looking, lymphatic child. 

Both over-feeding and under-feeding produces scrofula and consumption. 

The spoiled and petted child is injured both in health and temper. 

Avoid seasoned dishes, fried and salted meats, pastry, uncooked vege- 
tables, unripe fruits, wine and rich cake. 

Insist on thorough chewing or mastication. 

Never tempt the appetite when disinclined. 

Vary tlie food from day to day, but avoid variety at one meal. 

Animal food should be tender, and eaten with a little salt, vegetables, and 
bread. 

Take care that the child's food is well cooked. Give no new bread. 

Sweetmeats and confections are only to be given to children in a very 
sparing manner, if given at all. Never pamper or reward witii eatables. 

Rules for Sleep. 

Allow the child plenty of sleep, without disturbance. 

Avoid accustoming the child to sleep on the lap; it will not sleep in bed 
if so accustomed. 

Establish times for regular sleeping. 

Keep the hands, feet and face comfortably warm — blankets are better 
than sheets. 

Support eVery part of the body, raising by a slope the head and shoul- 
ders. 

Avoid laying the child in the same bed with an adult, unless for a short 
time, to restore warmtli if it fail. 

Never rouse the child by play when taken up during the night. 

Rules for Clothing. 

In the first stage of infancy, warmth depends on clothing alone, for there 
is no muscular movement. 

Avoid a degree of warmth which produces sensible perspiration. 

Flannel and calico are the best materials in all seasons. 

Dress tlie child loosely, and fasten with strings, not with pins. 

Tlie umbilical cord, navel, and belly-band require much attention. 

Avoid keeping the child's head too warm, or its feet too cold. 

Avoid chilling the child, or taking it abroad in cold weather. 

Attend to the form and size of the child's shoes, so that the feet shall not 
be cramped. 

The practice of plunging infants into cold water, to render them hardy, 
is exceedingly dangerous. 

Let a child's washing be very completely and carefully performed. Keep 
the child always perfectly clean and neat. 

Be very attentive to ventilate the apartment where a child lives, but 
never expose it to draughts of air. 

Begin early to form habits of personal cleanliness and delicacy. 

Vaccination. 
Let the child be vaccinated from six weeks to two months after birth, 



246 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

and tliat by a proper medical attendant. Vaccination should take place be- 
fore teetiiing. 

Deformilies and Distortions. 

Consult tlie surgeon upon the first appearance of any deformity; and do 
not let fears for giving pain to tiie cliild prevent the use of the necessary 
remedies. 

Be very vigilant with rickets or soft bones. Never allow the rickety 
chih' *« support its own weight. It ought to be kept on its back for many 
monrii.., _-.d carried about on a little mattress on a board or tray, and have 
nourisliing diet, and tiie proper medicines to give solidity to the bones. 

Never jerk or swing children by the arms ; mucii mischief has been done 
b)' this practice. 

When a child falls, or meets with any accident, it is highly culpable in a 
nurse to conceal it. If she do not immediately mention it, she may be the 
cause of the child's deformity and lameness for life. 

Witli proper attention, a tendency to be left-handed may be easily cured 
in a cliild. 

Prevent all tricks and ill habits which injure the features and organs ; 
such as stuffing tlie nostrils, ears, &c., distending the mouth with too large a 
spoon. 

Curvature of tlie spine is of very frequent occurrence from mismanaging 
cliildren, by tight lacing, long sitting without support to the back (all 
scliool seats and forms sliould have backs). Take all deformities of the 
spine in time, before they get fixed. 

Pi-ecocity. 

When a child appears to be over intelligent, or too clever or ivise for its 
age, this is a symptom of an unnatural development of the brain ; it is a 
kind of disease. Avoid, therefore, exercising tlie child's ability ; treat it as 
an animal, with nutritive food, muscular, out-door exercise, and plenty of 
sleep ; and do this, and this onlj', for some years. 

No cliild should be kept for more than a few minutes at a time engaged 
in mental study. 

Stammering and Defective Articulation, 

This defect, with care, may be cured ; or rather, when it is first threatened, 
it may be prevented. Practice the child in letters or articulations where a 
peculiar defect appears. 

Squinting. 

Watch this very common weakness ; check it in the infant by holding the 
hand over the eyes till thej' are shut ; and when opened again, if they have 
not assumed a proper position, repeat the operation. It may have often to 
be rejjeated. Careless nurses are very apt to produce squinting in children. 

An ingenious and effectual mode of curing squinting has been discovered, 
and is now practised by surgeons. 

Teething. 

The first sign of teething is heat in the mouth of the child, felt by the 
mother during sucking, flow of saliva, biting and grinding the gums. A 
piece of India rubber is better than coral, ivory, or any hard substance for 
rubbing the gums. 

When tlie child is much distressed, have recourse to medical aid. 

Wlien tlie bowels are confined, give witliout delay a gentle purgative, 
such as castor-oil, manna, magnesia, or senna. The warm bath at ninety- 
six degrees soothes the child. 

A (!liild's mouth should be often examined, even after three years of age. 
Wayward temper, cough, and even croup, liave been traced to cutting a 
double tooth. 

Do not liesitate to allow the child's gums to bo lanced. 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL, 247 

Exercise — Walking Alone. 
Very little motion, and that of flie gentlest and most careful kind, is all 
the infant should have for a considerable time after birth. 
Avoid the upright posture as much as possible. 
Avoid all sudden and violent jerking, and long-continued positions. 
Allow the child to move its limbs freel}', on the floor or in bed. 
Watch the first efforts of the child to walk alone, and interfere rather 
with eye and hand than by exclamations of caution and alarm : these last 
do much harm. 

Avoid sympathizing too strongly with a child when hurt. Assist quietly, 
and show how the accident happened. Children wlio are angry when hurt, 
should see that you do not sympathize with their rage, although you do 
with their sufferings. 

Abjure all leading strings and go-carts, or other artificial means of teach- 
ing the child to walk. Never drag the child by one hand, or lift it by either 
one or both arms. 

When the child walks alone, it should not be permitted to over-fatigue 
itself. 

The mother should liave her eye both on child and its attendant out of 
doors, and be as much as she can in her child's company. 
Moral Government. 
Anticipate and prevent fretfulness and ill temper by keeping the child in 
good health, ease, and comfort. Never quiet with giving to eat, or by 
bribing in any way, still less by opiates. 

For the first few months, avoid loud and harsh sounds in the hearing of 
children, or violent lights in their sight. Address them in soft tones; do 
nothing to frighten them ; and never jerk or roughly handle them. 

Avoid angry words and violence, both to a child and in its presence ; by 
which means a naturally violent child may be trained to gentleness. 

Moderate any propensity of a child, such as anger, violence, greediness 
for food, cunning, t&c, which appears too active. Show him no example of 
these. 

Let the mother be, and let her select servants such as she wishes the child 
to be. The youngest child is affected by the conduct of those in whose 
arms he lives. 

Cultivate and express benevolence and cheerfulness ; in such an atmos- 
phere, a child must become benevolent and cheerful. 

Let a mother feel as she ought, and she will look- as she feels. Much of a 
cliild's earliest moral training is by looks and gestures. 

When necessary, exhibit firmness and authority, always with perfect 
temper, composure and self-possession. 

Never give the child that which it cries for ; and avoid being too ready 
in answering children's demands, else they become impatient of refusal, 
and selfish. 

When tlie child is most violent, the mother should be most calm and 
silent. Out-screaming a screaming child is as useless as it is mischievous. 
Steady denial of the object screamed for is the best cure for screaming. 

Li such contests, witnesses should withdraw, and leave mother and child 
alone. A child is very ready to look round and attract the aid of foreign 
sympathy in its little rebellions. 

Never promise to give when the child leaves off crying. Let the crying 
be the reason for not giving. 

Never strike a child, and never teach it to strike again. Never tell a child 
to beat or threaten any animal or object. Corporal correction may be 
avoided by substitutes. 

Nurse, ^or Children. — For this office there are two kinds of nurses, the 
wet nurse: and tlie drj- nurse. The wet nurse acts as a substitute for the 
mother, o' aids her wlien there is a deficiency in the maternal supply of 
m'lk. W en a wet nurse is required, the selection should be left to the 



248 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

medical attendant. The following are deemed sure characteristics of a 
good nurse : She should be between twentj'-five and thirty years of age, 
strong in constitution, full-chested, of sanguine lymphatic temperament, 
brown haired, with perfect and white teeth, and full red lips. The milk 
drawn into a spoon should be white, with a slight bluish tint, its taste sac- 
cliarine, and its consistence not too thick. In addition to the physical quali- 
fications of a wet nurse, her mental capacity and moral deportment should 
also be regarded. Her temper and disposition have much to do with the 
healthy nurture of the child, for it is well known that mental emotions are 
apt to affect the milk, and so act upon its properties as to render it perni- 
cious to the child. Temperance in eating and drinking, is another impor- 
tant qualification ; the latter especially, for when a nurse is addicted to an 
immoderate use of stimulants, the greatest injurj' is likely to be inflicted 
on the suckling infant. The offices of a wet nurse sliould be made available 
only where a positive necessity exists. The suckling of the child is the 
natural office of tlie mother, and while it does not injure the parent is cal- 
culated to be of the greatest benefit to the infant. It should also be borne 
in mind, that the child will naturally place its affections where it receives 
its sustenance, and will love the nurse in preference to the mother ; and al- 
though this may in time wear off, tlie estrangement wliile it lasts causes great 
pain to a mother's heart. The dry nurse is a person who brings up a child 
by hand wlien tlie mother is incapable of suckling her child, and a wet 
nurse cannot be substituted. As the person thus selected is generally re- 
moved out of the mother's reach, great care should be exercised in making 
the selection. A sensible, kind, and patient person, who possesses some 
knowledge of the natures and habits of children is indispensable ; and the 
person most likely to possess these qualities, is one who has had children of 
her own. When paTents thus intrust their children into the hands of a dry 
imrse, it would be well if they paid them a visit from time to time, quietly 
and unexpectedly ; for it is sometimes the case, that children thus situated 
are neglected, save at such times when a visit from the parents or friends is 
expected. 

Feeding Bottle. — A substitute for the breast, by which sustenance is 
administered to infants. These bottles are made of a convenient form, 
having in the centre an aperture through whicli the food is poured, while 
at the mouth of the bottle the teat is fastened on for the infant to suck 
from. The best kind of teat is that made of calf's teat, and usually sold by 
surgeons ; others are made of caoutchouc, but these are not to be recom- 
mended, as their hard surface frequently irritates the gums of the infant 
and prevents him from sucking ; the calf's teat is decidedly the best, being 
soft and pleasant, and more nearly resembling the human breast than any 
other. Great care, however, is necessary in using them, as they soon turn 
sour; immediately, therefore, the child is fed, the teat should be thrown 
into a tumbler about half full of cold water, with a wineglassful of gin in 
it, tills will counteract any tendency to acidity, and the teat should remain 
in the glass mitil it is again required ; after a time it becomes very hard 
and tough, and should tlien be exchanged for a new one. The bottle itself 
should be attended to with the most scrupulous attention ; it should be 
rinsed out every time it has been fed from, and the food should not be 
suffered to remain in it and again offered to the child. If these matters are 
neglected, the infant's stomach, by being subjected to the stale food, be- 
comes deranged, and his whole system disordered from a mere act of inat- 
tention and carelessness. In holding the bottle, it should be slightly ele- 
vated in the direction of the infant's mouth, and the hole in the centre of 
the bottle siiould be partially covered with a cork, in such a manner that 
the infant may not suck in the wind, and yet not to render it air-tight, and 
so preventing him obtaining any food. 

Age at which Menstkuation Commences. — Dr. Walter Rigden gives the 
subjoined statistics, obtained from females who were confined at University 
College Hospital. In 2,696 cases menstruation occurred for the first time : 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 249 



At tlie age 


of 1 


9 in 8 cases. | 


10 " 14 




11 " 60 




12 " 170 




13 " 853 




14 " 560 




15 " 540 




16 " 455 




17 " 272 





At tlie age of 


18 in 


150 cases 


19 " 


76 " 


20 " 


29 " 


21 " 


7 " 


22 " 


3 " 


23 " 


2 " 


24 " 


" 


25 " 


" 


26 " 


2 " 



It thus appears that it is most common at 14 years of age, and great care 
should be taken of the healtli on tlie occurrence of these important periods. 

Anodyne for Painful Menstruation. — Extract of stramonium and 
sulphate of quinine, each sixteen grains ; macrotin, eight grains ; mor- 
cratin, eight grains; morphine, 1 grain ; make into eight pills. Dose, one 
pill, repeating once or twice only, forty to fifty minutes apart, if the pain does 
not subside before this time. Pain must subside under the use of this pill, 
and costiveness is not increased. 

Powder for Excessive Flooding. — Gums kino and catechu, each one 
grain ; sugar of lead and alum, each one-half drachm ; pulverize all and 
thoroughly mix, then divide into seven to ten grain powders. Dose, one 
every two or three hours until checked, then less often merely to control 
the flow. 

Injection for Leucorrhcea. — When the glairy mucous discharge is 
present, prepare a tea of hemlock inner bark and witch hazel (often called 
spotted alder) leaves and bark, have a female syringe large enough to fill 
tlie vagina, and inject the tea, twice daily ; and occasionally in bad cases, 
say twice a week, inject a syringe of the following composition : For 
Chronic Female Complaints : White vitriol and sugar of lead, each one-eighth 
of an ounce ; common salt, pulverized alum, and loaf sugar, each one-half 
drachm ; soft water, one pint. Inject as above. 

For Prolapsus Uteri, or Falling of the Womb. — Not only the 
cheapest but the best support will be found to be a piece of fine firm 
sponge, cut to a proper size, to admit when damp of being pressed up the 
vagina to hold the womb in its place. The sponge should have a stout 
piece of small cord sewed two or three times through its centre, up and 
down, and left sufficiently long to allow its being taken hold of to remove 
the sponge, once a day, or every other day at the farthest, for the purpose 
of washing, cleaning, and using the necessary injections ; and tliis must he 
done while the patient is lying down, to prevent the womb from again fall- 
ing or prolapsing. After having injected some of the above tea, wet the 
sponge in the same, and introduce it sufficiently high to hold the womb in 
its place. If pain is felt about the head, back or loins for a few days be- 
fore the menses appear, prepare and use the following : Emmenagogue Tinc- 
ture : Alcohol, one pint; red oxide of iron, one ounce ; oils of juniper and 
savin, each one-quarter ounce ; oil of tansy, one drachm ; tincture of 
ergot, three drachms ; tincture Spanisli flies, one-half ounce ; mix all, and 
shake when taken. Dose, one teaspoonful three times daily, to be taken in 
mucilage of slippery elm or gum arable, and drink freely of the mucilage 
also through the day, or use the following ; 

Evimenagoyue Pill. — Precipitated carbonate of iron and gum mj'rrh, of 
each 2 drachms ; aloes and tincture of Spanish flies, of each one drachm ; 
and oil of savin, 1 drachm ; all to be pulverized and made into 100 pills by 
using thick gum solution. Dose, one pill from one to three times daily, but 
not to move the bowels too much. 

Pills to Promote Menstrual Secretion. — Take pills of aloes and 
myrrh, four drachms ; compound iron pills, 280 grains ; mix and form into 
100 pills. Dose, two twice a day. 

For Obstructed Menstruation. — Make a strong tea of smart weed, 
covering it to retain the strength, or use the extract of smart weed instead, 

11* 



250 HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

taking one teaspoonful of the latter once every three hours (or about ten 
teaspoonfuls of the tea) in warm water, sweetened, making free use of liot 
batlis for the feet and the lower parts of the body. It will give great relief. 

Injection for Obstructed Menstruation. — Mix 1 to 2 fluid drs. liquor 
of ammonia with 1 pint milk. Use thrice daily. 

For Obstructed Menstruation. — Sulpliate of iron, 60 grs. ; potassa 
(sub. carb.) 60 grs. ; myrrh, 2 drs. ; make them into 3^ gr. pills ; 2 to be 
taken three times a day in the absence of fever. For PavTful Menstvuatiou, 
take pulv. rliei., 2 drs. ; pulv. jalap, 2 drs. ; syrup of poppies to mix. 
Divide into 200 pills, and take night and morning. To Check Immoderate 
Flow : Tinct. of ergot, 1 oz. ; liquor of ammonia, 3 drs. ; mix. Dose, tea- 
spoonful in water 3 times a day. 

Stimulant. — In Low Fevers, and after Uterine H.ffiMORRHAGE8. — 
Best brandy and cinnamon water, of eacli 4 fluid oz. ; tlie yolks of 2 eggs 
well beaten ; loaf sugar, ^ oz. ; oil of cinnamon, 2 drops ; mix. Dose, 
from ^ to 1 (fluid) oz., as often as required. This makes both meat and 
drink. Of course, any other flavoring oils can be used, if preferred, in 
place of the cinnamon. 

For Female Complaints. — One of the best laxative pills for female 
complaints is macrotin and rhubarb, each 10 grs. ; extract of hyoscyanius 
10 grs. ; Castile soap, 40 grs. ; scrape the soap, and mix well together, form- 
ing into common sized pills with gum solution. Dose, 1 pill at bed time, or 
sufficiently often to keep the bowels in a laxative state. 

Uterine Hemorrhage. — Unfailing cure. Sugar of lead, 10 grs. ; ergot, 
10 grs. ; opium, 3 grs. ; ipecac, 1 gr. ; all pulverized and well mixed. Dose, 
10 to 12 grs, given in a little honey or syrup. 

In very bad cases after childbirth, it might be repeated in 30 minutes, or 
the dose increased to 15 or 18 grs. ; but in cases of rather profuse wasting, 
repeat it once at the end of 8 hours, or as the urgency of the case may re- 
quire. 

In every case of female debility make a liberal use of iron, as the want 
of iron in the system is often the cause of the trouble. Mix fine iron filings 
with as much ground ginger. Dose, half a teaspoonful 8 three times daily 
in a little honey or molasses, increasing or lessening the dose to produce a 
blackness of the stools. Continue this course until well. 

Ablution. — The frequent affusion of the surface of the body is not only 
necessary to cleanliness and comfort, but is also essential to tlie preserva- 
tion of health. The explanation of this is, that the pores of the skin act as 
agents for removing from the body useless and superfluous matter, whicli is 
constantly being generated, and which, in the form of minute scales, is de- 
posited upon the outer portion or cuticle of the skin. If this refuse is suf- 
fered to accumulate and remain, it forms in the process of time a thick hard 
crust, which obstructs the pores of the skin, and impedes their functions. It 
is obvious, therefore, that tlie internal organs of the body, being deprived 
of the assistance and vital energy rendered by the pores, become by this 
means enfeebled in their operations, and habitually debilitated and de- 
ranged. To obviate these evil effects, it is necessary that the whole surface 
of the body sliould be daily subjected to an ablution of cold water, or, where 
this may be impracticable, to friction with a damp cloth. 

Abscess. — A collection of pus or matter deposited in a cavity, occasioned 
by inflammation. The mode of treatment for tlie cure of abscess is, to pro- 
mote suppuration rather than retard it; tliis is effected by warm fomenta- 
tions, and jjoulticos of bread and water or linseed meal. If the suppuration 
proceeds slowly it may be hastened by opening with a lancet, and after the 
discharge of matter, the poultices may be continued until all tenderness has 
left the part. The wound should then be dressed with spermaceti ointment 
twice a day, and lightly bandaged. In the early stages a liberal diet may 
be adopted, until the period of discliarge ; a iiglit nutritious diet should 
then be substituted, and mild aperients administered, until perfect health is 
restored. 




GROCERS, SOAP CHANDLERS, TOBACCO- 
NISTS, &c. 



The Adulteration of Teas, Coffees, Sugars, Manufac- 
turing Receipts, Tables, &c. 

Rapid Process of Marking Goods at any desired per cent. Pro- 
fit. — Retail mercliants, in buying goods b_v wliole.sale, buy a great many 
articles by the dozen, sucli as boots and shoes, hats and caps, and notions 
of various kinds ; now, the nieri;liant, in bu3'ing, for instance, a dozen hats, 
knows exactl}' what one of these hats will retail for in tlie market where he 
deals ; and, unless he is a good accountant, it will often take him some time 
to determine whether he can afford to purchase the dozen hats and make a 
living profit by selling them by the single hat ; and in buying his goods by 
auction, as the merchant often does, he has not time to make the calcula- 
tion before the goods are bid off. He therefore loses the chance of making 
good bargains by being afraid to bid at random, or if he bids, and the 
goods are cried off, he may have made a poor bargain, by bidding thus at a 
venture. It then becomes a useful and practical problem to determine in- 
stantly what per cent, he would gain if he retailed the hat at a certain price, 
to tell what an article should retail for to make a profit of 20 per cent. 

Rule. — Divide what the articles cost per dozen hy 10, which is done by remov- 
iug the decimal point one place to the left. . 

For instance, if hats cost $17.50 per dozen, remove the decimal point one 
place to the left, making $1.75, what they should be sold for apiece to gain 
20 per cent, on the cost. If they cost $31.00 per dozen, they should be sold 
at $3.10 apiece, etc. We take 20 per cent, as the basis for the following 
reasons, viz; because vve can determine instantly, by simply removing the 
decimal point, without changing a figure, and, if the goods would not 
bring at least 20 per cent, profit in the home market, the merchant could not 
afford to purchase, and would look for cheaper goods. 

The reason for the above rule is obvious, for if we divide the cost of a 
dozen by 12, we have the cost of a single article ; then if we wish to make 
20 per cent, on the cost (cost being 1-1 or 5 5), we add the per cent, whicli 
is 1-5, to the 5-5, making 6-5 or 12-10 ; then as we multij)ly the cost, divided 
by 12, by the 12-10 to find at what price one must be sold to gain 20 per 
cent., it is evident that the 12s will cancel and leave tlie cost of a dozen to 
be divided by 10, to do this remove the decimal point one place to the left. 

Now, as removing the decimal point one place to tiie left, on the cost of 
a dozen articles, gives the selling price of a single one with 20 per cent, 
added to the cost, and as the cost of any article is 100 per cent., it is obvious 
that the selling price would be 20 per cent, more, or 120 jier cent. ; hence, 
to find 50 per cent, profit which would make the selling price 150 per cent., 

251 



252 GROCERS, TRADERS, &C. 

we would first find 120 per cent, then add 30 per cent, by increasing it one- 
fourth itself ; for 35 per cent., increase it one-eighth itself, etc. Hence to 
mark an article at any per cent, profit we find the following : 

General Rule. — First find 20 per cent, profit by removing the decimal poirit one 
place to the left on the pi ice the articles cost per doz. ; then, as 20 per cent, profit is 
120 per cent., add to or subtract from this amount the fractional part that the re- 
quired per cent, added to 100 is more or less than 120. 

Merchants, in marking goods, generally take a per cent, that is an ali- 
quot part of 100, as 25, 33 1-3, 50, &c. The reason they do this is because 
it makes it much easier to add such a per cent, to the cost ; for instance, a 
merchant could mark almost a dozen articles at 50 per cent, profit in the 
time it would take him to mark one at 49 per cent. The following is ar- 
ranged for the convenience of business men in marking the prices of all 
articles bought by the dozen. 

To make 20 per cent, remove the point one place to the left. 
•' 80 " " " " and add i itself. 

" 60 " " " " " 1-3 " 

" 50 " " " " " 1-4 " 

" 44 " «< " « tt j_g « 

« 40 " " " " f< 1.6 " 

« 37 " t< « n (< -17 « 

35 " " " " " 1-8 " 

" 33 1-3 " " " " " 1-9 " 

'< 32 " « « « « J40 " 

" 30 " " " " " 1-12 " 

" 28 " " " " " 1-15 " 

" 26 " " " " " 1-20 " 

25 " " " " " 1-24 " 

12 1-2 " " " " subtract 1-16 " 

" 16 2-3 " " " " " 1-36 " 

18 3-4 " " " " " 1-96 " 

If I buy a doz. shirts for $28.00, what shall I retail them for to make 50 

per cent. ? Ans. $3.50. 

Explanation. — Remove the point one place to the left, and add i it- 
self. 

Aliquot Parts of 100 and 1000. — Merchants in selling goods gener- 
ally make the price of the article some aliquot part of 100, as in selling 
sugar at 12^ cents per lb., or 8 lbs. for $1.00, or in selling calico for 16 2-3 
cents per yard, or 6 yds. for $1.00, etc. The following table will be found 
valuable for all such calculations : 

12i is 1-8 part of 100 8^ is 1-12 part of 100. 

25 is 1-4 part of 100. 16 2-3 is 2-12 or 1-6 of 100. 

37^ is 3-8 part of 100. 33 1-3 is 4-12 or 1-3 of 100. 

50 is 4-8 or i of 100. 66 2-3 is 8-12 or 2-3 of 100. 

62§ 5-8 part of 100. 83 1-3 is 10-12 or 5-6 of 100. 

75 is 6-8 or 3-4 part of 100. 125 is 1-8 part of 1000. 

87i is 7-8 part of 100. 250 is 2-8 or i of 1000. 

6i is 1-16 part of 100. 375 is 3-8 part of 1000. 

181 is 3-16 part of 100. 625 is 5-8 part of 1000. 

3li is 5-16 part of 100. 875 is 7-8 part of 1000. 

To multiply by an aliquot part of 100. 

Rule. — Add two ciphers to the multiplicand, then take such part of it 
as tlie multiplier is part of 100. 

If the multiplicand is a mixed number reduce tlie fraction to a decimal 
of two places before dividing. 

Teas. — The names of the different kinds of tea relate to the time of 
^ their being gathered, or to some pecuharity in their manufacture. It is a 
general rule, that all tea is fine in proportion to the tenderness and imma- 
turity of the leaves. The quality and value of tlie different kinds diminish 
as they are gatiiered later in ine season. 



GROCERS, TRADERS, ifcC 253 

Black Teas. — As soon as tlie leaf-bud begins to expand, it is gathered 
to make Pekoe. A few days' later growth produces black-leaved Pekoe. 
The ne.xt picking is called Souchong ; as the leaves grow larger and more 
mature, they form Congou ; and the last picking is Boltea. Bohea is called 
by the Chinese, Ta-Cha (large tea), on account of the maturity and size of 
the leaves ; it contains a larger proportion of woody fibre than other teas, 
and its infusion is of a darker color and coarser flavor. Congou, the next 
higher kind, is named from a corruption of the Ciiinese Koong-foa (great 
care, or assiduity). This forms the bulk of the black tea imported, and is 
mostly valued for its strength. 

Souchong — Seaoa-choong (small scarce sort), is the finest of the strongest 
black tea, with a leaf tliat is generally entire and curly. It is much esteem- 
ed for its fragrance and fine flavor. Pekoe is a corruption of the Canton 
name, Pak-ho (white down), being the first sprout of the leaf -buds ; they 
are covered with a white silky down. It is a delicate tea, rather deficient 
in strength, and is principally used for flavoring other teas. 

Green Teas. — The following are the principal kinds, Twankay, Hyson- 
Skin, Hyson, Gunpowder, and Young Hyson. 

Young Hyson is a delicate young leaf, called in the original language 
Yu-tsien (before the rains), because gathered in the early spring. Hyson, 
from the Chinese word He-tchune, which means flourishing spring. This 
fine tea is gathered early in the season, and prepared with great care and 
labor. Each leaf is picked separately and nipped off above the footstalks ; 
and every separate leaf is rolled in the hand. It is much esteemed for its 
flavor. Gunpowder Tea is only Hyson rolled and rounded to give it the^ra?j- 
ular appearance whence it derives its name. The Chinese call it Choo-cha 
(pea tea). Hyson-Skin is so named from the Chinese term, in which con- 
nection skin means the refuse, or inferior portion. In preparing Hyson, all 
leaves that are of a coarse yellow, or imperfectly twisted appearance, are 
separated, and sold as skin-tea, at an inferior price. 

Twankay is the last picking of green tea, and the leaf is not rolled or 
twisted as much as the dearer descriptions. There is altogether less trouble 
bestowed on the preparation. 

Coffees. — Java Coffee. — Use -of the imported article, 20 lbs. ; dried 
dandelion root, 7 lbs.; chicory, 13 lbs. Roast and grind well together. 

For West India, use rye roasted with a little butter, and ground very 
fine. 

For Turkey Coffee, use rice or wheat roasted with a little butter, 7 
lbs. ; chicory, 3 lbs. ; grind. 

Essence of Coffee is made by boiling down molasses till hard; grind 
to a powder ; add | lb. of good Java coffee to every 4 lbs. of the mixture. 
Put up for sale in round tin cans or air-tight paper packages. 

Coffee for Pound Packages. — Best Java coffee, 1 lb. ; rye, 8 lbs. ; 
carefully clean the rye from all bad grains, wash to remove dust, drain off 
the water, and put the grain into your roaster, carefully stirring to brown 
it evenly. Brown the rye and coffee separately, grind and put up in tight 
packages to preserve the aroma. 

Gherkins. — Take small cucumbers (not young), steep for a week in 
very strong brine ; it is then poured off, heated to the boiling point, and 
again poured on the fruit. The next day the gherkins are drained on a 
sieve, wiped dry, put into bottles or jars, with some spice, ginger, pepper, 
or cayenne, and at once covered with some pickling vinegar. 

Mixed Pickles from cauliflowers, white cabbage, French beans, onions, 
cucumbers, &c., are treated as gherkins, with raw ginger, capsicum, mustard- 
seed and long pepper, added to each bottle. A little bruised turmeric im- 
proves both the color and flavor. 

Indian Pickles. — Piccalilli. — Take one hard white cabbage (sliced), 2 
cauliflowers, pulled to pieces, 20 French beans, 1 stick of horse-radish, 
sliced fine, 2 doz. small white onions, and 1 doz. gherkins. Cover these with 
boiling brine ; next day, drain the whole on a sieve, put it into a jar, add of 



254 GROCERS, TRADERS, &C. 

curry powder, or turmeric, 2 oz. ; garlic, ginger, and mustard-seed of each 
1 oz. ; capsicum ^ oz. Fill up the vessel witli hot pickling vinegar; bung 
it up close, and let it stand for a month, witii occasional agitation. 

A Strong Paste for Paper. — To two large spoonfuls of fine flour put 
as much pounded rosin as will lie on a shilling; mix with as much strong 
beer as will make it of a due consistence, and boil half an hour. Let it be 
cold before it is used. 

Napoleon's Camp Sauce. — Old strong beer, 2 qts. ; white wine, Iqt. ; an- 
chovies, 4 ounces ; mix ; boil for ten minutes ; remove it from the fire, and 
add peeled shallots, 3 ounces ; macerate for 14 days and bottle. 

Pickled Onions. — Choose small round onions, remove the skins, steep 
them in strong brine for a week in a stone vessel, pour it off, and heat till it 
boils ; then pour on the onions, boiling hot ; after 24 hours, drain on a sieve, 
then put them in bottles, fill up over them with strong spiced vinegar, boil- 
ing liot, cork down immediately, and wax over the cork. In a smilar man- 
ner are pickled mushrooms, cauliflowers, samphires, peas, beans, green goose- 
berries, walnuts, red cabbages (without salt, with cold vinegar). Observe 
that the soft and more delicate do not require so much soaking in 
brine as the harder and coarser kinds, and may be often kept by simply 
pouring very strong pickling vinegar on them without tlie application of 
heat. For peaches, select ripe but not soft ones ; rub with a dry cloth ; put 
four cloves, free from their heads, in each large peach, and two in small 
ones ; to 1 gallon vinegar, put 6 lbs. brown sugar ; put the peaches in a jar 
and put the vinegar (diluted with water, if too strong), and sugar in a pre- 
serving kettle over the fire ; boil and skim it ; pour it boiling hot over tlie 
peaches, covering them closely ; repeat the operation three times ; then seal 
them tightly in cans or bottles. 

Prize Honey. — Good common sugar, 5 lbs. ; water, 2 lbs. ; bring gradu- 
ally to a boil, skimming when cool ; add 1 lb. bees' honey and 4 drops 
essence of peppermint. If you desire a better article, use white sugar, and 
I lb. less water, | lb. more honey. 

Another. — Coffee sugar, 10 lbs. ; water, 3 lbs. ; cream tartar, 2 ozs. ; 
strong vinegar, 2 tablespoons ; white of an egg well beaten ; bees' lioney, -j 
lb. ; Lubin's extract of honeysuckle, 10 drops. Put on the sugar and water 
in a suitable kettle on the fire ; when lukewarm stir in the cream tartar and 
vinegar; add the egg; when the sugar is nearly melted put in the honey, 
and stir till it comes to a boil ; take it off, let it stand a few minutes ; strain, 
then add tiie extract of honeysuckle last ; stand over night, and it is ready 
for use. Another. — Common sugar, 4 lbs. ; water, 1 pt. ; let them come to a 
boil, and skim. Then add pulverized alum, ^ oz., remove from the fire, and 
stir in cream of tartar, J oz. and water, or extract of rose, 1 tablespoonful, 
and it is fit for use. 

Milkman's Process. — To give a body to diluted milk use the following 
nutritive and healthy compound at the rate of 8 oz. to every 5 gals., stir- 
ring it up in the milk, till all is dissolved : arrowroot, 6 oz. ; magnesia, 6 oz. ; 
starch, 1 lb. ; flour, ^ lb. ; white sugar in powder, 1 lb. ; mix all intimately 
together, and keep in a dry place for use. 

Washing Fluid. — Take 1 lb. sal soda, -J lb. good stone lime, and 5 qts. 
water ; boil a short time, let it settle, and pour off the clear fluid into a stone 
jug, and cork for use ; soak your white clothes over night in simple water, 
wring out and soap wristbands, collars, and dirty or stained places ; have 
your boiler half filled with water just beginning to boil, then put in one 
common teacupf ul of fluid, stir and put in j'our clothes, and boil for half an 
liour, then rub lightly through one suds onlt/, and all is complete. 

The Northern-Light Burning Fluid. — Get good deodorized benzine, 
60 to 65 gravity, and to eacli brl. of 42 gals, add 2 lbs. pulverized alum, 3^ 
oz. gum camphor, and 3^ oz. oil of sassafras, or 2 oz. oil bergamot ; stir up 
and mix thoroughly together, and it will soon be ready for use. N. B. — As 
this fluid creates a much larger volume of light and flame than carbon oil, 
it is necessary to use either a high burner, such as the sun burner, to elevate 



GROCERS, TRADERS, AC. 255 

the flame away from tlie lamp, in order to keep it cool, or instead thereof, 
to use a burner provided with a tube for tlie escape of the gas generated 
from the fluid, sucli, for instance as the Meriden burner. 

Test for Burning Oil. — Heat water in a pot on the fire to 120° Fahr. 
Take a tin and put in it a tablespoonful of tlie oil j'ou wish to test, pLace 
the tin containing the oil in the hot water, let it cool down to 112" Fahr. ; 
when at this point, approacli a light very cautiously towards the oil, and if 
it takes fire before the ligiit touches it you will be safe in rejecting it. 

Baking Powder. — Tartaric acid, 5 lbs. ; pure sesquicarbonate of soda. 
8 lbs. ; potato farina, or other flour or starch, 16 lbs. Dry separately by 
gentle heat. Mix tiiis perfectly in a dry room, pass the mixture tlirougii a 
sieve and put up at once into damp-proof, hard-pressed packages. To use, 
1 or 2 teaspoonfuls are mixed with dry flour which is then mixed with 
cold water, and baled immediatelj'. Another. — Tartaric acid, 1 lb. ; pure 
bicarbonate of soda f lbs. ; ])()tato farina, f lb. Treat the same as the last. 

Cheap Vinegar. — Mix 25 gals, of warm rain water, with 4 gals, molas- 
ses and 1 gal. yeast, and let it ferment ; you will soon have the best of vin- 
egar ; keep adduig these articles in these proportions as the stock is sold. 

For Grocers' Sales. — Take three barrels; let one of them be your 
vinegar barrel ; fill this last up before it is quite empty, with molasses, 2 
gals. ; soft water, 11 gals. ; yeast, 1 qt. ; keeping these proportions in filling 
up the whole three barrels; sell the vinegar out of your old vinegar barrel 
as soon as it is ready, which will be in a short time ; when nearlj' empty, 
fill it up with the fluid as before, and pass on to sell out of the next barrel ; 
by the time it is disposed of go on to the last; then go back to the first, 
filling up your barrels in every case when nearly empty, and you will al- 
ways keep a stock of good vinegar on hand unless your sales are very large; 
in which case, follow the next process. Have the bung-holes open in the 
barrels to admit air. The free admission of warm air hastens the process. 

Vinegar in Three Days. — Get a quantity of maple, beech or basswood 
chips or shavings, and soak these in good vinegar, for two or three days. 
"With these chips you will fill a barrel, which has been pierced with a large 
number of inch holes all around the sides for tlie free admission of air 
among tlie chips (the more holes in the barrel the better, for the more air 
the sooner the vinegar will be made) ; cut another barrel in two halves, 
place one half below the barrel with the chips and the other half above it. 
The top tub must have its bottom pierced with a number of gimlet holes, 
in which are placed several threads of twine, to conduct the vinegar evenly 
over the chips. The liquid drains down slowly through the chips and out 
of a faucet near the bottom of the barrel into the lower tub. It should run 
through every four hours, and then be baled or pumped back. Directions 
to make vinegar from sugar: Use 1^ lb. to each gal. of water ; of the dregs 
of molasses barrels, use 2 lbs. to each gal. of water ; small beer, lager beer, 
ale, &c., which have become sour, make good vinegar by being reduced 
with water; small beer needs but little water, lager beer as much water as 
beer; to 2 gals, cider, add ^ gal. water ; you can also make excellent vin- 
egar out of the artificial cider mentioned below. Use, in every case, soft 
water to make vinegar, and use 2 qts. yeast to everj' barrel. . It makes 
ranch quicker if the fluid is slightly lukewarm. Leach either of these pre- 
parations through the shavings. 

This process should be attended to during warm weather, or in a room 
where a pretty high temperature is kept up, as it will not work other- 
wise. 

Excellent Vinegar, Cheap. — Acetic acid, 5 lbs. ; molasses, 2 gals. ; 
yeast, 2 qts. ; put them into a forty-gal. cask, and fill it up with rain water ; 
stir it up, and let it stand one to three weeks, letting it have all the air pos- 
sible, and you will have good vinegar. If wanted stronger add more mo- 
lasses. Sliould you at any time have weak vinegar on hand, put molasses 
into it to set it working. This will soon correct it. Make in a warm 
place. 



256 GROCERS, TRADERS, &C. 

White Wine Vinegar. — Mash up 20 lbs. raisins, and add 10 gals, 
water ; let it stand in a warm place for one month, and you will have pure 
white wine vinegar. The raisins may be used a second time the same way. 

Unerring Tests for Good Flour. — Good flour is white, with a yellow- 
isli or straw-colored tint. Squeeze some of the flour in your hand ; if good, 
it will retain the sliape given by pressure. Knead a little between your 
fingers ; if it works soft and sticky, it is poor. Tlirow a little against a dry 
perpendicular surface ; if it fall like powder, it is bad. 

To Correct Musty Flour. — Carbonate of magnesia, 3 lbs. ; flour, 765 
lbs. ; mix. This improves bad flour, causing it to become more wholesome, 
producing lighter and better bread than- when alum is used, and absorbs 
and dissipates the musty smell. 

To Tell Good Eggs. — If you desire to be certain tliat your eggs are 
good and fresh, put them in wat.er ; if the butts turn up, they are not fresh. 
This is an infallible rule to distinguish a good egg from a bad one. 

Imitation Beeswax. — Take sixteen pounds yellow rosin, eight pounds 
mutton tallow, or stearine is preferable, palm oil two and a half pounds ; 
melt together and stir until well mixed, as soon as it begins to thicken pour 
into basins to cool. 

To Cure Butter. — Take 2 parts of fine salt ; 1 part loaf sugar; 1 part 
saltpetre ; mix completely. Use 1 oz. of this mixture to each pound of 
butter ; work well. Bury your butter firkins in the earth in your cellar 
bottom, tops nearly level with the ground, or store away in a very cool 
place, covering the butter with a clean cloth and a strong brine on the top, 
and it will keep two years if desired. 

To Keep Butter during Hot Weather. — A simple mode of keeping 
butter in warm weather is to invert a large crock of earthen, or a flower 
pot if need be, (varying with the size of the vessel containing the butter,) 
over the dish or firkin in which the butter is held. The porousness of the 
earthenware will keep the butter cool, and all the more so if the pot be 
wrapped in a wet cloth, with a little water in the dish with the butter. 
Not the porosity of the earthenware, but the rapid absorption of heat by 
external evaporation causes the butter to become hard. 

To Restore Rancid Butter. — Use 1 pt. water to each lb. of butter, 
previously adding 20 grs. chloride of lime to each pt. of water ; wash well 
the butter in tliis mixture, afterward re-wash in cold water and salt ; or 
melt the butter in a water bath with animal charcoal, coarsely powdered 
and previously well sifted to free it from dust ; skim, remove, and strain 
through flannel ; then salt. 

French Patent Mustard. — Flour of mustard, 8 lbs. ; wheat flour, 8 
lbs. ; bay salt, 2' lbs. ; cayenne pepper, 4 ozs. ; vinegar to mix. 

Common Mustard. — Flour of mustard, 28 lbs. ; wheat flour, 28 lbs. ; 
cayenne pepper, 12 ozs., or as required ; common salt, 10 lbs. ; rape oil, S 
lbs. ; turmeric to color ; mix well, and pass through a fine sieve. 

To Keep Fruits Fresh. — Rosin, 2 lbs. ; tallow, 2 ozs. ; bees-wax, 2 ozs. 
Melt slowly over the fire in an iron pot, but don't boil. Take the fruit 
separately, and rub it over with pulverized chalk or whiting (to prevent 
the coating from adhering to the fruit), then dip it into the solution once, 
and hold it up a moment to set the coating, then pack away carefully in 
barrels, boxes, or on slielves, in a cool place. Unequalled for preserving 
apples, pears, lemons, &c. 

Fire Kindlers. — To make very nice fire kindlers, take rosin, any quan- 
tity, and melt it, putting in for each pound being used, from 2 to 3 ozs. of 
tallow, and when all is hot, stir in pine sawdust to make very thick ; and, 
while yet hot, spread it out about 1 inch thick, upon boards which have 
fine sawdust sprinkled upon them, to prevent it from sticking. When cold, 
break up into lumps about 1 inch square. But if for sale, take a thin board 
and press upon it, while j'et warm, to lay it off into inch squares ; this 
makes it break regularly, if you press the crease suflSciently deep, greasing 
the marked board to prevent it from sticking. 



GROCERS, TRADERS, &C. 257 

To Make an Ice Chest. — Take 2 dry goods boxes, one of which is 
enough smaller than the otlier to leave a space of about 3 inches all aro>ind 
when it is placed inside. Fill the space between the two with sawdust 
packed closely, and cover with a heavy lid made to fit neatly inside the 
larger box. Insert a small pipe in the bottom of the chest to carry off the 
water from the melting ice. For family use or grocers' use, this will prove 
as serviceable as refrigerators that cost twenty times as much. 

Premium Method of Keeping Hams, &c, — To 4 gals, water, add 8 lbs. 
coarse salt ; i oz. potash ; 2 oz. saltpetre ; 2 lbs. brown sugar. Boil to- 
gether, skim when cold, put on the above quantity to 100 lbs. meat ; iiams 
to remain in eight weeks, beef, three weeks. Let the hams dry several 
days before smoking. Meat of all kinds, salmon and other fisli, lobsters, 
&c., may be preserved for years by a light application of pyroligneous acid 
applied with a brush, sealing up in cans as usual. It imparts a splendid 
flavor to the meat, is very cheap, and an effectual preservative against 
loss. 

Soap without Lte or Grease. — In a clean pot put }4 lb. homemade 
hard or musli soap, and }4 lb. sal-soda, and 5 pts. of soft water. Boil the 
mixture 15 minutes, and you will have 5 lbs. good soap for 7j^ cents. Hard 
Soap — Take 5 lbs. hard soap, or 7 lbs. soft soap, and 4 lbs. sal-soda, and 2 
oz. borax, and 1 oz. liartsliorn ; boil one quarter of an hour with 22 qts. water ; 
add, to harden, i lb. rosin. 

Friction Soap. — 1 lb. brown soap, 2 lbs. fine white sand. Put in a ves- 
sel, and heat all together. Mould in small cakes. Pays well. 

Best Soft Soap. — Mix 10 lbs. potash in 10 gals, warm soft water over 
night ; in the morning boil it, adding 6 lbs. grease ; then put all in a bar- 
rel, adding 15 gals, soft water. 



MISCELLANEOUS TABLE. 

12 units make 1 dozen, {doz.) 

12 dozen, or 144 " 1 gross. 

12 gross, or 1728 " 1 great gross. 

20 units " 1 score. 

56 pounds " 1 firkin of butter. 

100 pounds " 1 quintal of fish. 

80 gallons " 1 bar. of fish in Mass. 

200 lbs. of shad, or salmon " 1 bar. fish in N. Y. and Ot 

196 pounds " 1 barrel of flour. 

200 pounds " 1 barrel of pork. 

14 pounds of iron, or lead " 1 stone. 

21|- stone " 1 pig. 

8 pigs " 1 father. 

^^^^ Formerly 112 pounds were allowed for a quintal. 

MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 

Liquid Measures. 

9 old ale gallons make 1 firkin. 

4 firkins " 1 barrel of beer 

7^ Imperial " " 1 firkin. 

Is Se "'""^ ^''"°"' """} "1 hogshead. 

70 Imperial gallons or ) "1 puncheon or 

84 wine " ^ " J^ of a tun. 



258 GROCERS, TRADERS, &C. 

2 hogsheads, that is \ 
105 Imperial gallons or >^ "1 pipe. 

126 wine " J 

2 pipes " 1 tun. 

Pipes of wine are of different capacities, as follows . 

110 wine gallons make 1 pipe of Madeira. 

( Barcelona, 
120 " " 1 " ] Vidonia, or 

( Teneriffe. 
130 " " 1 " Sherry. 

138 " " 1 " Port. 

140 «' '< 1 " i Bucellas, or 

1*" ^ \ Lisbon. 

Solid Candles from Lard. — ^Dissolve J lb. alum and J lb. saltpetre in 
^ pt. water on a slow fire; then take 3 lbs. of lard cut into small pieces, 
and put into the pot with this solution, stirring it constantly over a very 
moderate fire until the lard is all dissolved ; then let it simmer until all 
steam ceases to rise and remove it at once from the fire. If you leave it 
too long it will get discolored. These candles are harder and better than 
tallow. 

Tallow — To Cleanse and Bleach. — Dissolve alum, 5 lbs., in water, 
10 gals., by boiling; and when it is all dissolved, add tallow, 20 lbs.; con- 
tinue the boiling for an hour, constantly stirring and skimming ; when suf- 
ficiently cool to allow it, strain througli thick muslin ; then set aside to 
harden ; when taken from the water, lay it by for a short time to drip. 

Imitation Wax Candles. — Purify melted tallow by throwing in pow- 
dered quick lime, then add two parts wax to one of tallow, and a most beau- 
tiful article of candle, resembling wax, will be the result. Dip the wicks 
in Ihne water and saltpetre on making. To a gallon of water add 2 oz. 
saltpetre and ^ lb. of lime; it improves tlie light, and prevents the tallow 
from running. . 

Adamantine Candles from Tallow. — Melt together 10 oz. mutton 
tallow ; camplior, J oz. ; bees-wax, 4 oz. ; alum, 2 oz. 

Soap Manufacture. — When wood ashes cannot conveniently be had it 
is usual for soap manufacturers to use equal quantities of recently slacked 
lime, and sal-soda, soda ash or caustic soda, using water enough to give the 
lye sufficient strength to support a fresh egg. It must be very strong. The 
solution can be effected by heat, or stirring, or by both methods, finally 
drawing off, or bahng out the liquid clear of sediment, previously throwing 
in salt and giving time for the sediment to settle ; 1 ton of yellow soap will 
require about 1000. lbs tallow and 350 lbs. resin, with lye sufficient. The 
same quantity of white soap will require nearly 1300 lbs. tallow, boiling in 
every case with the proper quantity of lye, until it forms a perfectly homoge- 
neous mass by a perfect blending of the component parts all together, 
when it is poured out into suitable frames to harden and cool. It is after- 
wards cut up into proper sized bars by means of wires to which handles are 
attached and then piled up to dry. 

Soft Soap. — Fifteen pounds clear grease, twelve pounds potash, three 
pails of rain water to the potash, and when dissolved for the lye to bear up 
a potato so as to sliow a piece of it as large as a ten-cent piece, it is the 
right strengtli to mix with the grease. Have both potash and grease boil- 
ing hot wlien put together. Stir frequently. Let it stand twenty-four 
hours. Add three pails of water to the residue of the potash, and pour it in 
a pailful at a time, at intervals of six hours. Then fill up the barrel with 
cold water added in the same way. 

Hard Soap with Lard. — Sal-soda and lard, each 6 lbs ; stone lime, 3 lbs ; 
soft water, 4 gals; dissolve the lime and soda in the water by boiling, stir- 



GROCERS, TRADERS, &C. 259 

ring, settling, and pouring off; then return to the kettle (brass or copper), 
and add the lard, and boil it till it becomes soap: tlien pour into a dish or 
moulds; and, when cold, cut into bars. 

Transparent Soap. — Slice 6 lbs. nice yellow bar-soap into shavings ; 
put into a brass, tin or copper kettle, with alcohol, ^ gal., lieating gradually 
over a slow fire, stirring till all is dissolved; then add 1 oz. sassafras 
essence, and stir until all is mixed ; now pour into pans about 1 ^ inches 
deep, and when cold cut into square bars the length or width of the pan as 
desired. 

German Yellow Soap. — Tallow and sal-soda, of each 112 lbs. resin, 56 
lbs ; stone lime, 28 lbs ; palm oil, 8 oz ; soft water, 28 gals. Put soda, lime, 
and water into a kettle and boil, stirring well ; then let it settle, and pour off 
the lye. In another kettle, melt the tallow, rosin, and palm oil; having it 
hot, the lye being also boiling hot, mix all together, stirring well and the 
work is done. For small quantities — Tallow and sal-soda each, 1 lb. ; resin, 7 
oz. ; stone lime, 4 oz. palm oil, 1 oz. ; soft water, 1 qt. 

English Bar-Soap. — Six gals, soft water ; 6 lbs. good stone lime ; 20 lbs. 
sal-soda ; 4 oz. borax ; 15 lbs. fat (tallow is best) ; 10 lbs. pulverized rosin, 
and 4 oz. beeswax ; put the water in a kettle on the fire, and when nearly 
boiling add the lime and soda ; when these are dissolved, add the borax; 
boil gently, and stir until all is dissolved, then add the fat, rosin, and bees- 
wax ; boil all gently until it shows flakey on the stick, then pour into moulds. 

Camphor Soap. — Curd soap, 28 lbs., otto of rosemary, 1 J lbs. Reduce 
the camphor to powder, add one ounce almond oil, then sift it, when the 
soap is melted and ready to turn out, add the camphor and rosemary. 
White Windsor Soap. — Curd soap, 1 cwt., marine soap, 21 lbs., oil soap, 14 
lbs., oil caraway, 1^ lbs., oil tliyme and rosemary, of each, J lb., oils of cassia 
and cloves, of each, ^ lb. Brown Windsor Soap. Curd soap, f cwt., marine 
soap, I cwt., yellow soap, I cwt., oil soap, | cwt. Brown coloring (caramel), 
^ pt., oils caraway, cloves, tliyme, cassia, petit grain and French lavender, of 
each, 2 oz. Satul Soap. — Curd soap, 7 lbs., marine soap, 7 lbs., sifted silver 
sand,28 lbs., oils thyme, cassia, caraway, and French lavender, of each, 2 oz. 

White Hard Soap with Tallow. — Fresh slaked lime, sal-soda, and 
tallow, of each, 2 lbs. ; dissolve the soda in 1 gal. boiling soft water ; now 
mix in the lime, stirring occasionally for a few hours ; after which, let it 
settle, pouring off the clear liquor, and boiling the tallow therein until it is 
all dissolved ; cool it in a flat box or pan, cut into bars or cakes as desired. 
It may be perfumed with sassafras oil or any other perfume desired, stir- 
ring it in when cool. One hundred pounds soap, very cheap. — Potasli, 6 lbs ; 
lard, 4 lbs ; rosin, ^ lb. Beat up the resin, mix all together, and set aside 
for five days ; then put the whole into a 10-gal. cask of water, and stir twice 
a day for ten daj's, when it is ready for use. 

Variegated Soaps. — Soft water 3 qts., nice white bar soap 3 lbs., sal- 
soda , 2 ozs ; Chinese vermilion and Chinese blue, of each about 7 grs., oil 
sassafras ^ oz ; sliave tlie soap into thin slices and add it to the water as it 
begins to boil, when dissolved set it off the fire, take out a cup of soap and 
stir in the vermilion, take out another cup of soap and stir in the blue ; then 
pour in the contents of the first cup, giving two or three turns only with a 
stirring stick, then add the other cupful in the same way, then pour into 
moulds, or into a proper box, and when cold it can be cut into bars ; it will 
present a beautiful streaked apparance. 

Transparent Soap. — Slice 6 lbs. nice yellow bar-soap into shavings ; 
put into a brass, tin or copper kettle, with alcohol, ^ gal., heating grad- 
ually over a slow fire, stirring till all is dissolved ; then add 1 oz. sassafras 
essence, and stir imtil all is mixed; now pour into pans about 1^ inches 
deep, and when cold cut into square bars the length or width of the pan, 
as desired. 

To FLAVOR Tobacco. — This is done by means of a mixture of 1 part 
each of lemon peel, orange peel, figs, coriander seed and sassafras ; i part 
each of elderflowers, elderberries, and cinnamon ; 2 parts of saltpetre, 3 of 



260 GROCERS, TRADERS, &C. 

salt, and 4 of sugar. Tliis mixture must be digested in 50 parts of water, 
and, before applying it, flavored with an alcoholic solution of gum benzoin, 
mastic, and myrrh. It is said tliat this decoction gives a flavor to com- 
mon leaves resembling Porto Rico, but to tliis end the leaves must be well 
dried, about a year old, well permeated witli the preparation, kept in a pile 
for 8 days, turned daily, and finally dried. 

Flavor FOR Cigar Makers. — Take 2 ozs. tonqua beans and 1 oz. cin- 
namon ; bruise and pulverize them to a powder, and put them into 1 pint of 
Santa Cruz rum ; let it stand for a few days to macerate ; stir all together, 
and with this liquid sprinkle your common or inferior tobacco. Dry out of 
the sun, and the flavor will be imeqiialled. 

Tabac Perfumee aux Fleurs. — is made by putting orange flowers, jas- 
mines, tube roses, musk roses, or conmion roses, to snuff in a close chest or 
jar, sifting them out after 24 hours, and repeating if necessary. 

Maccaboy Snuff — is imitated by moistening the tobacco with a mix- 
ture of treacle and water, and allowing it to ferment. 

Spanish Snuff. — Is made, from unsifted Havana snuff, reduced by 
adding ground Spanish nutshells, sprinkling the mixture with treacle water, 
and allowing it to sweat for some days before packing. 

Yellow Snuff. — is prepared from ordinary pale snuff, moistened with a 
mixture of yellmv ochre diffused in water, to which a few spoonfuls of thin 
mucilage has been added. 

Perfumes for Snuff. — Tonqua beans, essence of ditto, ambergris, musk 
civet, leaves of orchis fusca, and essence of orris root, essence or oils of 
bergamot, cedar, cloves, lavender, petit grain, neroli and roses, as well as 
several others, either alone or compounded. 

Amber Pipe-stems. — When l)roken may be joined b}' smearing tlie sur- 
faces with boiled linseed oil, and then press them strongly together over a 
charcoal fire, or other heat, wliere they will not be likely to suffer inju^3^ 

Tea, Adulteration of. — A very considerable amount of ingenuity is 
displayed, both at home and abroad, in the adulteration of tea, as well as in 
tlie manufacture of spurious articles in imitation of it. First, are to be con- 
sidered the adulterations of black tea. The chief adulterations to which black 
tea is subject consist in the use of leaves other than those of tea, in the re- 
preparation of exhausted tea-leaves, and in the employment of substances, 
either for the purpose of imparting color and astringency to the infusion 
of the leaves, or to glaze and face the surface of the dried leaves, so that 
they present an improved appearance to tlie eye. It has been repeatedly 
ascertained that the leaves of various British plants are sometimes used in 
this country in the adulteration of tea, among which are the following: 
beech, elm, horse-chestnut, plane, fancy oak, willow, poplar, hawthorn, and 
sloe. The leaves are dried, broken into small pieces, and usually mixed up 
with a paste made of gum and catechu ; afterwards they are ground and 
reduced to a powder, which, when colored with rose-pink, is mixed either 
with the dust of genuine tea, or with inferior descriptions of black tea. The 
great difficulty experienced in the re-preparation of exhausted tea-leaves, is 
to cause them to resume the twisted form imparted by the Chinese method 
of rolling and drying the leaves. For this purpose, the leaves are steeped 
in a strong solution of gum ; tiiis, in drying, occasions the contraction of the 
leaves, and causes them to assume to a certain degree their original appear- 
ance ; the solution at the same time imparts a polished surface to the leaves. 
The forms of the greater number of the leaves, even after this preparation, 
are still very different from those of tea, as originally prepared ; the leaves 
are more broken, and agglutinated into small flattened or rounded masses. 
This circumstance, and the shining appearance of the leaves, are sufficient 
to enable the experienced eye to detect samples of tea manufactured from 
exhausted leaves, even when mixed with a portion of unused tea. When a 
solution of sulphate of iron is brought into contact with a solution of 
tannin, or one of tea (whicli contains a large amount of tannin), the liquid 
becomes deeply colored. Of this fact the fabricators of spurious tea are 



GROCERS, TRADERS, &C. 261 

well aware : for they avail tliemselves of it, and frequently add to the gum- 
water to be used in making up exliausted tea-leaves, a proportion of 
sulphate of iron. Rose-pink is anotlier adulterating agent ; it consists of 
the coloring matter of logwood, in combination with carbonate of lime. 
An infusion of the wood is first prepared, througii wliich the lime is diffused, 
and this, in subsiding, carries with it the cliaracteristic color, whicli, incor- 
porated with tiie lime, forms rose-pink. The presence of logwood is imme- 
diately detected by moistening a small portion of the tea-leaves of the 
sample with water, and rubbing it gently about upon a sheet of white paper, 
wliich, in that case, will be stained bluish-black; moreover, if a portion of 
the tea, being thrown in cold water, imparts immediately to tlie liquid a 
pinkish or purplish color, which is rendered red by the addition of a few 
drops of sulpliuric acid, it is a sign of the presence of logwood ; for genuine 
black tea produces only after a time a golden brown liquor; wlucli is not 
reddened by sulpliuric acid. One of the substances resorted to for facing 
tea is plumbago, or black lead, which gives to the surface of the leaves a 
black, shining, and metallic or leaden appearance, so cliaracteristic, that 
when once seen it may be again readily recognized. Also, if a thin sHce be 
removed from the surface of one of the leaves faced with this substance, 
and placed under the microscope, it will be seen to be thickly studded with 
numerous minute black particles. Again, if one or two teaspoonfuls of such 
tea be infused in boiling water, the liquid, after a time, will, in many cases, 
when the quantity of facing is considerable, acquire a blackish hue, and, on 
evaporation, the bottom of the vessel containing it will be found to exhibit 
the dark, shining and characteristic coating of black lead. Tlie adulteration 
of green tea ma}' be next considered The development of the characteristic 
color of the leaves of green tea is stated to take place during the third 
roasting in the kuo, the leaves at the end of the second roasting being of a 
dark olive color, almost black. In the third roasting wliich is, in fact, the 
final drying, the heat of the fire is diminished, the quantity put into the 
kuo is greatly increased, and the time of roasting regulated. At this period, 
a change of color takes place in the leaves, they beginning to assume a 
bluish tint, resembling the bloom on fruit. The colors used in the facing 
of green tea are usually three: 3'ellow, blue, and white. The yellow and 
blue colors, when mixed, form a green, and white is added, either to lessen 
the intensity of the former colors, or else to give polish to the surface of 
the leaves. Prussian blue is the substance most frequently employed in the 
facing of spurious green tea. It is distinguished from indigo by the iron 
which enters into its composition, and which may be detected by the ordin- 
ary tests, as well as by the non-effect of chlorine in bleaching it. Under 
the microscope it may be recognized by the form and color of the particles 
of which it consists, as also by the action of liquor potassfe, and dilute sul- 
phuric acid ; the first turns the fragments of a reddish hue, and the other 
restores the color. Although not absolutely poisonous, yet when intro- 
duced into the system, even in minute quantities, it is in some cases capable 
of exerting an injurious action. Verdigris, Dutch pink, chromate of potash, 
chrome yellow, and other substances more or less noxious, are used in the 
adulteration of black tea. The detection of adulteration will be consider- 
ably facilitated by pointing out the simple methods to be adopted for deter- 
mining whether a sample of tea be sufficiently colored or not. For this 
purpose, if the leaves be coated to any considerable extent, it will be suffi- 
cient simply to view one or two of them as opaque objects, with a glass of 
one inch focus, when the coloring matters entering into the composition of 
the facing will be detected as minute specks or particles, each reflecting its 
appropriate tint. Another method of determining the same point is to 
scrape gently the surface of two or three of the leaves with a penknife, 
when, if they be faced, the coloring matters may be detected in the pow- 
der thus separated, viewed as an opaque object. A third method is to place 
five or six leaves on a slip of glass, moistening them with a few drops of 
water, and, after the leaves have become softened, firmly squeezing the 



262 GROCERS, TRADERS, &C. 

water out between tlie finger and thumb ; this will then be found to con- 
tain more or less of the ingredients forming the facing, should such liave 
been employed. Or, should it be desirable to obtain the results on a large 
scale, half an ounce or so of the leaves may be agitated in a little water for 
a few minutes ; this will detect much of the facing, without unfolding the 
leaves, and after a time the facing will collect as a sediment at the bottom 
of the vessel. Lastly, the tea-dust, more or less of which is present in 
nearly every sample of tea, is usually found to contain the ingi'edients used 
in the facing in considerable quantity, and from its examination satisfactory 
results may in general be very readily obtained. Having by one or other 
of the above processes determined whether the sample of tea be faced, the 
next step is to ascertain the nature of the substances used for this purpose. 
The blue coloring matter has generally been found to be either Prussian 
blue or indigo, most frequently the former. Prussian blue is recognized 
under the microscope by the angular form of the fragments, and by their 
brilliant and transparent blue color, but most decidedly by the action of 
liquor potassas, which quickly destroys the blue, tinging the fragments of 
a dull reddish brown color. Indigo is distinguished imder the same cir- 
cumstances by the irregular form of the particles, their granular texture, 
and greenish-blue tint, but chiefly by the fact that the color is not des- 
troyed bj' the liquor potassae. Turmeric powder is at once recognized bj' 
its size and bright jellow color ; and Dutch pink, by tlie action of 
liquor potassce and acetic acid ; the one re-agent converts the bright yellow 
into a dark brown, and the other occasions effervescence. The chief points 
to be recapitulated are; that the principal black teas, namely, the Congous 
and Souchongs, arrive in tliis country for the most part in a genuine state; 
tliat certain descriptions of black tea, as scented Orange, Pekoe, and Caper, 
are invariably adulterated, the adulteration consisting in general in the 
glazing of leaves with plumbago or black lead ; the caper likewise being 
subject to admixture with other substances, as paddyhusk, lie tea, and 
leaves other than those of tea. That several varieties of a spurious caper, 
or black gunpowder, are prepared, which consist of tea-dust, and sometimes 
the dust of other leaves and sand, made up into little masses with gum, and 
faced with plumbago, Prussian blue, and turmeric powder ; in some cases 
these imitations are sold separately, but most frequently they are used to 
mix with and adulterate the better qualities of caper. "With respect to 
green tea, the principal conclusions are, that these teas, with the exception 
of a few of British growth and manufacture from Assam, are invariably 
adulterated ; that is to say, are glazed with coloring matters of different 
kinds. That the coloring matters used are in general Prussian blue, tur- 
meric powder, and China clay, other ingredients being sometimes but not 
frequently employed. That these coloring matters possess properties cal- 
culated to affect the health injuriously. That in this country there is really 
no such tiling as a green tea ; that is, a tea which possesses a naturally greer. 
hue. That green teas, and more especially the gunpowders, in addition to 
being faced and glazed, are more subject to adulteration in other ways than 
black teas, as by admixture with leaves not those of tea, with paddy-husk, 
and particularly with lie tea. That lie tea is prepared so as to resemble 
green tea, and is extensively used by the Chinese themselves to adulterate 
gunpowder tea. The above are the most important conclusions as to the 
condition of black and green teas as imported, but these articles undergo 
further deterioration in our own country, as follows : — That exhausted tea- 
leaves are frequently made up witii gum, &c., and resold to the public as 
genuine black tea, and, when artificially colored and glazed, even as green 
tea. That the substances employed in the coloring are in many cases 
very much more objectionable and injurious than tliose used by the Chinese, 
being often highly poisonous. That it is no unconmion thing for tea, both 
black and green, to be fabricated from leaves not those of tea, and posses- 
sing no properties in common with the leaves of that plant. That black lie 
tea is often colored and extetisively employed by our own dealers and 
grocers for the adulteration of gic«*n tea. 



GROCERS, TRADERS, &C. 263 

Coffee, Aoclteration of. — Tlie extensive adulteration of this article 
of consumption is betrayed by tbe fact tliat a much larger quantity of a 
substance called coffee is annually sold than passes through the Custom 
House. The chief articles witli wliich coffee is adulterated are chicory, 
different kinds of grain, potatoes, and beans. In addition to these articles, 
another ingredient is used, known as the coffee colorer, and tliis consists 
chiefly of burnt sugar. When coffee is suspected, a portion of it should be 
placed gently on tlie surface of a glass of water; the genuine powder will 
remain swimming on the water, but the adulterants will sink to the bottom. 
The reason why the coffee floats upon the liquid is to be found in the 
quantity of essential oil which it contains, making it lighter than the water, 
which it at the same time repels. It will also be observed in repeating 
these experiments, that the water to which coffee alone has been added 
becomes scarcely colored for some time, whilst that with the chicory, in 
less than a minute, assumes a deep brown tint. The presence of roasted 
grain may also be detected by the blue color produced on the addition of a 
solution of iodine to the cold decoction. These researches may be further 
aided by the use of a microscope, by which the difference in the grain of 
the coffee and other ingredients will be readily detected. Never buy gronnd 
coffee except of tradesmen of unquestionable integrity ; some grocers make 
it a practice, in order to give their customers confidence, to grind the coffee 
while they wait for it. In such cases, chicory is frequently left in the mill 
to mingle with the coffee that is introduced, or a box of chicory nibs of 
about the size of coffee berries is kept upon the counter, a handful or so of 
which are adroitly thrown into the mill during the process of grinding. In 
choosing whole coffee, care should be taken that the berry is not too dark ; 
for, if so, it has been too much roasted, and some of its active properties 
have necessarily been injured or destroyed. Above all, the coffee drinker 
should never buy the coffee contained in canisters, for he may be assured 
that it is even more adulterated than other coffee not so packed. 

Sugar, Adulteration of. — The adulteration of sugar chiefly consists 
in the mixing together, in various proportions, of sugars of different 
qualities and prices, none of which are very pure and some highly impure ; 
an article is thus prepared presenting a tolerable appearance to the eye 
but which is really one of very great impurity, and rarely what it professes 
to be. The impure sugars are dark colored, imperfectly crystallized, heavy 
and clammy, readily caking into masses : examined with the microscope 
they are found to contain fragments of cane, woody fibre, grit, &c. Nearly 
all the brown sugars imported into this country, contain a large amount of 
impurity, but in general the sugar procured from the grocer does not alone 
contain this same amount ; but it is increased, sometimes doubled and 
trebled, by the use of variable proportions of other sugars still more impure, 
in fact, the most impure that can be purchased; so that, in the state in 
which it reaches the public, it is very unfit for use. Sugar is sometimes 
adulterated with flour. This is used partly to improve the color of very 
dark and bad sugar, and partly to cause tlie absorption of the water of the 
treacle with which dark-colored sugars are in general contaminated. 
Pieces of woody fibre, and stony particles, or grit, are also commonly found 
in sugar. The impurities and adulterations of sugar may be detected by 
the appearance of the sugar, by the touch, by tlie effect of its contact with 
paper, by the microscope, and by^ chemicals. By the appearance — A pure 
sugar is light-colored, highly crystalline, and very dry. Impure sugars are 
dark-colored, imperfectly crystalline, small grained, often presenting an earthy 
appearance, damp, and heavy. Bij the touch — A good sugar should be per- 
fectly dry to the touch, and should not feel in the least sticky or clammy 
when pressed between the fingers ; on the other hand, a bad sugar, when 
treated in the same way, feels moist and sticky. The effect of contact with 
paper — The thick sugar paper is generally employed by grocers on account 
of its absorbent power. When the quantity of moisture is very great, 
owing to the admixture of grape-sugar, treacle, &c., the thick sugar-paper 



264 GKOCEHS, TRADERS, &C. 

absorbs a portion of the fluid, and' becomes wetted and stained: the extent 
of tlie discoloration, and tlie state of tlie paper as respects moisture, afford- 
ing a very good criterion as to the quality of the sugar. This is a very 
simple and excellent method of ascertaining, in many cases the quality of 
sugar, which in addition to staining the paper, if impure from admixture 
with treacle and grape-sugar, will also become liard and caked ; in doul)tful 
cases, tlie sugar should be allowed to remain in the paper for two or three 
days. The quantity of this water present in many sugars is so great, that it 
adds very considerably to the weight ; for every drachm of water to the 
pound of sugar there must be just so much less of ])ure cane-sugar 
so that as a question of economy merely, putting aside all ideas of 
purity, cleanliness, and health, it is very doubtful whether the buj'er 
becomes a gainer by the purchase of the cheaper, less pure, and much 
heavier sugars. By the microscope — By means of this instrument tlie 
presence of the sugar acari, the sporules of fungus, fragments of cane, wood 
and starch granules, may be ascertained, and the adulteration bj' means of 
flour, &c., determined. By absolute test the fact has been arrived at that the 
brown sugars of commerce are, in general, in a state wholly unfit for human 
consumption, and the inferior sorts should be especially avoided. Lump 
sugar is free from the greater part of the impurities and adulterations by 
which brown sugar is so largely contaminated and deteriorated ; it does not 
contain acari, fungi, grape-sugar, albumen, or grit, the chief impurities con- 
sisting of starch granules, and microscopic chips, or fragments of woody 
fibre. The general use of refined or lump sugar is, therefore, to be recom- 
mended. The quality of the lump sugar is comparatively a secondary con- 
sideration, as the worst lump sugar is infinitely more pure than the best 
brown sugar that can be obtained. 

Tobacco, Adulteration of. — The following are the substances which 
have either been discovered or have been stated on good authority to have 
been employed in the adulteration of tobacco, either in the form of cut or 
roll tobacco, cigars, or snuff. They may be divided, first, into vegetable 
substances not tobacco, as the leaves of the dock, rhubarb, coltsfoot, 
cabbage, potato, &c., malt cummings, that is, the roots of germinating malt ; 
peat, which consists chiefly of decayed moss ; seaweed, roasted chicory 
root, bran, catechu, and oakum. Secondly, sub-saccharine substances, as 
cane-sugar, treacle, honey, beet-root dregs. Thirdly, into salts and earths, 
as nitre, common salt, sal ammoniac, nitrate of ammonia, carbonate of 
ammonia, potash, soda, and lime-water ; yellow oclire, umber, fuller's 
earth, Venetian red, sand, chromate of lead. Tlie detection of some of the 
above substances is easy enough, but others present great difiiculties. The 
method of examination to be pursued is as follows ". — A certain quantity 
of each tobacco (100 grains) is to be weiglied immediately after it is pur- 
chased, before it has had time to lose weight by evaporation, and thoroughly 
dried at a temperature of about one hundred degrees of Fahrenheit. It is 
then to be re-weighed : the loss or percentage of water is by this means 
ascertained. Each sample may next be thorouglily examined by means 
of a microscope, in order to ascertain whether there be any foreign vegetab'e 
substance present ; if it contain any of those enumerated above, in ever so 
fine a state of powder, and even in the smallest quantities, they may be 
detected with the greatest certainty with the aid of the microscope. The 
structure of the tobacco leaf differs materially from that of other leaves, 
and may thus be readily distinguished. "With regard to the method of pro- 
ceeding for the detection of grape-sugar or glucose in tobacco, the following 
simple method will be found efficient. Take one thousand grains of a 
solution of tobacco, containing two grains of the dried extract to one ounce 
of water ; add four drachms of liquor potassa;, boil, filter, and then add 
about four hundred grains of Fehling's test liquid, and heat to boiling ; 
if any glucose be present, the red oxide of copper will be thrown down ; 
collect, and thoroughly wash the precipitate in order to free it from any 
albumen that may be present, weigh and calculate it as before. 




BKEWEES, WINE & SPIEIT MFRS., &C. 



Making, Bottling and Pkeserving all kinds of Ales, 
Wines, Spirits, &c. 

Wines, Nature and Treatment of. — Young wine is briglit and red at 
first, owing to the presence of pliosplioric and other acids. As tiiese acids 
become subdued, the color is subdued also, until all that raw brightness, 
indicative of immaturit}', is mellowed and ripened into the rich tawny hue — 
that mixture of glowing red and yellow brown, with the golden light strik- 
ing through, which every one takes as his surest guide in the choice of port 
and red wines. Tlie bouquet of wines depends upon the proportion which 
they contain of a kind of etiier. It does not exist in the juice of the grape, 
but is produced during fermentation, and increases in quantity by keeping. 
The odor of this substance is very powerful, and is one of the general 
characteristics of all grape wines. The crust of wine is thus explained: 
Tartaric acid exists in the juice of the grape in combination with agents, 
forming cream of tartar. When tlie fermented juice is left at rest, this 
cream of tartar gradually separates from the liquor, and deposits itself as a 
crust, or tartar, on the sides of the casks and bottles. Hence, by long 
keeping, good wines become less acid, and every j^ear added to their age 
increases in proportion their marketable value. A dump cellar aids the 
maturation of wines. A factitious mode of bringing forward bottled port 
wine, is occasionally to throw over it cold water ; but, after the wine has 
become ripe, it must be drunk speedily, else it will soon become unfit for 
the table. If newly-bottled wine be exposed to the sun, it will begin shortly 
to deposit and improve in flavor; and even the rawest wine of this kind 
by placing the bottle in wntcr, and boiling it, will cause it to assume the 
quality it would have had after many years keeping. The choicest wines 
are ordinarily iced; whereas (witii the exception of wine which gains 
strength by cold), common wines only should be iced ; and even they would 
be better if merely cooled with water, which imparts sufficient coolness to 
wine even at the hottest temperature of summer. But, it is not only the 
avoidance of icing choice wines that attention must be paid to; each 
separate kind requires a different degree of cold and warmtli. Tluis, claret, 
when just brought out of the cellar, has not that soft and delicate flavor 
which gives this wine its pecidiar value. Before drinking it, tlie wine 
should be placed where it may imbibe a degree of warmth. In winter it 
should be placed before the fire. Burgundy should be drunk fresh from the 
cellar. A decanter of wine may be readily cooled by folding round it a 
wet cloth and placing it in a current of air. 

Wines, Home Made, to Improve. — Poor wine may be enriched by being 
racked off, and afterwards returned into the cask ; and then putting into 
the wine, about a pound of raisins bruised, and a quart of brandy. An 

12 265 



266 ALES, WINES, sriEits, &G. 

ounce of powdered roclie alum, mixed in four gallons of the wine and re- 
turned to the cask, will make the whole fine and brisk in ten days. Pricked 
wines may be restored by being racked off into a fresh cask, wliicli has 
contained some of the same kind of wine. The cask is to be matched or 
sulphured ; and to every ten gallons, put two ounces of oyster-sliell powder, 
and half an ounce of bay salt ; then stir it, and let it stand for a few d.ays 
to fine : after which, rack it off into another cask also matched. A quart 
of brandy added to every ten gallons, will further improve the wine. 
Acidity may be cured as follows : — Burn dry walnuts over a charcoal fire, 
and when they are thoroughly lighted, throw them into the wine, and bung 
up the cask; in forty-eight hours all acidity will have departed. Mustiness 
and disagreeable flavor may be removed by ripe medlars, or bruised mus- 
tard-seed, tied in a bag and suspended from the bung-hole. To remedy 
ropiness in bottled wine, shake it for twenty minutes, imcork it, and pour 
off the pith or scum, when the residue of the wine will be drinkable. 

Wine Casks, to Sweeten. — There are several methods of doing this. 
1. If a cask, after the contents are taken from it, be well stopped, and the lees 
be allowed to remain in it till it is again to be used, it will only be necessary 
to scald it ; taking care, before filling it, to see tliat the hoops are well 
driven. Sliould the air get into the cask, it will become musty, and scalding 
will not improve it ; the surest way will be to take out the head of the cask to 
be operated on, tlien burn it a little, and scald it for use. 2. Set fire to a pound 
or more of broken charcoal, put it into the cask, and immediately fill up tiie 
cask with boiling water. After this, roll the cask once or twice a day for a 
week ; then pour out the charcoal and water, wash out the cask with clean 
cold water, and expose to the external air for some days. 3. Mix half a 
pint of the strongest sulphuric acid in an open vessel, with a quart of water, 
put it into the cask, and roll it about well ; next day, add a pound of chalk, 
bring tlie cask down, and in three or four days, wash it out thoroughly 
with boiling water. To prepare a match, melt some brimstone, and dip 
into it a long narrow slip of coarse linen cloth, or of brown paper ; when to 
be used, set fire to the match, put it in at the bung-hole of. the cask, fasten- 
ing one end of the bung, and let it remain for a few hours. 

Cider, Method of Making. — A beverage made from the juice of the 
apple, and for which sour and rough-tasted apples are generally preferred. 
Tlie process of making cider varies in different localities, but in every case 
essentially consists of the collection of the fruit, and the expression and 
fermentation of the juice. The collection of the fruit should not be com- 
menced before it has become sufficiently mature ; they should be picked by 
the hand, and any unsound fruit, or such as may have lain on the soil, 
sliould be rejected. The apples after being gathered, are usuall}'^ left for 
fourteen or fifteen days in a barn or loft to mellow, during which time the 
mucilage is decomposed, and alcohol and carbonic acid developed. When 
this process is completed, the fruit sliould be looked through, the bruised 
and decayed apples placed in a heap by tliemselves for an inferior cider, 
from which to make vinegar, the remainder wiped perfectly dry, and laid 
ready for use. The expression of the juice is the next step in cider-making. 
The apples are ground to a pulp in a mill, consisting of two fluted cylinders 
of hardwood or cast iron working against each other. The pulp is after- 
wards put into coarse strong bags, and pressed with a heavy weight so as to 
squeeze out of them all their juice. The juice is placed in large open tubs, 
and kept at a heat of about sixty degrees. They are now constantly at- 
tended to, and kept quite full, in order that the yeast, as it forms, may 
froth over and be carried off from the surface of the liquor. After two or 
three days for weak cider, and eight or ten days for strong cider, or as soon 
as the sediment has subsided, the liquor is "racked off" into clean casks. 
The casks are then stored in a cellar, shaded barn, or other cool i)lace, 
where a low and regular temperature can be ensured, and are left to mature 
and ripen until the ifollowiiigs])ring, when it may be re-racked for use. The 
pressed pulp is again sprinkled with one-third or half its weight of water, 



ALES, WINES, SPIRITS, &C. 267 

and repressed. Tlie resulting liquor, when fermented, forms a weak kind 
of cider, which is reserved for domestic use in the same way as table-beer. 
The refuse pulp is an acceptable food for pigs and store cattle. 

Preparatory to bottling cider, it should be examined, to see whether it is 
clear and sparkling. If not so, it should be clarified, and left for a fort- 
night. The night previous to bottling, the bung should be taken out of the 
cask, and left so until the next da}', and the filled bottles should not be 
corked down until the day after ; as, if this is done at once, many of the 
bottles will burst by keeping. The best corks should be used. Champagne 
bottles are the best for cider. It is usual to wire down the corks and to 
cover them with tinfoil, after the manner of champagne. A few bottles at 
a time may be kept in a warm place to ripen. When the cider is wanted 
for immediate use, or for consumption during the cooler season of the yenr, 
a small piece of lump sugar may be put into each bottle before corking it. 
When intended for keei)ing, it should be stored in a cool cellar, when the 
qualitj' will be greatly improved by age. Cider for bottling should be of 
good quality, sound and piquant, and at- least a twelvemonth old. When 
out of condition, it is unfit for bottling. 

CiDKR Champagne. — Cider, eighteen gallons, spirit, three pints, sugar, 
five pounds. Mix and let them rest for a fortnight, then fine with skimmed 
milk, 1 pint. Bottle in champagne bottles ; when opened, it will be found 
to approach very nearly to geimine champagne. 

Punch. — A name given to a mixture composed of water, spirit, sugar and 
acid. The punch most generally made is composed of equal parts of rum 
and brandy ; but any mixture of spirits, or one spirit alone, if there be acid 
with it, is called punch. The following are among the most approved re- 
ceipts for compounding this beverage. Ordiminj punch. — Take two large 
rough lemons, juicy, and with rough skins ; rub some large lumps of loaf 
sugar over the lemons till they have acquired the oil from the rind, then 
put them into a bowl, with as much more sugar as is necessary to sweeten 
the punch to taste ; squeeze the lemon-juice upon the sugar, and bruise the 
sugar in the juice ; add a quart of boiling water, and mix well ; then strain 
through a fine sieve, and add a quart of rum, or a pint of rum and a pint of 
brandy, or a pint and a half of rum and half a pint of porter ; then add 
three quarts more of water, and mix well. Oxford punch. — Extract the 
essence from the rinds of three lemons by rubbing them with lumps of 
sugar ; put these into a large jug, with the peels of two Seville oranges, and 
of two lemons, cut extremely thin, the juice of four Seville oranges and of 
ten lemons, and six glasses of calf's foot jellj' in a liquid state. Stir these 
well together, pour to them two quarts of boiling water; cover the jug 
closely, and set it near the fire for a quarter of an hour ; tlien strain the 
mixture through a sieve into a punch-bowl or jug, sweeten it with a bottle 
of capillaire, add half a pint of white wine, a pint of French brandy, a pint 
of rum, and a bottle of orange shrub ; stir the punch as the spirit is poured 
in. Boinan punch. — Take a quart of lemon-ice, add the wliites of three 
eggs, well beaten, with rum and brandy, till the ice liquefies, in the pro- 
portion of three parts of rum to one of brandy, and water to taste. Then 
add a small teacupful of strong green-tea infusion, strained ; add, also, half 
a pint of champagne. Regent' s punch. — Take a bottle of champagne, a quar- 
ter of a pint of brandy, the juice of a lemon, a Seville orange, and a wine- 
glassful of Martinique ; with this mix a pint or more of strong infusion of 
the best green tea, strained ; add syrup or sugar to taste. Norfolk punch. — 
Steep the peels of six lemons and six oranges in a gallon of brandy for 
two days ; then make a syrup with three pounds of loaf sugar, and when 
it is quite cold, add it to the brandy, which should have been previously 
strained ; add the strained juice of eighteen lemons and eighteen oranges, 
and let the whole stand for six weeks in a closely corked jar, after which 
bottle. Tea punch. — Make an infusion of the best green tea, from an ounce 
of tea to a quart of water; put before the fire in a silver or other metal 
bcwl, to become quite hot, and then put into it half a pint of brandy, half 



2G8 ALES, WINES, SPIRITS, &C. 

a pint of rum, a quarter of a pound of loaf sugar, and tlie juice of a large 
lemon ; set these into a blaze, and pour in the tea gradually, mixing it from 
time to time with a ladle ; it will tlius remain burning for some time, and 
in this state is to be poured into the glasses. 

Gin. — A spirituous liquor, of which there is a large consumption. Gin is 
rarely sold to the public in the state in which it comes from the distillery ; 
it would, in fact, be not so agreeable to the palate in that state ; and publi- 
cans, therefore, are in the habit of "making up" this liquor for sale, the 
following being one among many recipes. Good gin (22 under proof), 90 
gallons ; oil of almonds, one draclmi ; oils of cassia, nutmeg and lemon, of 
each, two drachms ; oils of juniper, coriander, and carraway, of each, tliree 
drachms ; essences of orris-root and cardamoms, of eacli, five iluid ounces ; 
orange-flower water, three pints ; lump sugar, 56 to 60 lbs. ; dissolved in 
water, four gallons. The essences are dissolved in two quarts of spirits of 
wine, and added gradually to the gin, until the requisite flavor is produced, 
wlien the sugar (dissolved) is mixed in along with a sufficient quantity of 
soft water, holding four ounces of alum in solution, to make up 100 gallons. 
Wlien the whole is perfectly mixed, two ounces of salt of tartar, dissolved 
in two or three quarts of hot water, are added and the liquor is well stirred 
up ; after which the cask is bunged up and the liquor allowed to repose. 
In a week it will become brilliant, and may be either " racked " or drawn 
from the same cask. Gin sweetened, prepared from unsweetened gin (22 un- 
der proof), 95 gallons ; lump sugar, 40 to 45 lbs. ; dissolved in clear water, 
3 gallons; mix well ; and fine it down as above. It is almost needless to 
add that all gin is more or less adulterated before it is sold by the retail 
dealer; the ingredients employed by some are, however, harmless com- 
pared with the noxious compounds introduced by others ; but tlie consumer 
has fortunately tiie means of detecting these adulterations by his palate. 

Bottling Wine. — The first thing to be attended to is the choice of good 
corks ; they should be perfectly new, well cut, and flexible ; any having black 
spots in them should be rejected. Wiien the wine runs clear, place a shallow 
tub under the tap of the cask, and take care that there are two or three 
small holes near the bung or in it, to allow the air an ingress, to supply the 
place of tlie wine withdrawn. All being ready, hold the bottle under tlie 
tap in a leaning position. Fill the bottle to within two inches of the top 
of the neck, so that when the cork comes in, tliere may remain three-quar- 
ters of an inch of space between the wine and the lower end of the cork. 
The corks should be dipped, not soaked, in wine, and should enter with difB- 
culty ; they are driven in with a wooden mallet. If tlie cork is to be waxed 
it must be cut off to less than a quarter of an inch. Champagne bottles 
must have their corks driven about half way, and fixed down by a wire, 
tills makes tliem easy to draw. While a cask of wine is bottling off, it is 
impossible to exclude the admission of air to the surface of the liquor, except 
some particular method is employed, and if the operation lasts some time, 
the wine is almost certain to be injured ; the best prevention for this, is a 
bottle of fine olive oil, which being poured into the cask and floating on the 
surface of the wine, totally excludes the air, and prevents acidity or mouldi- 
ness for a whole 3'ear. Wlien the crust, or precipitation of wine in bottles, 
is deposited in excess, and is about to be removed, the wine should be de- 
canted into fresh bottles, or the deposit may mix with and injure the wine. 
Wine to befit for bottling, must not only be separated from the gross lees, 
and have attained perfect clearness by fining, but it must also remain a 
certain time in the cask to ripen ; for this, no precise rule can be laid down. 
General!}- speaking, however, wine should not be bottled until it has lost 
its sharpness, and is no longer liable to fermentation. When wine is bottled 
too soon it often ferments and remains always sharp : the best time to per- 
form tills operation is in the month of March or October, especially if the 
weather be fine and clear. 

Bottling Malt Liquors. — Before proceeding to bottle ale or jiorter, it 
is necessary to ascertain whether the liquor is in a proper state for tliat pur- 



ALES, WINES, SPIRITS, AC. 269 

pose ; if it is but slightly saccharine, and lias but little briskness, it is in a fit 
st:ite for bottling ; but if, on drawing out the vent peg, it spirts up with force 
it is a sign tliat the liquor is still too active to be bottled with safety. Should 
the beer appear a little too brisk and frothy while bottling, tlie bottles may 
be left open for a few hours, and filled up as tlie frotti works out, but they 
should be filled only to witliin an inch of tlie cork. It must be observed 
that if the corks are driven in wliile the liquor is working much, there is 
always a danger of tlie bottles bursting. Great care should be taken to 
bottle at the proper time. Wlien a cask of beer is to he bottled, the bung 
may be loosened, and tlie beer left exposed to tlie air for a few hours to 
flatten it, to prevent tlie bottles bursting. Tlie corks used should be of the 
best quality ; previously to inserting thera they should be soaked in a little 
beer; and when the bottles are corked they should be laid on their sides 
that the beer, by swelling the corks, may make them quite tight. The 
bins should be constantly inspected, to ascertain the state of the liquor, ai'.d 
as soon as the bursting of one bottle is discovered, the remainder should all 
be set upright to prevent further loss. If the beer is a little too flat when 
bottled, or if it is wanted to be up, as it is termed, xery soon, a lump of sugar 
ma}' be put into each bottle, or four or five raisins, or a teaspoonf id of rice ; 
these by giving rise to a new fermentation, will make the beer quite brisk. 
Tlie warmer the weather or the warmer the place where the bottles lie, 
the sooner will fermentation begin, and the beer be ripe and fit for use. 
Strong ales may be kept in bottles of glass, without the risk of forcing out 
the cork or bursting the bottle. 

Clove Cordial. --Put into a large stone jar, a quarter of a pound of cloves, 
half an ounce each of cinnamon, nutmeg, and coriander seeds ; quarter of 
a pound of red currant jelly ; ten ounces of sugar-candy ; 1 ounce each of can- 
died citron, orange, and lemon-peel, sliced ; an ounce and a half of dissolved 
isinglass; three ounces of jireserved ginger sliced ; two ounces of sweet and 
one ounce of bitter almonds, blanched and pounded ; nine ounces of pow- 
dered loaf sugar; one pint of red cordial water; one gallon of proof spirit of 
wine. Stop up the jar effectually and shake it well daily for a montli ; 
then put it away in a dry room and let it stand for twelve months. Strain 
and filter it into small bottles ; cork and seal them. The cordial will be fit 
for use in two months, but further age will improve it. 

Coriander Cordial. — To half a gallon of spirits put half a pound of 
coriander seeds, quarter of a pound of caraway seeds, half a pound of sugar, 
and one drop of oil of orange. Make it up to three quarts with water. The 
coriander seed must be bruised and steeped in tlie spirit for ten or twelve 
days, and well stirred two or three times a day. 

Peppermint Cordial. — To make five gallons of this cordial, take three 
and a quarter gallons of rectified spirit, three pounds of loaf sugar, a gill of 
spirit of wine, four pennyweights of oil of peppermint ; fill up the cask with 
water until the quantity becomes five gallons ; rouse it well, and set the cask 
on end. 

Ginger Cordial. — Take one pound of raisins, tlie rind of one lemon, 
and three-quarters of an ounce of bruised ginger. Steep these ingredients in 
a quart of the best brandy, then strain it, and add one pound of powdered 
loaf sugar to every quart of juice. 

Cherry Wine, Black. — Pick fortj- quarts of fine ripe black cherries, bruise 
them with the stones in a tub, and pour on them ten gallons of cold soft 
water that has been boiled, stir them well, and leave the vessel closely 
covered until the following day. Press the fruit in a hair-bag, strain the 
liquor through a fine sieve, let it settle for two hours, and repeat the strain- 
ing ; then filter it througli flannel, and put it into a cask with twenty pounds 
of moist sugar, stirring it well for twenty minutes. Leave the bung out for 
five or six days, and when it has ceased fermenting pour in a quart of French 
brandy, and bung it securely. In three or four months draw out a wine- 
glassful, and if it is jierfectly clear and bright, it may be bottled a month 
afterwards ; if not, rack it off, filter the lees thoroughly, and return all that 



270 ALES, WINES, SPIRITS, &C. 

is clear into tlie cask. Secure tlie bung again, and in three months it will 
be fit to bottle ; keep it in bottle six months, or longer. 

Cherry Wine, Red. — Press ripe red cherries, breaking the stones 
amongst them, until you have obtained ten gallons of pure juice, to which 
add twenty-four pounds of moist sugar ; mix it Avell, and let it remain for 
three days covered up, stirring twice daily. Press the fruit in a horse-hair 
bag, and aild tiie expressed juice, then mix them well, and strain the whole 
into a cask, adding five pints of French brandy, the rinds of six lemons 
thinly pared, and an ounce of isinglass dissolved in a little water. Bung the 
cask securelj', and let it remain in a cool cellar for six months ; tlien rack 
the- wine off, filter the lees perfectly' fine, and put all into the same cask 
again, with three ounces of sugar-candy. Secure the bung as before, keep 
the wine eighteen months, then bottle it. It will be in good condition after 
being six montlis in bottle, but the longer it is kept the better it will be. 

Clarification. — The act of clearing or making bright, commonly applied 
to the process of clearing liquids b}' chemical means instead of by filtration. 
The substances employed in the clarification of liquids operate hy either 
meclianicall}' embracing the feculous matter, and subsiding with it to the 
bottom of the vessel, or by inducing such a change in its nature and bulk 
that it subsides by its own density, in each case leaving the liquor trans- 
parent. Albumen, gelatine, the acids, certain salts, blood, lime, plaster of 
Paris, alum, heat, alcohol, &c., serve in many cases for this purpose. The 
first is used under the form of white of egg, for the clarification of syrups, 
as it combines with the liquid when cold, but on the application of heat 
rapidly coagulates and rises to the surface, carrying the refuse with it, form- 
ing a scum which is easily removed. Gelatine, under the form of isinglass 
dissolved in water or weak vinegar, is used t© fine white wines, beer, cider, 
and similar liquors. Sulphuric acid is frequently added to weak liquors for 
the same purpose. Bullocks' blood is used in the same way as isinglass or 
white of eggs, for fining red wines, beer, and porter. Lime, alum, alcohol, 
the acids, and heat, act by curdling or coagulating the feculencies, and thus, 
by increasing their densitj', induce their subsidence. Plaster of Paris acts 
partly like the above and partly like albumen or gelatine, by developing and 
forcing down the suspended matter. 

Beer, to Preserve. — When it is intended to keep beer a long time, it 
should be very carefully racked off; for nothing advances the decomposi- 
tion so soon, after a certain time has elapsed, as the lees. The clarification 
of beer is veiy important for its preservation. This is done in various 
ways; such as with hartshorn-shavings, white of egg, or isinglass. Many 
things are used either when beer is first put in casks, to prevent its turning 
sour, or when it has already began to turn; few things however can be 
introduced for this purpose without rendering the beer vapid. One of the 
best means for preventing the turning of beer, intended for a voyage, or 
which may be liable from other circumstances to agitation or change of 
temperature, is to put stale eggs into the cask, in the proportion of one egg 
to four gallons of beer. The shell dissolves first, then the pellicle and the 
white, leaving the yolk intact. The albumen of the egg is said to act as an 
alkali, but without creating uny effervescence, which has a tendency to ren- 
der beer vapid. For weak beer, oatmeal, burnt sugar, or a portion of very 
strong beer, maj' be added in the summer; and in brewing beer of all kinds, 
it will be found beneficial to suspend in the cask, at the commencement of 
fermentation, a linen bag containing raisins in the proportion of a pound to 
one hundred and seventy-four gallons of beer. Leave it thus for twenty- 
four hours, and then having withdrawn it, allow the beer to ferment in the 
regular course. 

Beer, Bottling and Fining. — Casks should be sound, clean, and sweet. 
Beer and porter should be allowed to stand in the bottles a day or two 
before corked. If for speedy use, wiring is not necessary. Laying the 
bottles on their sides will assist the refining of the beer. Those that are to 
be kept should be wired, and set upright in sawdust. When not fine enough, 



ALES, WINES, SPIRITS, ifcC. 271 

draw off a jugful, and dissolve isinglass in it, in the proportion of half an 
ounce to ten gallons, and pour hack tlirough the bung-liole. Let it stand a 
few weeks longer. Tap tlie cask above the lees. Wlien the isinglass is 
put into the cask, stir it around with a stick, taking great care not to dis- 
turb the lees at the bottom. Bung the cask up, and in a few days the beer 
will be fine. 

Ale. — A bushel and tliree quarters of ground malt, and a pound of hops, 
are sufficient to make 18 gallons of good family ale. As soon as the water 
boils, dip off half of it into a tub or vat raised ujion a bench about a foot 
and a half from the ground, and wliicli has a iiole in its side, near tlie 
bottom, into which is put a spigot and faucet sufficiently large, and over tlie 
end of which, in the vat, is fixed a bundle of small clean sticks, or other 
convenient apparatus, to prevent the malt from running out. Let the hot 
water remain undisturbed in the vat, till it lias cooled down to about the 
temperature of 175 or 180 degrees of Falirenheit's thermometer; or, in the 
absence of this instrument, till the face can be seen pretty distinctly in the 
water; then mix the malt with the water graduwily, stirring it with a 
mashing stick, or other convenient spatula. Preserve a few handfuls of 
the dry malt to strew over the surface after it is mixed, in order to prevent ■ 
as much as possible the escape of heat. Tlie vat should also be covered 
with cloths, more effectually to keep the mixture hot, which must remain. V 
undisturbed for three hours. The wort is then to be run out by the spigot 
and faucet. As soon as it has done so, pour on again upon tlie malt the 
same quantity of water, cooled in a tub to tlie same degree of heat as before, 
and let it remain witli the malt half an hour, or somewhat longer. Then 
let the wort run off a second time. 

As you will now be enabled to judge how much more wort will be ne- 
cessary to fill }'Our cask, add as much more water, cooled down as before, 
as will be sufficient for the purpose, letting the last portion stand a short 
time in the vat, always remembering that for a cask of 18 gallons it is 
advisable to have at least 7 or 8 gallons of wort more than sufficient to fill 
the cask, to allow for waste and evaporation. 

When the worts have all been run off, mix them together, and put them 
into the copper, making it boil as quickly as possible. When the wort is 
reduced by boiling to nearly the proper quantity, put in the one pound of 
liops, and let them boil in the wort for about twent}- minutes, covering the 
copper over in the meantime to prevent the escape of the aroma of the liops. 
The boiling being completed, let the wort be strained off into proper coolers. 
When it is cooled down to 65 or 70 degrees, mix one quart of gooil yeast 
with a few gallons of tlie wort first, and afterwards put the whole together 
into a vat to ferment for two or three days or more ; or put it at once into 
the cask, and let it ferment there. 

Tlie necessary care must be taken to watch the fermentation in the cask, 
and fill it up occasionally with the superfluous liquor. As soon as the cask 
will bear a bung in it, it ought to be stopped down slightlj'' at first, till the 
power of the disengaged gas be ascertained, or otherwise the cask may 
burst. This ale, if it is brewed when the weather is mild, will be fit for 
drinking in about six weeks or two months. 

To brew Table Ale, mix the first and second worts together, suffer it to 
ferment, and proceed in the same manner as before directed. If the ale is 
for present use, take tliree-quarters of a pound of liops to each bushel of 
malt ; but if intended to be kept, take one pound of hops to each bushel of 
malt. It will be fit for use in about a week. 

Brandy. — The spirituous liquor produced by the distillation of wine 
only, and not from any other fermented bod}-. But brandy consists not 
merely of the spirit drawn from wine, it contains also some water, and is 
flavored by the essential oil of the grape, which has been dissolved by the 
alcohol produced during fermentation. The average proportion of alcohol 
in brandy varies from 48 to 54 per cent. When pure, it is perfectly color- 
less, and only acquires a pale brown or yellow tint from the cask. When 



272 ALES, WINES, SPIRITS, &C. 

brandy is first imported, it is gencralij 1 or 2 over proof, but its strength 
decreases witli age; and by the time that it is usually taken from the bond- 
store for sale, it is seldom stronger than 3 or 4 under proof. The very finest 
brandies average from 5 to 10 under proof, and never exeeed 2 underproof; 
thev ilien contain more than half their weight of water, and from tlieir 
boiiing point being higiier, they eome over to this country more fully char- 
ged with essential oil, iind the otiier volatile and fragrant principles of the 
grape; thus possessing, in a greater degree, that peculiar aroma and flavor 
for which tl:ey are so much esteemed. The compound known as British 
braiulij, is made chiefly from malt spirit, with the addition of mineral acids, 
and various flavoring ingredients. 

Wine, Mui-led. — Boil some cloves, mace, cinnamon, and nutmeg, in 
about a quarter of a pint of water till well flavored with spice, then add 
it to a pint of port or home-made wine ; sweeten to taste, and serve hot 
with thin toast or rusks. 2. Boil a small stick of cinnamon, a blade of 
mace, and three cloves, in a breakfast-cupful of water for a few minutes; 
add some grated nutmeg and a pint of liome-made or port wine, sweeten to 
taste, boil for one minute, and serve hot. 8. Put a bottle of port wine, half 
a bottle of water, and sugar to taste, into a saucepan ; then add allspice, 
cloves, and a blade of mace; boil all together, serve in a jug with grated 
iiutmea', and rusk or slips of thin toast. Some persons add lemon-juice to 
the mull, but it does not generally please. 

GiNGKR Beer. — Tiiere are several recipes for making this beverage, the 
following being tlie best. ]. Lump sugar, 1 lb. ; Jamaica ginger, well 
bruised, 1 oz. ; cream of tartar, ^4 o^- ! 2 lemons sliced ; boiling water, 1 gal- 
lon. Macerate with frequent stirring in a covered vessel, until barely luke- 
warm, then add of yeast, 1 J or 2 ozs., and keep it in a moderately warm 
situation so as to excite a brisk fermentation ; the next day rack the liquor 
and strain it through flannel; work for another day or two, according to 
the weather : then skim, or again strain, put it into bottles, and wire down 
the corks. 2. Loaf sugar, 5 \U. ; lemon juice, 1 gill ; honey, i lb. ; bruised 
ginger, 6 ozs. ; water, 5 gallons. Boil the ginger in three quarts of the 
wat'er for half an hour ; then add the sugar, the juice, and the honey, with 
the remainder of tlie water, and strain through a cloth. When cold add the 
white of an egg and 2 drachms of essence of lemon ; after standing three or 
four days, bottle it. 3. Take 1 lb. of bruised ginger and the rind of two 
lemons ; boil 14 lbs. of loaf sugar and 1 lb. of raisins in 11 gallons of water, 
pour this over the bruised ginger and lemon-rind, and add the juice of 18 
lemons. When at a lukewarm temperature, add two or three spoonfuls of 
yeast, and let it ferment for a day or so ; then put it into a cask to finish the 
fermentation, and when that is completed, fine it, and bung it down closely. 
It may be bottled in stone bottles almost immediately. 4. Quickli/ made : 
pour a gallon of boiling water over }{ lb. of loaf sugar ; li oz. of sliced gin- 
ger, and the peel of 1 lemon; when milk-warm, add the juice of a lemon, 
and a spoonful of yeast. 

Ginger Beer Powders. — 1. Powdered loaf sugar, 4 ozs. ; carbonate of 
soda, 5 drachms ; powdered ginger, 1 drachm; mix these ingredients well 
together ; divide into 12 equal parts, one of each of which put into a blue 
paper. Then take tartaric acid, 1 oz. ; divide into 12 equal parts, and put 
f ach into a white paper. Dissolve the contents of one of the blue and one 
rf the wiiite papers, each in half a glass of spring water. Pour one upon 
the other, and drink while effervescing. 2. Powdered lump sugar, 2 
drachms; carbonate of soda, | drachm; mix them together. Take of tar- 
taric acid, i drachm ; best ground ginger, 5 grains ; essence of lemon, 1 drop ; 
mix these together. Dissolve the above powders in separate tumblers, con- 
taining together about half a pint of spring water ; when dissolved, mix the 
ccntents of each glass and let it be drunk immediately. 

Sherry. — Wine-merchants distinguish several kinds of sherry, as pale 
and brown, and there are various degrees of each. Sherry in general Is of 
an amber color, and when good it has a fine aromatic odor, with something 



ALES, WINES, SPIRITS, &C. 273 

of the agreeable bitterness of the peach kernel. When new it is harsh and 
fiery, and requires to be mellowed in the wood for four or five years. Sherry 
is much in favor in England, as being a light, pleasant wine, and more suit- 
able for general drinking than any other. Amontillado sherry' is highlj'- 
esteemed, being, when genuine, entirely devoid of brandy, and equally free 
from acid. 

Sherry Cobbler. — Take some very fine and clean ice, break into small 
pieces, fill a tunil>ler to within an inch of the top, with it put a tablesjioonful 
of plain syrup, capillaire, or any other flavor — some prefer strawberry — add 
the quarter of the zest of a lemon, and a few drops of the juice. Fill with 
sherry, stir it up, and let it stand for five or six minutes. Sip it gently 
through a straw. 

Ottawa Root Beer. — Take 1 oz. each of sassafras, allspice, yellowdock 
and winter green ; i oz. each wild cherry bark and coriander ; ^ oz. hops 
and 3 qts. molasses. Pour sufficient boiling water on the ingredients and 
let them stand 24 hours, filter the liquor, and add |pt. yeast, and it is ready 
for use in 24 hours. 

A Rich and Pleasant Wine. — Take new cider from the press, nii.x it 
with as much honey as will support an egg, boil gently fifteen minutes, but 
not in an iron, brass, or copper pot. Skim it well. In March following, bottle 
it, and it will be fit to drink in six weeks ; but will be less sweet if kept 
longer in the cask. You will have a rich and strong wine, and it will keep 
well. This will serve for any culinary purposes which sweet wine is di- 
rected for. Honey is a fine ingredient to assist and render palatable new, 
orabbed, austere cider. 

Cherry Brandy. — Gather cherries when full ripe, pick them clear from 
refuse ; mash them in a clean wooden vessel, and press out the juice through 
a horsehair bag. Let it stand two hours to settle ; then strain the clear 
liquor through a flannel bag until it is perfectly fine ; and to every quart of 
the juice put a quart of French brandy and three quarters of a pound of 
white sugar-candy, dissolved in as little pure cold water as possible. Mix 
them well, and put the whole into a clean stone jar, in which has been pre- 
viously put the thin rinds of one or more lemons, according to the quantity; 
put in the cork, seal it, and let it stand in a warm room for two nu)nths. 
Strain it through a fine flannel bag until it is perfectly clear ; then bottle it, 
seal the corks, and keep it twelve months longer. 

Raisin Wine Equal to Sherry. — Boil the proper quantity of water 
and let it stand till cold. To each gal. of this add 4 lbs. of chopped raisins, 
previously well washed, and freed from stalks ; let the whole stand for one 
month, stirring frequently ; then remove the raisins, and bung up closely 
for one month more ; then rack into another vessel, leaving all sediment be- 
hind, and repeat till it becomes fine ; then to every 10 gals, add G lbs. of 
fine sugar, and 1 doz. of good oranges, the rinds being pared very thin, and 
infused in 2 qts. of brand}', which should be added to the liquor at its last 
racking. Let the whole stand three months in the cask, then bottle. It 
should remain bottled twelve mouths. To give it the flavor of Madeira, 
when it is in the cask, put in a couple of green citrons, and let them remain 
till the wine is bottled. 

Port Wine. — Worked cider, 42 gals. ; good port wine, 12 gals. ; good 
brandy, 3 gals. ; pure spirits, 6 gals. ; mix. Elderberries and aloes, and the 
fruit of the black haws, make a fine purple color for wines, or use burnt 
sugar. 

British Madeira. — Pale malt, 1 bushel ; boiling water, 12 gals. ; mash 
and strain ; then add white sugar, 4 lbs. ; yeast, 1 lb. Ferment, next add 
raisin or Cape wine, 3 qts.; brand}', 3 qts. ; sherry, 2 qts. ; port, 2 qts.; bung 
down. The malt may be mashed again for bottle beer. 

Currant and other Fruit VVines. — To every gallon of expressed 
juice, add 2 gals, soft water, 6 lbs. brown sugar, cream tartar, 1^ ozs. ; and 
1 qt. brandy to every 6 gals ; some prefer it without brand}'. After fermen- 
tation, take 4 ozs. isinglass dissolved in 1 pt. of the wine, and put of each 

12* 



274 ALES, WINES, SPIRITS, &C. 

barrel, which will fine and clear it; when it must be drawn into clean casks, 
or bottled, wiiich is preferable. 

Blackberry and Strawberry Wines are made by taking the above 
wine when made with port wine, and for every 10 gals, from 4 to 6 qts. of 
the fresh fruit, bruised and strained, are added, and let stand four days till 
the flavor is extracted ; when bottling, add 3 or 4 broken raisins to each 
bottle. 

Morella Wine. — To each quart of the expressed juice of the morella, 
or tame cherries, add 3 qts. water and 4 lbs. of coarse brown sugar ; let 
them ferment, and skim till worked clear ; then draw off, avoiding the sedi- 
ment at the bottom. Bung up, or bottle, which is best for all wines, letting 
the bottles lie always on the side, either for wines or beers. 

London Sherry. — Chopped raisins, 400 lbs.; soft water, 100 gals.; 
sugar, 45 lbs. ; white tartar, 1 lb. ; cider, 16 gals. Let them stand together 
in a close vessel one montli ; stir frequently. Then add of spirits, 6 gals. ; 
wild cherries bruised, 8 lbs. Let them stand one month longer, and fine 
witii isinglass. 

English Patent Wine from Rhubarb. — To each gal. of juice, add 1 
gal. soft water, in wliich 7 lbs. brown sugar have been dissolved ; fill a keg 
or barrel with this proportion, leaving the bung out, and keep it filled with 
sweetened water as it works off, until clear. Any other vegetable extract 
may be used if this is not liked; tiien bung down or bottle as you please. 
The stalks will yield ^ their weight in juice ; fine and settle with isinglass 
as above. This wine will not lead to intemperance. 

Various Wines. — To 28 gals, clarified cider add good brandy 1 gal.; 
crude tartar (this is what is deposited by grape wines), milk to settle it, 1 
pt. ; draw off 36 hours after thoroughly mixing. 

Ginger Wine. — Put 1 oz. of good ginger-root bruised in 1 qt. 95 per cent. , 
alcohol ; let it stand nine days, and strain ; add 4 qts. water, aud 1 lb. white 
sugar dissolved in hot water, color with tincture of sanders to suit. 

Another. — To 1 qt. 95 per cent, alcohol add 1 oz. best ginger-root 
(bruised but not ground), 5 grs. capsicum and 1 drachm tartaric acid. Let 
it stand one week and filter; now add 1 gal. water in which 1 lb. of crushed 
sugar has been boiled. Mix when cold. To make the color, boil | oz. co- 
chineal, 1^ oz. cream tartar, ^ oz. saleratus, and ^ oz. alum, in 1 pt. of water 
till 3'ou get a bright red color. 

Gooseberry Wine — This wine may be made from either ripe or unripe 
gooseberries ; in the former process, bruise ten gallons of ripe gooseberries 
in a tub, leave them in tliat stale for twenty-four hours, then press the pulp 
through a hair-cloth or canvas bag; return the remaining pulp into the tub, 
and pour on it four gallons of hot water, stir this well up, leave it for twelve 
hours, and express the liquor as before. Mix the first and second liquors 
together, and throw away the exhausted pulp. To every four gallons of 
the mixed liquor add fourteen pounds of white sugar, or fifteen of moist ; 
dissolve and mix this thoroughly with the liquor, and leave it to ferment. 
Should the weather be very cool place the liquor near the fire. As the fer- 
mentation proceeds, the liquor becomes less and less sweet, till at the com- 
pletion of the fermentation the sweetness will have entirely disappeared, 
and consequently, the progress of the fermentation may be readily tested 
by tasting the liquor from time to time. When the fermentation has ceased, 
rack the wine off as clear as possible, and completely fill a cask witli it; 
then bung it closely, and set it by in a cellar. Five years in the wood will 
not be any too long ; at the end of this period it may be bottled, and will be 
in high perfection. 

For unripe Gooseberry Wine. — Take eight gallons of green gooseberries, 
bruise them well, add eight gallons of cold water; let them stand for twenty- 
four hours, drain the liquor well from the gooseberries through a sieve 
put three pounds and a half of loaf sugar to every gallon of liquor ; pour 
it into a cask, add a quart of tlie best gin; let it stand for six months then 
bottle it. — See Champagne, British. 



ALES, WINES, SPIRITS, &C. 275 

Stomach Bitters Equal to Hostetter's — Eiiroj^^an gentian root, 1-V 
oz. ; orange peel, 2^ oz. ; cinnamon,^ oz. ; anise seed, ^ oz. ; coriande 
seed, ^ oz. ; cardanion seed, ^ oz. ; ungrouiid Peruvian bark, 5 oz. ; gum 
kino, i oz. ; bruise all these articles, and put tlieni into tlie best alcohol, i 
pt. ; let it stand a week, ami pour off tlie clear tincture ; then boil the dregs 
a few minutes in 1 qt. of water, strain and press out all the strength ; now 
dissolve loaf sugar, 1 lb. in tlie liot liquid, adding 3 qts. cold water, and mix 
with the spirit tincture first poured off, or you can add tliese, and let it 
stand on the dregs if preferred. 

Borer's Bitters. — Rasped quassia, 1| oz. ; calamus, li oz. ; powdered 
catechu, 1^ oz. ; cardanion, 1 oz. ; dried orange i)eel, 2 oz. ; macerate the 
above ten days in ^ gal. strong wliiskey, and then filter, and add 2 gals, 
water ; color witli mallow or malva flowers. 

Stoughton Bitters. — Gentian, four ounces, orange peel, four ounces, 
Colunibo, four ounces, camomile flowers, 4 ounces, quassia, 4 ounces, burned 
sugar, 1 lb., whisky, 2^ gals. Mix and let it stand 1 week. Bottle the 
•.ilear liquor. 

Cheap Cider. — Put in a cask 5 gals, hot water, 15 lbs. brown sugar ; 
I gal. molasses, i gal. hop or brewer's yeast, good vinegar, 6 qts. ; stir 
well, add 25 gals, cold water, and ferment. 

Another Cider. — Cold water, 20 gals., brown sugar, 15 lbs., tartaric 
acid i lb. ; rummage well togetlier, and add, if you have them, 3 or 4 lbs. of 
dried sour apples, or boil them and pour in the expressed juice. This cider 
will keep longer tlian the others. 

Champagne Cider. — Good pale cider, 1 hhd. ; spirits, 3 gals. ; sugar, 20 
lbs.; mix, and let it stand one fortnight; then fine with skimmed milk, ^ 
gal. ; this will be very pale, and a similar article, wlien properly bottled and 
labelled, opens so brisk, that even good judges have mistaken it for genuine 
champagne. 

Cider without Apples. — Water, 1 gallon ; common sugar, 1 lb. ; tar- 
taric acid, ^ oz. ; yeast, 1 tablespoonf ul ; shake well, make in the evening, 
and it will be fit to use next day. 

For Bottling. — Put in a barrel, 5 gals, hot water ; 30 lbs. common 
sugar; ^ lb. tartaric acid ; 25 gallons cold water ; 3 pints of hop or brewers' 
yeast, worked into paste with I pint of water and 1 lb. flour. Let it work 
in the barrel forty-eight hours, the yeast running out of the bunghole all the 
time, putting in a little sweetened water occasionally to keep it f idl ; then 
bottle, putting in two or three broken raisins to each bottle ; and it will 
nearly equal champagne. 

To Keep Cider Sweet and Sweeten Souk Cider. — To keep cider 
perfect, take a keg and bore iioles in the bottom of it ; spread a piece of 
woollen cloth at the bottom ; then fill with clean sand closely packed ; draw 
j'our cider from a barrel just as fast as it will run through the sand ; after 
this, put in clean barrels which have had a piece of cotton or linen cloth 2 
by 7 inches dipped in melted sulphur and burned inside of them, thereby 
absorbing the sulphur fumes (tins process will also sweeten sour cider) : 
then keep it in a cellar or room wliere there is no fire, and add ^ lb. white 
mustard seed to each barrel. If cider is long made, or souring when you get 
it, about 1 qt. of hickory ashes (or a little more of other hard wood ashes) 
stirred into each barrel will sweeten and clarify it nearly equal to rectify- 
ing it as above ; but if it is not rectified, it must be racked off to get clear of 
the pomace, as with this in it, it will sour. Oil or whisky barrels are best 
to put cider in, or | pint sweet oil to a barrel, or a gallon of whisky to a 
barrel, or both, may be added with decidedly good effects ; isinglass, 4 oz 
to each barrel, helps to clarif}- and settle cider that is not to be rectified. 

Malt Wine. — Boil thirty pounds of sugar with ten gallons of water foi 
half an hour ; skim the liquor well ; set it by to cool; and when milkwarm, 
add five gallons of new ale; simmer the whole gently; let it cool; place it 
in a tub, and leave it to ferment for two days : at the end of that time, trans- 
fer it to a cask, with a pound of powdered sugar-candy, and four pounds 



27G ALES, WINES, SPIRITS, &C. 

of raisins, chopped small ; when the fermentation ceases, it may be racked 
and fined. It will be fit to bottle at the end of six or twelve months, and 
may be drunk two or three months afterwards. 

Edinburgh Ale. — Employ the best pale malt — 1st, mash, 2 barrels pr 
quarter, at 183*^, mash three-quarters of an hour, let it stand 1 hour, and 
allow half <an hour to run off the wort; 2d, mash,! barrel per quarter, 
180°, mash three-fourths of an hour, let it stand about three-fourths, 
and tap as before ; 3d mash,l barrel per quarter, at 170°, masii half an hour, 
let it stand half an hour, and tap as before. The first and second wort may 
be mixed together, boiling them about an hour or an hour and a quarter, 
with a quantity of hops proportioned to the time the ale is required to be 
kept. The first two may be mixed at the heat of 60°, in the glyetuu, and 
the second should be fermented separately for small beer. The best hops 
should be used in the proportion of about 4 lbs. of every quarter of malt 
emplo^'ed. 

Bottling Porter. — Brown Stout. Pale malt, 2 quarters ; amber and 
brown malt, of each 1^ do. ; mash it 3 times, with 12, 7, and 6 barrels of 
water; boil with hops, 50 lbs; set with yeast, 29 lbs. Product, 17 barrels, 
or H times the malt. 

Anisette Cordial, 40 Gals. — Put in a barrel 13 gals, alcohol, 75 per 
cent. Dissolve oj oz. essence of green anise-seed in one g.al. 95 per cent, 
alcohol, and add ^ gal. orange-flower water ; 8 or 10 drops infusion of 
mace, and 5 drops essence of cinnamon. Tlien put in the barrel 26 gals, 
sugar syrup, 25 degrees Baume ; stir fifteen minutes, and let it rest four or 
five days ; then filter. Add 2 or 3 sheets of filtering paper. 

CuRAc^OA Cordial, 40 Gals. — Essence of bitter oranges, 2 oz. ; essence 
of neroli, 2 oz.; essence of cinnamon, ^ oz. ; 3 drs. mace, infused in alcohol. 
Dissolve the above essence in 1 gal. alcohol, 95 per cent. ; then put in a clean 
barrel 13 gals, alcohol, 85 per cent. ; 26 gals, sugar syrup, 30 degrees Baume ; 
and add 1 gal. perfumed spirit as above. Color with satTron or turmeric. 

Peppermint Cordial. — Good whiskey, 10 gal., water, 10 gals., white 
sugar, 10 lbs., oil peppermint, 1 ounce, in 1 pint alcohol, 1 lb. flour well 
worked in the fluid, 5 lb. burned sugar to color. Mix and let it stand one 
week before using. Other oil in place of peppermint, and you have any 
flavor desired. 

Berlin Carraway Cordial. — Take 8 gals, spirit, 50 per cent. ; 1 oz. oil 
of carraway, which you dissolve in spirit 95 per cent.; 8 lbs. sugar; 8 lbs. 
water. Dissolve your sugar in the water ; mix, stir and filter. 

Apple Water. — Slice two large apples, put them into a jar, and pour 
over them one pjnt of boiling water. Cover close for an hour ; pour off the 
fluid, and sweeten if necessary. 

Apple Tea. — Roast eight fine apples in the oven or before the fire; put 
them in a jug with two spoonfuls of sugar, and pour over them a quart of 
boiling water. Let the whole stand one hour near the fire. 

Brandy Shrub. — Take thirty-four gallons of brandy, of proof strength, 
oil of orange, oil of lemon, each one ounce ; dissolve the oils in one quart 
of alcohol; three hundred pounds of crushed sugar; dissolve by heat in 
twenty gallons of water ; mix all well together by shaking or stirring , 
then add of a solution of citric acid sufficient to acidulate to the taste, then 
again shake or stir well for fifteen minutes ; then add sufficient water to 
make one hundred gallons. Let stand imtil ready to draw off. 

Rum Shrub. — Is much more esteemed, and is made in the same waj", 
using only half instead of one ounce oil of lemon, and substituting a few 
gallons brandy for as much rum ; a little extract vanilla, added after rack- 
ing, is by some considered an improvement. 

Currant Wine. — To every two gallons of water put five quarts of cur- 
rants and a pint of raspberries. Let them soak for twelve hours, then 
squeeze and mash them thoroughly. On tlie following day rub them well 
on a fine wire sieve till all the juice is expressed, and wash the skins again 
with some of the liquor. To every gallon of juice put four pounds of 



ALES, 'WINES, SPIRITS, &C. 277 

Lisbon sugar, tun it immediately, lay the bung lightly on, and leave tlie 
liquor to ferment. In two or three days, add brandy, in the proportion of a 
quart to every four gallons ; then bung it close, but leave tlie vent peg out 
for a few days. Keep it in tlie ca.^k for six montlis, and then bottle off. 

Blackberry Wine. — Wash the berries, and pour 1 qt. of boiling water 
to each gal. Let tiie mixture stand 124 hours, stirring occasionally ; then 
strain and measure into a keg, adding 2 lbs. sugar, and good rye whisky 1 
pint, or best alcohol, J pint to each gal. Cork tight, and put away for use. 
The best wine that can be made. 

Superior Raisin Wine. — Take 30 lbs. of chopped raisins free from 
stems and dust ; put them in a large keg, add to them 10 gals, soft water ; 
let them stand two weeks unbunged, shaking occasionally (warm place in 
winter), then strain through woollen, or filter ; color with burnt sugar ; 
bottle and cork well for use. The more raisins the better the wine, not 
exceeding 5 lbs. to each gallon. 

Ottawa Beer and Ginger Ale. — Ottawa beer is made l\y using 8 ozs. 
of a fluid extract which contains the concentrated strength of 4 lbs. of 13 
different roots and barks, added to 1 gal. syrup which is mixed with 14 gals, 
water, into which carbonic acid gas is forced at a pressure of 80 lbs. to the 
square inch. Ginger Ale is made in the same way except that 4 ozs. of 
extract is sufficient. When the ginger is really used, an extract deprived of 
resinous impurities is made use of, which gives a clear amber-colored 
drink. 

Cheap Beer. — Water, 15 gals. ; boil half the water with ^ lb. hops ; 
then add to the other half in the tun, and mix well with 1 gal. molasses and 
a little yeast. 

Spruce and Ginger Beer. — Cold water, 10 gals. ; boiling water, 11 gals. ; 
mix in a barrel; add molasses, 30 lbs., or brown sugar, 24 lbs. ; oil of spruce 
or any oil of which you wish the flavor, 1 oz. ; add 1 pint yeast, ferment, 
bottle in two or three days. If you wish white spruce beer, use lump sugar; 
for ginger flavor, use 17 ozs. ginger root bruised, and a few hops ; boil for 
thirty minutes in three gals, of tlie water, strain and mix well ; let it stand 
two hours and bottle, using yeast, of course, as before. 

Hop Beer, Very Fine. — Mix 14 lbs. of molasses and 11 gals, water well 
together, and boil them for 2 hours with 6 oz. hops. When quite cool, add 
a cupful of yeast, and stir it well by a gallon or two at a time. Let it 
ferment for 16 hours, in a tub covered with a sack, then put it in a 9-gallon 
cask, and keep it filled up ; bung it down in 2 days, and in 7 days it will be 
fit to drink, and will be stronger than London porter. 

Common Small Beer. — A handful of hops to a pail of water, a pint 
of bran, add half a pint of molasses, a cuji of yeast, and a spoonful 
of ginger. 

Table Beer. — Malt, 8 bushels ; hops, 7 lbs ; molasses, 25 lbs. ; brew for 
10 barrels ; smaller quantity in proportion. 

Ginger Beer. — Take 5^ gals, water, f lb. ginger root bruised, tartaric 
acid, \ oz., white sugar, 2\ lbs., whites of 3 eggs well beaten, 10 small tea- 
spoonfuls of lemon ess. ; yeast, 1 gill; boil the root for 30 minutes in 1 gal. 
of the water; strain off, and put the ess. in while hot; mix, make over 
night ; in the morning, skim and bottle, keeping out the sediments. 

Philadelphia Beer. — Take 30 gals, water, brown sugar, 20 lbs., ginger 
root bruised, ^ lb., cream of tartar, IJ lb,, carbonate of soda, 3 oz., oil of 
lemon, cut in a little alcohol, 1 teaspoonful, the white of 10 eggs well 
beaten, hops, 2 oz., yeast, 1 qt. The ginger root and hops should be boiled 
for twenty or thirty minutes in enough of the water to make all milk-warm ; 
then strained into the rest and the yeast added and allowed to work itself 
clear ; then bottle. 

Lemon Beer. — To make 20 gals, boil 6 oz. of ginger root bruised, | lb. 
cream of tartar, for 20 or 30 minutes, in 2 or 3 gals, water; this will be 
strained in 13 lbs. coffee sugar, on which you have put \ oz. oil of lemon, 
and six good lemons squeezed up together, having warm water enough to 



278 ALES, "WINES, SPIRITS, &C. 

make the wliole 20 gals, just so hat that you can hold your hand ia it with- 
out burning, or about 70 degrees of heat; put in IJ pints of hop or brewers* 
yeast, worked into paste with 5 or 6 oz. flour. Let it work over night, then 
strain and bottle for use. 

Hop Beer. — Hops, (j ounces ; molasses, 5 quarts ; boil the hops till the 
strength is out, strain them into a 80-gallon barrel ; add the molasses and 
one teMcupful of yeast, and fill up with water; shake it well, and leave the 
bung out till fermented, which will be in about 24 hours. Bung up, and it 
will be tit for use in about three da^'s. 

Root Beer. — Water 10 gals., heat to 60° Fall., then add 3 gals, molasses ; 
let it stand 2 hours, pour it into a bowl and add powdered or bruised sassa- 
fras and wintergreen bark, of each ^ lb. ; yeast 1 pt. ; bruised sarsaparilla 
root, J lb. ; add water enough to make 25 gals, in all. Ferment for 12 
hours, then bottle. 

Lemon Beer. — To a gallon of water add a sliced lemon, a spoonful of 
ginger, J a pint of yeast, and sugar enough to make it quite sweet. 

HopBeer. — Boil one handful of hops in one quart of water; strain it ; 
add one teaspoon ginger, one pint of molasses, one pailful of lukewarm 
water, one penny's worth of yeast. Let it stand twenty-four hours ; take off 
the scum and bottle it for use. 

Molasses Beer. — Hops, 1 oz, ; water, 1 gal. ; boil for ten minutes, 
strain, add molasses, 1 lb. ; and when luke-warm, yeast, 1 spoonful. Fer- 
ment. 

To Restore Sour Beer. — Good hops, ^ lb., powdered chalk, 2 lbs. Put 
in the hole of the cask, and bung close for a few days ; for frosted beer, add 
some finings, a few handf uls of flour, and some scalded hops ; for ropy beer, 
use a handful or two of flour, the same of hops, with a little powdered alum 
to eacii barrel. Rummage well. 

To Improve the Flavor of Beer. — Bruised ginger, 1 oz. ; bruised 
cloves, ^ oz. ; a few scalded hops and a doz. broken coarse biscuits to every 
two barrels. Rummage well. 

To Restore Flat Wine. — Add 4 or 5 gals, of sugar, honey, or bruised 
raisins to every 100 gals., and bung close ; a little spirits ma}' be added, to 
roughen ; take bruised aloes, or powdered catechu, and add to the wine in 
suitable proportions, or add a small quantity of bruised berries of the 
mountain ash, to allay inordinate flatness. Let it stand 2 hours and bottle, 
using yeast, of course, as before. 

White Wines are generally fined b\' isinglass in the proportion of 1^ oz. 
(dissolved in 1^ pts. of water, and thinned with some of the wine) to the 
hogshead. Red Wines are generally fined with the whites of eggs, in the 
proportion of 1^ to 18 to each pipe ; they must be well beaten to a froth 
with about 1 pt. of water, and afterwards mixed with a little of the wine, 
before adding them to the liquor. Rummage well. 

Soda Water, Properties of. — The water properly so called, contains 
about tvventy grains of bi-carbonate of soda to the half-pint, and is strongly 
impregnated with carbonic acid gas, but a good deal is made without the 
addition of soda at all. When used simply as a drink, this omission is 
unimportant, but not so when it is required as an antacid. As a drink in 
febrile disorders, soda-water is often beneficial and very grateful, but should 
not be given in too great quantities at once, otherwise the gas may produce 
unpleasant sensations. In such cases a small portion may be poured out, 
and the bottle after being opened, should be re-corked as speedily as possi- 
ble ; the cork should be secured by tying, and the bottle inverted in a jug 
of cold water ; in this way the gas is preserved. Soda-water is an excellent 
vehicle for conveying milk to the stomach charged with acid, and con- 
sequently liable to feel oppressed by milk alone. The mode of application 
is, to heat nearly to boiling, a teacupful of milk, dissolve in it a teaspoonful 
of refined sugar, then put it into a large tumbler, and pour over it two-thirds 
of a bottle of soda-water. 

Soda Water Powders. — A pleasant, cooling summer drink. The blue 



ALES, WINES, SPIRITS, &C. 279 

paper contains carbonate of soila, thirty grains ; tlie wliite paper, tartaric 
acid, twenty grains. Dissolve the contents of tiie blue paper in lialf a 
tumbler of water, stir in tlie other powder, and drink during effervescence. 
Soda powders furnish a saline beverage, which is very slightly laxative, and 
well calculated to allay the thirst in iiot weatlier. 

Soda Water, to Make. — Dissolve six drachms of dried carbonate of 
soda in a quart bottle of water, and four draclims and a half of tartaric acid 
in another bottle of the same size ; pour out a wineglassf ul from each bottle, 
and throw them at the same time into a tumbler, when it will immediately 
effervesce. It should be drunk in this state. This is a good soda-water, 
and a dozen glasses thus prepared will cost but a very small sum. If ten 
drops of the muriated tincture of iron be put into the tumbler, a most 
excellent and agreeable tonic mineral water is produced, which strengthens 
the tone of the digestive organs in a very remarkable degree. — See Gazo- 
gene. 

Cream Soda. — Loaf sugar, ten lbs., water, 3 gals. ; warm gradually so 
as not to burn ; go;)d rich cream, 2 quarts ; extract vanilla, li ounces ; 
extract nutmeg, i ounce ; tartaric acid, 4 ounces. Just bring to a boiling 
lieat ; for if you cook it any length of time, it will crystallize ; use 4 or 5 
spoonfuls of this syrup instead of three, as in other syrups ; put | teaspoon- 
f ul of soda to a glass, if used without a fountain. For charged fountains no 
acid is used. 

Bottled Soda Water without a Machine. — In each gallon of water 
to be used, carefully dissolve | lb. crushed sugar, and one ounce of super- 
carbonate of soda ; then fill pint bottles with this water, have your corks 
ready ; now drop into each bottle ^ drachm of pulverized citric acid, and 
immediately cork, and tie down. Handle the bottles carefully, and keep 
cool until needed. IMore sugar may be added if desired. 

Royal Pop. — Cream tartar, 1 lb., ginger, IJ oz., white sugar, 7 lbs., 
essence of lemon, 1 drachm, water, 6 gals., yeast 1 pint. Tie the corks down. 

Silver-top Drink. — Water, 3 qts., wliite sugar, 4 lbs., ess. of lemon, 4 
teaspoonf uls, white of 5 eggs, beat with 1 tablespoonful of flour ; boil to a 
syrup ; then divide into equal parts, and to one add 3 ounces tartaric acid, 
to the other 4 ounces of carbonate of soda ; put in a teaspoonf ul of each of 
the syrups, more or less (according to the size of the glass), to two-thirds of 
a glass of water ; drink quick. 

American Champagne. — Good cider (crab-apple cider is the best), 7 
gals. ; best fourth-proof brandy, 1 qt. ; genuine champagne wine, 5 pts. ; 
milk, 1 gal. ; bitartrate of potassa, 2 oz. Mix, let stand a short time ; bottle 
while fermenting. An excellent imitation. 

British Champagne. — Loaf sugar, 56 lbs. ; brown sugar (pale), 48 lbs. ; 
water (warm), 45 gals. ; white tartar, 4 oz. ; mix, and at a proper tempera- 
ture add yeast, 1 qt. ; and afterwards sweet cider, 5 gals. ; bruised wild 
clierries, 14 or 15 oz. ; pale spirits, 1 gal. ; orris-powder, J oz. Bottle while 
fermenting. 

Sangaree. — Wine, ale, or porter, or two-thirds water, hot or cold, accord- 
ing to the season of the year, loaf sugar to taste, with nutmeg. 

CuRA^oA d'Hollande, 20 Gals. — Cura9oa orange-peel, 2 lbs. ; ^ lb. 
Ceylon cinnamon. Let them soak in water ; boil them for five minutes with 
the juice of 82 oranges and 14 gals, of plain white syrup ; then add 6 gals, 
alcohol, 95 per cent. ; strain, filter ; color dark yellow with sugar coloring. 
Half and Half. — In London, this drink is made by mixing half porter 
and half ale ; in America, it is made by mixing half new and half old ale. 

Apple Toddy. — One tablespoonful of fine white sugar, 1 wineglass of 
cider brandy, | of a baked apple. Fill the glass two-thirds full of boiling 
water, and grate a little nutmeg on top. 

Apple Punch. — Lay in a china bowl slices of apples and lemons alter- 
nately, each layer being thickly strewed with powdered sugar. Pour over 
the fruit, when the bowl is half filled, a bottle of claret ; cover, and let it 
stand for 6 hours. Then pour it through a muslin bag, and it is all ready. 



280 ALE, -WINE, SPIRITS, AC 

Old Man's Milk. — One wine glass of port wine, 1 teaspoonful of sugar. 
Fill the tumbler one third full of hot milk. 

Perfect Love. — One tablespoonf ul suijrar, 1 piece each of orange and 
lemon peel. Fill the tumbler one-third full of shaved ice, and fill balance 
with wine ; ornament in a tasty manner with berries in season ; sip through 
a straw. 

Ratafia. — Ratafia may be made with the juice of any fruit. Talce 3 
gals, cherry juice, and 4 lbs. sugar, wliich you dissolve iij tlie juice ; steep 
in 2^ gals, brandy ten days ; 2 drachms cinnamon, 24 cloves ; 16 ounces 
j)each-leaves ; 8 ounces bruised cherry kernels. Filter, mix both liquids, 
and filter again. 

Akrack Punch Syrup. — 53J lbs. sugar ; 3J gals, water. Boil up 
well ; then add 1| gals, lemon-juice to the boiling sugar, and stir till the 
liquid is clear ; pour it in a clean tub, and wlien nearly cool, add 5 gals. 
Batavia arrack, then filter. 

Butyric Ether. — Is much used to impart a pine apple flavor to rum. 
Dissolved in 8 (n- 10 y)arts of alcohol, it forms the pine apple essence. From 
20 to 25 drops of this essence, added to 1 lb. sugar, containing a little citric 
acid, imparts to the mixture a strong taste of pine apple. 

Amylo-Acetic Ether. — Is a preparation of fruit-oil and other ingre- 
dients, and when diluted with alcohol, it is sold as essence oj Jargonelle pear, 
and is used for flavoring different liquors. Fifteen parts amylo-acetic ether, 
with half a part of acetic ether, dissolved in 100 parts of alcohol, form what 
maj' be called the Bergnmot-peax essence, which, when employed to flavor 
sugar, acidulated with a little citric acid, imparts the odor of the Bergamot 
pear, and a fruity, refreshing taste. 

Pelargonate or Ethylic Ether. — (Pelargonic ether), has the agree- 
able odor of the quince, and when dissolved in alcohol in due proportion, 
forms the quince essence. 

Acetate of Amylic Ether. — (Same as amylo ether), mixed with 
buti/ric ether, forrhsin alcoholic solution the banana essence. 

Valerianate of Amylic Ether. — An alcoholicsolution of this ether in 
the proportion of 1 part to 6 or 8 of alcohol, forms a flavoring liquid under 
the name of apple essence. 

Portable Lemonade. — Tartaric acid, 1 ounce, white sugar, 2 lbs., ess. 
of lemon, quarter ounce ; powder and keep dry for use. One dessertspoon- 
ful will make a glass of lemonade. 

Lemonade. — White sugar, 1 lb., tartaric acid, ^ ounce, essence of lemon, 
30 drops, water, 3 qts. Mix. 

Cider Nectar. — One qt. cider, 1 bottle soda water, 1 glass sherry, 1 
small glass brandy, juice of lialf a lemon, peel of ^ of a lemon, sugar and 
nutmeg to taste. Flavor it with extract of pine apple, stain, and ice it 
all well. 

Imperial Cream Nectar. — Part 1st., take 1 gallon water, loaf sugar, 6 
lbs., tartaric acid, 6 ounces, gum arabic, 1 ounce. Part 2d, flour, 4 tea- 
spoonfuls, the whites of 5 eggs ; beat finely together ; then add i pint water ; 
when the first part is l)lood warm, put in the second ; boil 3 minutes, and it 
is done. Directions : 3 tablespoonfuls of syrup to two-thirds of a glass of 
water ; add one-third teaspoonful of carbonate of soda, made fine ; stir well, 
and drink at your leisure. 

Milk Punch. — One tablespoonful of fine white sugar, 2 ditto of water, 
1 wine glass of Cognac brandy, ^ ditto Santa Cruz rum, § tumblerful of 
shaved ice ; fill with milk. Shake the ingredients well together, and grate 
a little nutmeg on top. To make it hot, tise hot milk and no ice. 

Glasgow Punch. — Melt lump-sugar in cold waver, with the juice of a 
couple of lemons, passed through a fine wire strainer ; this is sherbet, and 
must be well mingled. Then add old Jamaica rum, one part of rum to five 
of sherbet. Cut a couple of lemons in two, and run each section rapidly 
around the edge of the jug or bowl, gently squeezing in some of the delicate 
acid, when all is reaily. 




CONFECTIONERY. 



Manufacturing Ice Creams, Ices, Candies, &c., Clarify- 
ing Sugars. 



Molasses Candy. — West Indian molasses, 1 gallon ; brown sugar, 2 lijs ; 
boil tlie molasses and sugar in a preserving kettle over a slow ffre ; wlien 
done enough it will cease boiling ; stir frequently, and when nearly done, 
stir in the juice of four lemons or two teaspoonfuls of essence of lemon ; 
afterwards butter a pan, and pour out. 

Confectioners' Colors. — Red, cochineal, 4 oz. ; boil 5 minutes in hnlf 
pint water; then add cream tartar, 1 oz. ; pounded alum, ^ oz. ; boil 10 min- 
utes longer, add sugar, 2 oz. ; and bottle for use. /?/«e, put a little warm 
water on a plate, and rub in indigo till the required color is got. Yellow, 
rub with some water a little yellow gamboge on a plate, or infuse the heart 
of a yellow-lily flower with milk-warm water. Green, boil the leaves of 
spinach about 1 minute in a little water, and, when strained, bottle for use. 

To Candy Sugar. — Dissolve 2 parts of double refined sugar in 1 of 
water. Great care must be taken that the syrup does not boll over, and 
that the sugar is not burnt. The first degree is called the thread, which is 
subdivided into the little and great thread; if you dip your finger in the 
syrup, and apply it to the thumb, tlie tenacity of the syrup will, on separa- 
ting the finger and thumb, afford a thread which shortlj^ breaks, tliis is the 
little thread ; if the thread admits of a greater extension of finger and 
thumb, it is called the great thread ; by longer boiling you obtain the pearl, 
which admits of being drawn without l)reaking bj- the utmost extension of 
finger and tliumb ; tliis makes candied sugar; by furtlier boiling you ob- 
tain the blow, which is known by dipping a skimmer with holes in the syrup, 
and blowing througli them ; if bubbles are perceived, you have got the 
blow. T\\e feather implies more numerous bubbles, and then the sugar will 
fly off like flakes while the skimmer is being tossed. By boiling "longer, 
you obtain the crack; it will crack when broken, and does not stick to the 
teeth ; dip a teaspoon into the sugar, and let it drop to the bottom of a pan 
of cold water. If the sugar remains hard, it has attained the degree termed 
crack. 

Common Lemon Candy. — Take 3 lbs. coarse brown sugar; add to it 
three teacupf uls of water, and set over a slow fire for half an hour ; put 
to it a little gum arable dissolved in hot water ; this is to clear it. Con- 
tinue to take off the scum as long as any rises. When perfectly clear, try 
it by dipping a pipe-stem first into it and then into cold water, or by taking 



282 CONFECTIONKK8. 

a spoonful of it into a saucer ; if done, it will snap like glass. Flavor with 
essence of lemon and cut it into sticks. 

Popped Corn, dipped in boiling molasses, and stuck together, forms an 
excellent candy. 

Rock Candy. — To make fine rock candy, clarify double refined white 
sugar, filter it, and boil it till it is ready to crystallize, or boiled to a blister. 
The boiling sugar must measure 35° on the syrup weight, a degree more 
or less prevents its crystallization. Then take a brass kettle, of about 16 
or 18 inches diameter and from 6 to 8 inches deep, smooth and polished on 
the inside. Make 8 or 10 small holes at equal distance from each other in 
a circle around the sides of the kettle, about 2 inches from the bottom ; 
pass threads through these from one side to the other, and stop the holes 
on the outside with paste or paper to prevent the syrup from running out. 
Having thus prepared the kettle, pour in the syrup, till it rises about an 
inch above the tiireads ; then place it in a stove moderately heated, and 
leave it to crystallize, agitating it from time to time. The crystallization 
will take place in six or seven days. As soon as the crystals are formed, 
pour off the remaining syrup, and throw in a little water to wash the crys- 
tals that are left at the bottom of the vessel. So soon as the mass is thor- 
ouglilj' drained set it in a very hot stove, leave it for two days, when it is 
fit for use. Straw-colored rock candy is made by substituting brown for 
loaf sugar. The syrup must be boiled over a very hot fire in order to ren- 
der the candy perfectly white. The sides of the kettle should be sponged 
repeatedly during the boiling process, to prevent the sugar from adhering 
and burning. 

Fine Horehound Candy. — Take a large bunch of the herb horehound, 
as green and fresh as you can get it. Cut it up (leaves and stalks) with 
scissors. Scald twice a China teapot or covered pitcher, and then put 
into it the horehound, pressing it down hard with your hands. The pot 
should be about two-thirds full of the herb. Then fill it up with boiling 
water. Cover it closely, and put a small roll of soft paper into the moutli 
of the spout, to prevent any of the strength escaping with the steam. Set 
the pot close to the fire to infuse, and keep it there till it conies to a hard 
boil. Then immediately take it awa^', and strain it into another vessel. 
Mix with the liquid sufficient powdered loaf sugar to make it very thick 
soft paste. Then put over the fire and give it a boil, stirrmg and skimming it 
well. Take a shallow, square tin pan, grease it slightly with sweet oil, and 
put into it the candy as soon as it is well boiled, smoothing it over the sur- 
face with a wet knife blade. Then sift on some powdered sugar. Set it 
away to cool. ^When nearly congealed, score it into squares. It is good 
for colds, and coughs, and hoarseness. 

If you find it too thin, you may stir in, wlien it is nearly done boiling, a 
spoonful of flour, or arrow-root, or pulverized starch. Another way of 
making this candy is, to boil the horehound in as much water as will cover 
it, and till all the juice is extracted. Tlien strain it, and give it another 
boil, stirring in, gradually, sugar enough to make it very thick and stiff. 
Afterwards, sift sugar over a shallow tin pan, and fill it with the paste and 
leave it to congeal. Any herb candy may be made as above. 

Clarified Sugar. — Break into large lumps as much loaf sugar as is re- 
quired, and dissolve it in a bowl, allowing a pound of sugar to half a pint 
of water. Set it over the fire, and add the white of an egg well whipped. 
Let it boil up, and when about to run over, pour in a little cold water, to 
check it ; but when it rises a second time, take it off the fire and set it by in 
a pan for a quarter of an hour. The foulness will then sink to the bottom, 
and leave a black scum on the top, which must be taken off gently with a 
skimmer. Then pour the syrup very quickly from the sediment, and set it 
by for use. 

Clarified Syrup. — Break two pounds of double refined sugar, and put 
it into a stew-pan that is well tinned, with a pint of cold spring water. 
When the sugar is dissolved, set it over a moderate fire. Beat up half the 



CONFECTIONERS. 283 

wliite of an egg, put it to the stigar before it gets warm, and stir it well 
together. As soon as it boils, take off the scum, and keep it boiling till it 
is perfectly dear. Run it through a dean napkin, put it into a dose stop- 
ped bottle", and it will keep for months. 

Ginger Candy. — Dissolve 1 lb. double-refined sugar in i pint of spring 
water ; set it over a clear fire, and let it boil to a thin syrup. Have ready 
a teaspoonful of powdered ginger, mix it smoothly with 2 or 3 spoonfuls of 
the syrup, then stir it gradually into the whole. Boil t1ie mixture into a 
/lake, watching it carefully, that it may not exceed this point ; then aild the 
freshly grated rind of a large lemon, and stir the sugar constantly and 
rapidly imtil it falls in a mass from the spoon, without sinking when dropped 
upon a plate. If boiled for a moment beyond the point, it will fall into a 
powder. Should this happen by mistake, add a little water, and boil to the 
proper consistency. Dip the candy froin the kettle, and drop it in small 
cakes upon buttered pans, then set it away to cool. 

Ginger Candy. — Break a pound of loaf sugar into pieces, put it into a 
preserving pan, and pour over it about a third of a pint of spring water, let 
it stand until the sugar is nearly dissolved, then set over a perfectly clear 
fire, and boil it untilit becomes a thin syrup. Have ready in a large cup a 
teaspoonful of powdered ginger ; mix it sraoothlf and gradually with two 
or three spoonfuls of the syrup, and stir it well into tiie whole. Watch the 
mixture carefully, keep it stirred and drop it often from a spoon, to ascer- 
tain the exact point of boiling it has reached. When it begins to fall in 
flakes, throw in the freshly grated rind of a large lemon, and work the 
sugar round quickly as it is added. The candy must now be stirred con- 
stantly until it is done; this will be when it falls in a mass from tlie spoon and 
does not sink when placed in a small heap on a dish. It must he poured or 
ladled out as expeditiously as possible when ready, or it will fall into a mere 
powder. If this should happen, a little water may be added to it, and it 
must be reboiled to the requisite point. The candy if dropped in cakes 
upon sheets of very dry foolscap or other thick writing paper laid upon 
cold dishes, may be moved off without difficulty, while it is just warm, 
but it must not be touched while quite hot, or it will break. 

Cream Candy.— ^To 3 lbs. white sugar add ^ pt. water, and set it over a 
slow file for half an hour ; then add a teaspoonful of gum arabic dissolved, 
and a tablespoonful of vinegar. Boil it till it is brittle, then take it off, and 
flavor it with vanilla, rose or orange. Rub the hands with sweet butter, and 
pull the candy till it is white ; then twist or break it, or stretch it out into 
thin white strips, and cut it off. 

Red Verdun Sugared Almonds. — Dry the almonds in a stove by a 
slow fire. When dry enough to snap between the teeth, put them into a 
swinging basin and gum them by throwing over tliem a little gum arabic 
solution, cold; swing them constantly till dry; tlien give tliem another 
coating of gum arabic mixed with 4 oz. sugar, and swing them again till 
dry, using no fire. When they are thorougldy dry, set them over a moder- 
ate fire. Dissolve some sugar in orange or rose water, not too thin, set it 
over the fire 2 or 3 minutes, strain it through a sieve, and pour it over the 
almonds in the basin. Swing them till they are thoroughly coated and 
dried ; then add another coating, composed of two parts of carmine, one 
part of gum, and one part of sugar, and proceed as before. If the almonds 
are not perfectly covered, give them a coating in which there is considerable 
gum; and when thorouglil}' moistened, throw on them some sifted sugar, 
stir till the mixture is all absorbed, then add successive coatings of sugar till 
the.v are large enough, and put them into the stove to remain till next day, 
when in order to ichiten them, you will proceed to boil 6 or 7 lbs. of fine clari- 
fied sugar to a blister, add 1 lb. of starch after taking it from the fire, stir- 
ing it constantly till a paste is formed a little thicker than that used for 
pastilles ; a few drops of blue lake may be added to produce a pearl white. 
Put the almonds warm, into the swinging basin, add enough of tlie prei)ared 
sugar to coat them, swing the basin till they are nearly dry, then set on the 



284 CONFECTIONERS. 

fire to finish tlie drying, then take the basin off the fire, heap them up in the 
niidille, so as to allow the l>ottoiii of the vessel to cool ; then add the coating 
of sugar, swing and dry them as before, and continue the process until four 
successive coatings of equal thickness have been given; then heat them well 
in the basin, put them into pans, and set them in the stove to remain over 
niglit. Yon will then proceed to polixh them by giving them a coat of the 
prepared sugar and starch, and shake tiieni violently until they are quite dry; 
give them another coating and proceed as before, and continue the process 
until they have received four successive coatings, when thej* will generally 
be found sufficiently polished. When the polishing is finished, put the 
ahnonds over a fire and stir gently, till all are thoroughly heated, then place 
in a stove till the next day in a wicker basket lined with p;iper. 

Spanish Sugared Almonds — Make verdun sugared almonds about the 
size of pigeon's eggs, whiten and polish them b}- the previous directions, and 
paint different designs on them wlien completed. 

Superfine Vanilla Sugared Almonds. — Proceed in the same manner 
as in tlie manufacture of verdun sugared almonds, make the solution of 
sugar in pure water; crush tlie essence of vanilla with a little sugar, and put 
in the solution. 

Common Sugared Almonds. — Common almonds, 20 lbs. ; sugar, 8 lbs. ; 
farina, 20 lbs. ; starch, 2 lbs. Heat the almonds in the swinging basin, when 
they boil, make them into a pulp with diluted starch; give first a warm, 
then a cold coating, cover them with farina, shaking the basin violently ; 
then, when the almonds have been coated to the requisite size, spread them 
out on sieves ; after a fortnight put tliem in a stove to finish drj'ing : whiten 
them, and finish by the process described for the fine sugared almonds. 

Candied Fruit. — Take one pound of the best loaf sugar; dip each lump 
into a bowl of water, and put the sugar into j'our preserving kettle. Boil it 
down, and skim it until perfectly clear, and in a candying state. When 
sufficiently boiled, have ready the fnuts you wish to i)reserve. Large white 
grapes, oranges separated into small pieces, or preserved fruits, taken out 
of their syrup and dried, are very nice. Dip the fruits into the prepared 
sugar while it is hot ; put them in a cold place : they will soon become 
hard. 

Acid Drops. — Pound and sift into a clean pan 8 ozs. of double refined 
sugar, add slowly as mucli water as will render the sugar sufficiently moist 
not to stick to the stirring spoon, place the pan on a small stove or slow fire, 
and stir it till it nearly boils, remove from the fire and stir in ^ oz. tartaric 
acid. Place it on the fire for half a minute, then dip out small quantities 
from the pan, a'ud let it fall in small drops on a clean tin plate ; remove the 
drops in 2 hours with a knife. Ready for sale in 24 hours. 

Chocolate Cream Candy. — Chocolate scraped fine, ^ oz. ; thick cream, 
1 pt. ; best sugar, 3 ozs. ; heat it nearly boiling, then remove it from the 
fire and mix it well ; when cold, add the whites of 4 or 5 eggs ; whisk 
rapidly and take up the froth on a sieve. Serve the cream in glasses and 
pile up the froth on top of them. 

Orange Kock Candy is made by flavoring the syrup with a couple of 
teaspoonfnls of orange flower water, and coloring with saffron, just as the 
syrup is about to lie taken from the fire. Rose Rock Candi/ is flavored with 
rose water, ami colored with clarified carmine lake. Vanilla Rock Gandtj is 
perfumed with vanilla and colored with liquid violet. Tlie degree of color- 
ing may be tested by dropping a little of the colored syrup on a sheet of 
white paper. 

Ice-Creams. — These are commonly composed of cream or sweetened 
water, variously flavored, and congealed by ice or a freezing mixture. 
Sometimes, instead of cream, the materials of a custard are used. The 
mixed ingredients are placed in a tin, furnished with a handle at top, called 
a freezer or freezing-pot, which is then plunged into a bucket containing salt 
and ice (ice liroken small and mixed with half its weight of common salt), 
and is kept in rapid motion backwards and forwards until its contents are 



CONFECTIONERS. 285 

frozen. As the cream congeals and adheres to the sides, it is broken down 
with the ice-spoon, sci that the whole may be equally exposed to tlie cold. 
As the salt and ice in the tub melt, more is added nntil the process is fin- 
nished. The ice-pot with the cream in it, is next placed in a leaden ice- 
stand, is at once snrrounded with a mixture of ice and salt, and closely 
covered over. The glasses are filled from this as required for immediate 
use, and should have been previously made as cold as possible. Plain ice- 
cream is commonly made by one or other of the following formulas : 1. 
New milk, 2 pints; eggs, 6 yolks; white sugar, 4 oz. ; mix, strain, heat 
gently, and cool gradually. 2. Cream, 1 pint; sugar, 4 oz. ; mix as before. 
3. Cream, 1 pint; milk, 1 pint ; white sugar, ^ lb. 

Flavored ice-creams are made by mixing cream for icing with half its 
weight of mashed or preserved fruit, previously rubbed through a clean hair 
sieve ; or, when the flavor depends on the juice of fruit or an essential oil, 
hy adding a sufficient quantity of such substances. 

Ice Cream. — Have rich, sweet cream, and a half pound of loaf-sugar to 
each quart of cream or milk. If you cannot get cream, the best imitation 
is to boil a soft custard, 6 eggs to each quart of milk (eggs well beat). Or 
another is made as follows : boil 1 quart of milk, and stir into it, while boil- 
ing, 1 tablespoonf ul of arrowroot wet with cold milk; when cool stir into it 
the yolk of 1 egg to give it a rich color. Five minutes' boiling is enough 
for either plan. Put the sugar in after they cool ; keep the same propor-- 
tions for any amount desired. Or thus : to 6 quarts of milk add |- lb. Oswego 
starch, first dissolved, put the starch in 1 quart of tiie milk ; then mix all 
together, and simmer a little (not boil) ; sweeten and flavor to your taste ; 
excellent. The juice of strawberries or raspberries gives a beautiful color 
and flavor to ice-creams, or about -| oz. essence or extract to 1 gallon or to 
suit the taste. Have your ice well broken, 1 qt. salt to a Vjucket of ice. 
About one hour's constant stirring, with occasional scraping down and beat- 
ing together, will freeze it. 

Chicago Ice Cream. — Irish moss soaked in warm water one hour, and 
rinsed well to cleanse it of sand and a certain foreign taste ; tlien steep it in 
milk, keeping it just at the point of boiling or simmering for one hour, or 
until a rich yellow color is given to the milk ; without cream or eggs ; from 
1 to 1^ oz. to a gal. only is necessary, and this will do to steep twice. Sweeten 
and flavor like other creams. 

Substitute for Cream. — Take 2 or 3 whole eggs, beat them well up in 
a bashi ; then pour boiling hot tea over them ; pour gradually to prevent 
curdling. It is difficult for the taste to distinguish it from rich cream. 

Freezing Prepar.\.tion. — Common sal-ammoniac, well pulverized, 1 
])art ; saltpetre, 2 parts ; mix well together. Then take common soda, well 
pulverized. To use, take equal quantities of these preparations (which 
must be kept separate and well covered previous to using) and put them in 
the freezing pot ; add of water a proper quantity, and put in the article to 
be frozen in a proper vessel ; cover up, and your wants will soon be sup- 
plied. For freezing cream or wines this cannot be beat. 

Candied Lemon Peel. — Take lemon peels and boil them in syrup ; then 
take them out, and dry. 

Orange, Jasmine, and Clote Drops are made by mixing the above 
paste with these respective extracts : 

For Salad Drops. — Water distilled from lettuce is used. 

Saffron Drops. — Make an infusion of saffron, strain it, let it cool, use 
it to mix the paste, and proceed as before. 

Heliotrope Drops. — Proceed in the same manner, flavoring the paste 
with a few drops of oil of neroli, or oil of orange, jasmine and tube-rose, 
and color violet. 

Pink Drops. — Flavor the taste with tincture of red pinks, and color with 
carmine lake. 

Cinnamon Drops. — Mix 5 drs. powdered cinnamon and 8 oz. of sugar 
with mucilage enough to make it into a paste, and proceed as above. 



286 CONFECTIONERS. 

Chewing Gum. — Take of prepared balsam of tolu, 2 oz. ; white sugar, 1 
07.. ; oatineiil, 3 oz. ; soften the gum with water bath and mix in tlie ingre- 
dients; then roll in finely powdered sugar or flour to form sticks to suit. 

Marshmallow and Licorice Drops are made the same way. 

Rose Drops. — Mix the paste with rose water, and color with carmine 
lake. Proceed as above. 

Lemon and Orange Drops. — Rasp off the yellow rind of an orange or 
lemon; mix the raspings witli double-refined sugar; add 5 grs. of tartaric 
acid to every pound of sugar, color witli yellow lake or saffron, and proceed as 
before. If too much acid is used, tlie candies will adhere to tiie sheet of tin. 

Violet Drops. — Flavor the paste with tincture of Florence iris, and 
color with blue and carmine lakes. A few drops of tartaric; acid may be 
added to sustain the blue. 

Coffee Drops. — Substitute a strong, filtered infusion of coffee for 
water, in mixing the paste. 

Chocolate Drops. — For every pound of sugar, take 5 pts. good clioco- 
late, pulverize it, and mix it into a paste, as already directed, taking care 
not to boil the paste too long, lest it granulate, and become unfit for use. 

Vanilla Drops. — Mix the paste with extract of vanilla, or finely- 
ground vanilla bean ; to which add 2 oz. 3 grs. of tartaric acid, dissolved in 
water, to sustain the blue, without whicli it would disappear. 

Imitation Currant Drops. — Mix the paste with water, adding a little 
essence of raspberr}' and of violet, or Florence iris, with a little tartaric 
acid dissolved in water ; color with carmine, and proceed as above. 

Peppermint Drops. — Dissolve finely-powdered sugar with a little strong 
peppermint-water in a saucepan with a spout. As soon as it is thoroughly 
dissolved, add an equal quantity of coarse-grained sugar with a few drops 
more of the peppermint, stir the whole for a few moments, then drop the 
mixture on paper, and dr}' it in the open air. In the same way are made 
lemon, rose, vanilla, and other drops. Citric and tartaric acid may be used 
to increase the acidity of lemon drops. 

Extemporaneous Pastilles. — Make the paste as usual, without flavor- 
ing the water, drop the pastilles upon paper, leave them for two hours, then 
take them off and put them in the stove to dry. Wiien wanted for use, put 
the quantity required into a large-mouthed jar, and flavor as desired. For 
instance, to make 2 lbs. of peppermint drops, take 5 pts. of sulphuric ether 
in which are diluted a few drops of essence of peppermint, and pour it over 
the candies, then cover the jar, and shake it until tliey are thoroughly 
moistened; then place them on a sieve, and set them in the stove for five 
minutes, evapt)rate the etlier. In this manner rose, orange, lemon, jonquil, 
tube-rose, mignonette, clove, cinnamon, or any other drops may be made, 
dissolving their essential oils in sulpiiuric ether. 

Ginger Candy Tablets. — Take 1 lb. loaf sugar, a few drops of acetic 
acid or the juice of half a lemon, a dessert-spoonful of essence of Jamaica 
ginger. Boil tlie sugar with just water enough to dissolve it to the ball de- 
gree, then add tlie acid and the essence, and rub the sugar with the back 
part of the bowl of a silver spoon up against the sides of the sugar-boiler to 
whiten or grain it sufficiently to give to the whole an opalized appearance; 
then pour it into very small sized moulds, measuring half an inch or an inch 
oblong square, or else into a tin pan, the bottom part of which is marked 
out in small tablets, so that the candy may be easily broken into squares 
when dry. Smear the moulds slightly with oil of almonds. When the 
sugar is poured into the moulds, place in the screen for half an hour or 
more, to dry them hard. 

Orange Flower Candy Tablets. — Ingredients : 1 lb. loaf sugar, a 
tablespoonful of orange-flower water, and a few drops of acetic acid. Pro- 
ceed as directed in the preceding. No color. 

Vanilla Candy Tablets. — Ingredients : 1 lb. loaf sugar, a few drops of 
essence of vanilla, sugar, and a few drops of acetic acid. Proceed as for or- 
naments in grained sugar. 



CONFECTIONERS. 287 

Peppermint Candy Tablets. — ^Ingredients : 1 lb. of loaf sugar, a few 
drops of the essence of peppermint, and a few drops of acetic acid. Proceed 
as above. No color. 

Lemon Drops. — Grate three large lemons, with a large piece of double- 
refined sugar ; tlien scrape the sugar into a paste, add lialf a teaspoonful of 
floirr, mix well, and beat it into a liuht paste with the wliite of an egg. Drop 
it upon white paper, and put them into a moderate oven on a tin plate. 

Jellies Without Fruit. — To 1 })int of water put quarter oz. alum ; boil 
a minute or two ; then add 4 lbs. white sugar ; continue the boiling a little ; 
strain while hot; and, when cold, put in liaif a twenty-five cent bottle of 
extract of vanilla, strawberry, lemon, or any other flavor you desire for jelly. 

Barberry Drops. — Mix the juice of ripe barberries with powdered and 
sifted loaf sugar till tliey become a soft paste; heat this over the fire, stir- 
ring it all the time, but not letting it boil. Remove from the fire, add a 
little more sugar, stir well, and deposit it in drops on a tin, or a sheet of 
paper. Dry the drops in a nearly cold oven. 

Barley Sugar Drops. — Clarify and boil sugar as for barley sugar, and 
boil with it the thinly pared rinds of 1 or 2 lemons. Have ready a large 
sheet of white paper, covered with a uniform layer of sifted sugar. Poui 
out the boiled sugar in drops the size of a shilling ; when cold, fold their 
separately in paper, and twist it at the ends. 

Liquor Candy Tablets. — Ingredients : lib. of loaf sugar, and a gill ol 
any kind of liquor. Boil the sugar to the crack, then incorporate the liquor, 
and finish as in the preceding. No color. 

Cinnamon Candy Drops. — Use 1 lb. loaf sugar, and a few drops essence 
of cinnamon. Proceed as in the last. This may be colored rose pink, the 
color is to be ad<led while the sugar is boiling. 

Clove Candy Tablets are prepared in the same way as the foregoing, 
essence of cloves being used instead of cinnamon. 

Rose Candy Tablets. — Use 1 lb. loaf sugar, a few drops of essence of 
roses, a few drops of acetic acid, and a few drops of prepared cochineal. 
Proceed as in the preceding. 

Fruit Candy Tablets. — Use 1 lb. of loaf sugar, ^ pint of the juice of 
any kind of fruit, either currants, cherries, strawberries, raspberries, &c., 
extracted b^- pressing with a spoon through a clean hair sieve. Boil the 
sugar to the crack, then incorporate the fruit juice by rubbing it with the 
sugar as directed in the preceding, and finish the candies as therein indi- 
cated. 

To Free Molasses from its Sharp Taste, and to render it fit 
to be used instead of Sugar. — Take 24 lbs. molasses, 24 lbs. water, and 
6 lbs. of charcoal, coarsely pulverized; mix them in a kettle, and boil the 
whole over a slow wood fire. When the mixture has boiled half an hour, 
pour it into a flat vessel, in order that the charcoal may subside to the bot- 
tom ; then pour off the liquid, and place it over the fire once more, that the 
superfluous water may evaporate and the molasses be brought to its former 
consistence. 24 lbs. of molasses will produce 24 lbs. of syrup. 

Peppermint Lozenges. — Ingredients : 1 oz. of picked gum tragacanth 
soaked with 5 oz. of tepid water in a gallipot (this takes some 6 hours), and 
afterwards squeezed and wrung through a cloth, about \yi lbs. of fine icing 
sugar, and a teaspoonful of essence of peppermint. Work the prepared gum 
with the flattened fist on a very clean slab until it becomes perfectly white 
and elastic, then gradually work in the sugar, adding the peppermint when 
the paste has become a compact, smooth, elastic substance ; a few drops of 
thick, wet, cobalt hlue should also be added while working the paste, to give 
a brilliant whiteness. The paste thus prepared is to be rolled out with fine 
sugar dredged over the slab to the thickness of twopeimy pieces, then if 
you possess a ril)bed rolling pin, use to roll the paste again in cross direc- 
tions, so as to imprint on its whole surface a small lozenge of diamond pat- 
tern. You now use your tin cutter to stainj) out the lozenges ; as you do 
80 place them on sugar-powdered baking sheets to dry in the screen. 



288 CONFECTIONERS. 

GiNGEU Lozenges. — Proceed as in the last ; use a tablespoonf ul of essence 
of ginger, or 1 oz. pf ground ginger to flavor, and a few drops of tliick, wet 
gamboge to color tlie paste. Horehound Lozenges. — Ingredients : 1 oz. of 
gum dragon soaked in a gill of very strong extract of lioreliound, 1^ lbs. 
of fine icing sugar. Proceed as for the peppermint lozenges. Cinnamon 
Lozenges are prepared in the same manner as ginger or peppermint, with 
this difference only: a dessert-spoonful of essence of cinnamon is to be used 
in the flavoring of tliem, a few drops of thick, ground, wet-burnt umber 
should be used witli a pinch of carmine to give the paste the tinge of cin- 
namon color. Clove Lozenges. — The same as peppermint lozenges, using 
essence of cloves for flavoring, and burnt umber to color the paste. Orange 
Lozenges. — Ingredients: 1 oz. prepared gum, IJ lbs. sugar, 2 oz. of orange- 
sugar, the gum to be soaked in 2 oz. of orange flower water. Proceed as 
for peppermint lozenges. Lemon Lozenges. — Ingredients: 1 oz. prepared 
gum, 1^ lbs. of icing sugar, 2 oz. of lemon sugar, and a few drops of acetic 
acid. Colt's foot Lozenges. — Ingredients; 1 oz. gum dragon soaked in 2 oz. 
of orange flower water, \\ lb. of fine icing sugar, and | oz. of essen(;e of 
colt's foot. Proceed as for peppermint lozenges. Cayenne and Catechu 
iMzenges. — Ingredients: 1 oz. of gum dragon soaked in 2 oz. water, 2 lbs 
fine icing sugar, \ oz. essence of cayemie, and \ oz. of prepared catechu. 
Proceed as for peppermint lozenges. 

Gum Pastilles, or Jujubes. — Ingredients : 1 lb. of picked gum arabic, 
14 oz. of the finest sugar pounded and sifted, \ gill of double crange flower 
water, and 1 pt. tepid water to soak the gum in, which is afterwards to be 
strained off clean. Put the soaked and strained gum iuto a sugar boiler 
with the sugar, and use a clean spoon to stir it over a ver}' moderate fire, 
while it lioils and reduces to the small pearl degree ; then add the orange 
flower water, stir all together on the fire, remove tlie preparation from the 
stove, skim off the froth, and use the mixture to cast the jujubes in levelled 
.ayers of starch powder contained in a fiat box. 

Superfine Chocolate Sugared Almonds. — Caraccasa cacao nuts, 
shelled and roasted, 20 lbs., Martinique sugar, 16 lbs., vanilla, 4 drs., starch, 
10 oz. The same method is required as fop the superfine vamlla sugar 
plums, but care must be taken in adding the coatings of gum, to touch the 
cacao nuts lightly, as they are very easily broken. 

Superfine Sugared Filberts. — Filberts, 50 lbs., sugar, 4 lbs., starch, 
4 oz. Employ the same process as for sugared almonds and flavor to taste. 
Rose water is generally preferred on account of its color and fragrance. 

Coriander Sugar Plums. — Coriander, 2 lbs., farina, 30 lbs., sugar, 14 
lbs. The washings of the basin are added to the coriander and farina with- 
out making a paste, and the method is followed that has been i)rescribed 
for tlie common sugared almonds ; 8 lbs. of sugar are used to whiten them, 
and 6 to polish them ; color after being polished with carmine, Prussian 
blue, and saffron. 

Coriander in Bottles. — Coriander, 10 lbs., farina, 10 lbs., sugar for 
the whitening, 3 lbs., starch 1 lb. These are simply colored, and do not 
require brilliancy. They are made of the size of small peas, and are put into 
little bottles. In making these follow the receipt for common sugared 
almonds. 

Anise-seed Sugar Plums. — Dry 2 lbs. green anise-seed in the stove ; 
rub it in the hands to break off the stems, winnow to rid of dust, then put 
it in a swinging basin, and coat it with sugar boiled to a thread, so ns to 
render the candies hard and brittle. When coated sufiiciently, whiten and 
polish them, like the verdun sugared almonds. They vary in size, being 
generally as large as a pea. 

Mint Sugar Plums. — Dry some peppermint seed in a stove and coat it 
in the same manner as anise-seed (it must not, however, be whiter than 
rape seed), whiten and finish like anise-seed. The first coating is sometimes 
composed of equal i)arts of peppermint and sugar. 

Common Twist Candy. — Clarify 3 lbs. of common brown sugar, and boil it 



CONFECTIONERS. 289 

till it is brittle, take it from the fire, pour it in buttered pans ; rub tlie 
hands with a little butter, and as soon as it is cooled, pull it as you would 
molasses candy until it is perfectly white ; then twist and braid it and cut 
it into sticks. 

Caramel is made b}' boiling clarified sugar till it is very brittle, then 
pouring it on an oiled slab or slieet of tin, and, as soon as it is cool enough 
to receive an impression with the finger, stamping it in small squares, about 
an inch in size, with a caramel mould ; then turning over the mass, wiping 
the bottom to remove any oil that may have adhered from tlie slab, and 
putting it in a dry place to harden. If you have no caramel mould, you 
may score it on tlie slab with a common case knife, after wliich they are 
glazed with another coating with sugai% Keep them tightly closed from 
the air after they are made. 

Lemon Caramel is made by grating the yellow rind of a lemon with a 
lump of sugar; add to this a few drops of lemon juice with water enougli 
to dissolve tlie sugar completely, and stir the whole into tiie boiled sj-rup a 
few minutes before it is taken from the fire. Orange and Lime caramels are 
prepared in the same manner from these respective fruits. Coffee caramel, 
coffee, 2 oz., sugar, 1 lb. Make an infusion of the coffee, using as little water 
as possible; strain it through a (doth, and stir it gradually into the boiled 
syrup a few minutes before taking it from the fire. Chocolate caramel, cho- 
colate, 4 oz., sugar, 1 lb. Dissolve the chocolate in as little water as possi- 
ble, and add it to the boiled sugar, as in the coffee caramels. Vuniilu and 
Orange cream caramels are made by using the respective essences of these 
fruits. 

Cocoa Nut Candy. — Pare and cut cocoa-nut into slips, or grate on a 
coarse grater the white meat of cocoa-nuts until you have ^ a lb. ; dissolve 
4 a lb. of loaf sugar in 2 tablespoonfuls of water; put it over the fire, and, 
as soon as it boils, stir in the cocoa-nut. Continue to stir it until it is boil- 
ed to a flake, then pour it on a buttered pan or marble slab, and cut in 
whatever forms you wish, when it is nearlj' cold. Lemon or other flavors 
may be added. 

Candy Drops or Pastilles. — Pound and sift double-refined sugar, 
first through a coarse, and then through a fine sieve. Put the sugar into 
an earthen vessel, and dilute it witli the flavoring extract, mixed with a 
little water. If too liquid, the syrup will be too thin, and the drops will 
run together ; while if too tliick, the syrup will be too compact, and caimot 
be poured out easily. When tlie sugar is mixed in a rather stiff paste, put 
it in a small saucepan with a spout and set it over the fire. As soon as it 
begins to bubble up the sides of the saucepan, stir it once in the middle, 
take it from the fire, and drop it in small lumps, of the size and shape re- 
quired, upon sheets of tin, to stand for two hours, then put tliein in the stove 
to finish drying. As soon as they are perfectly hard and brilliant, take 
them from the fire, otherwise they will lose their aroma. Color the syrup 
just before taking it from the fire. 

Spanish Licorice Jujukes. — Ingredients: 1 lb. picked gum arable, 14 
oz. of sugar, and 2 oz. of Spanish licorice dissolved in a gill of hot water, 
and afterwards strained clean. First prepare the gum and boil it with sugar 
as directed in the preceding article, and when reduced by boiling to tlie 
small pearl degree, incorporate the prepared Spanisli licorice with it, 
remove the scum from the surface, and finish the jujubes in the manner 
indicated above. Raspberry Jujuhes. Ingredients : 1 lb. picked gum arable 
soaked in 1 pint of hot water and afterwards strained. 14 oz. of sugar, 1 
gill of filtered raspberry juice, and a few drops of cochineal. Proceed as 
directed in the foregoing case, adding the raspberry and coloring last. Black 
Currant Jujubes. Proceed in all respects as indicated for raspberry jujubes 
omitting the cochineal, black currant juice being used. Red Currant Jujubes. 
— The same as black currant jujubes, red currant juice being used and a 
few drops of cochineal. Ordinun/ Jujubes. Ingredient : 1 lb. gum arable 
soaked in I pt. of hot water and afterwards strained, 14 oz. sugar, }4 oz. 

13 



290 CONFECTIONERS. 

essence of roses, and a few drops of jjrepared cocliineiil. Let tlie mixture 
be prepared as for otlier jujubes, but instead of casting them in impressions 
made in starclipovvder, w lien tiie preparation is ready, jjour it into a very 
clean smooth tinned baking sheet to the deptli of a quarter of an ineli, and 
set it to dry in the screen, or hot closet (moderate heat); when sufficiently 
dried, so that on pressing the surface it proves soraewliat elastic to the 
touch, remove it from the heat, and allow it to become cold; the sheet of 
jujube may then be easily detached, and is to be cut up with scissors in the 
shape of diamonds. 

Stick Apple Sugak. — Boil the sugar to caramel, flavor with ai>ple 
juice together with tartaric or other acid, pour it on a marble slab, draw it 
into sticks, cut them of equal length, then roll them on a slab till they are 
l)erfectly cold ; when finished, wrap them in tissue-paper and put them in 
fancy envelopes. 

Currant and Raspberry Paste Drops. — Ingredients: 1 lb. of pulp 
(the currants and raspberries in equal proportions boiled, and afterwards 
rubbed through a sieve), 1 lb. of sifted sugar. Stir both together in a 
copper sugar-boiler or preserving pan over a brisk fire, until the paste 
becomes sufficiently reduced to show the bottom of the preserving pan as 
you draw the spoon across it ; then proceed to lay out the drops about the 
size of a half dollar, using a spouted sugar boiler for the purpose. The drops 
should then be plpced in the screen to dry, at a low heat for an hour or so. 
When the drops are dry, use a thin knife to remove them from the tin sheet 
on which you laid tliem out, and put them away between sheets of paper in 
closed boxes, in a dry place. Damson Paste Drops. — Ingredients : 1 lb. of 
damson thick pulp, 1 lb. bruised sugar. Stir the pulp and sugar on the fire 
until reduced to a thick paste, then proceed to lay out the drops on square 
sheets of polished tin ; dry them in the screen (moderate heat), and remove 
them in the manner aforesaid. Tiiese drops may be prepared witii all kinds 
of plums and also with gooseberries. Pear Paste Drops, — Use 1 lb. pear 
pulp (made by peeling the pears and boiling them to a pulp with ^ pt. of 
cider or perry, and rubbing this through a coarse sieve), 1 lb. of bruised 
sugar. Proceed as for damson paste. Apple Paste Drops. — Use 1 lb. of 
apple pulp (made by peeling, slicing and boiling the aj)ples with^ pt. cider), 
1 lb. of bruised sugar. Pro<;eed as in the foregoing cases, adding a few drops 
of cochineal to half of the paste for the sake of variety. Pine Apple Paste 
Drops. — Use 1 lb. of pine-apple pulp (made by first peeling, and then grat- 
ing the pine-apple on a dish, using a clean coarse tin grater for the purpose), 
1 lb. of bruise-d sugar. Proceed as in the former cases. 

Vases, Baskets, Figures, Animals, &c., in Grained Sugar. — The 
sugar being boiled to the ball degree, add a few drops of acetic acid, and 
work the sugar with the back part of the bowl of a silver tablespoon up 
against the side of the sugar boiler, fetching up the whole in turns, so that 
every portion may acquire an opalized or M'hitish color. As soon as the 
sugar has been worked up to this state, which constitutes " graining," pour 
it immediatel)' into tlie ready prepared mould; and when it has become per- 
fectly set firm in the centre, you may turn the vase, basket, animal, or 
whatever the object may be, out of its mould, and place it in the screen or 
hot closet to dry, at a very moderate heat. Afterwards they may be 
jiainted in colors to imitate nature. 

Everton Taffy. — To make this favorite and wholesome candy, take 
1 1^ pounds of moist sugar, 3 ounces of butter, a teacup and a half of water, 
and one lemon. Boil the sugar, butter, water, and half the rind of the 
lemon together ; and, when done, — which will be known by dropping into 
cold water, when it should be quite crisp, — let it stand aside till the boiling 
has ceased, and then stir in the juice of the lemon. Butter a dish, and i)our 
it in about a quarter of an inch in thickness. The fire must be quick, and 
llie taffy stirred all the time. 

To Preserve Fruits Without Sugar. — Fill some stone wideniouthed 
bottles with the fruit carefully picked and set them in a copper or large 



COKFECTIONERS. 291 

kettle ; then fill the kettle with cold water nearly up to the mouths of the 
bottles. Corks should be prepared to fit the bottles, and a cloth should be 
put under the bottoms of the bottles to prevent tlieir cracking with the heat. 
Light the fire under the kettle, and heat the water to 160° or 170". This 
heat sliould be continued for half an hour, wiien the fruit will be sufficiently 
scalded ; after that, fill up the bottles with boiling water to within an inch 
of the cork and cork them tightly. Lay the bottles on their sides ; change 
the position of the bottles once or twice a week during the first two 
months, turning them round to prevent any fermentation that might take 
place. Fruits could also be kejit by the process mentioned above for 
meats, remembering that they are to be scalded only, not boiled, as in the 
case with meats. • 

Another ]VIethod. — After paring and coring, put among them suflScient 
sugar to make them palatable for present eating, about 3 or 4 lbs. only to 
each bushel ; let them stand awhile to dissolve tlie sugar, not using any 
water; then heat to a boil, and continue the boiling with care for 20 to 30 
minutes, or sufficiently long to heat them through, which expels the air. 
Have ready a kettle of hot water, into which dip the can or bottle long 
enough to heat it; then fill in the fruit while hot, corking it immediately, 
dipping the end of the cork into the bottle-wax preparation described else- 
where. 

To Preserve Fruit Juice without Heat. — Ingredients : 10 lbs. of 
fresh-gathered, picked, red-ripe currants, or other fruit, 2 qts. cold water, 5 
oz. tartaric acid, 6 lbs. of coarse sifted sugar. Put the fruit into a large 
earthen pan, pour the water with the tartaric acid dissolved in it over tlie 
fruit, cover the pan with some kind of lid, and allow the whole to steep for 
24 hours in a cold place, and it would be all the better if the pan containing 
the fruit could be immersed in rough ice. — Next, pour the steeped fruit into 
a suspended stout flannel bag, and when all the juice has run through, tie 
up the ojien end of the bag, and place it on a large earthen dish, with anoth- 
er dish upon it ; place a half-hundred weight ^^)on this, to press out all the 
remaiiung juice, and then mix it with the other juice. You now put the 
sifted sugar into the juice, and stir both togetlier occasionally, until the 
sugar is dissolved, and then bottle up the s^'rup, cork, and tie down the 
bottles with wire, and keep them in the ice well or in a cold cellar, in a 
reclining position. 

Syrup. — A saturated, or nearly saturated, solution of sugar in water, 
either simple, flavored, or medicated. In the preparation of syrups, care 
should be taken to employ the best refined sugar, and either distilled water 
or filtered rain water; by which they will be rendered much less liable to 
spontaneous decomposition, and will be perfectly transparent without the 
trouble of clarification. When inferior sugar is employed, clarification is 
always necessar3-. Tliis is best done by dissolving the sugar in the water, 
or other aqueous dissolvent, in the cold, and then beating up a little of the 
cold syrup with some white of egg, and an ounce or two of cold water, until 
the mixture froths well. This must be added to the syrup in the boiler, 
and the whole whisked up to a good froth. Heat should now be applied, and 
the scum which forms removed from time to time with a clean skimmer. 
As soon as the syrup begins to slightly simmer, it must be removed from 
the fire, and allowed to stand until it has cooled a little, when it should be 
again skimmed, if necessary, and then passed through clean flannel. When 
vegetable infusions or solutions enter into the composition of syrups, they 
should be rendered perfectly transparent by filtration or clarification be- 
fore being added to the sugar. The proper quantity of sugar for syrups 
will, in general, be found to be two pounds to every imperial pint of water 
or thin aqueous fiuid. These proportions, allowing for the water that is 
lost by evaporation during the process, are those best calculated to produce 
a syrup of the proi)er consistence, and possessing good keeping qualities 
Tn the preparation of syrup, it is of the greatest importance to employ as 
little heat as possible, as a solution of sugar, even when kept at the temper- 



202 CONFECTIONERS. 

ature of boiling water, undergoes slow decomposition. A good plan is to 
l)Our tlie water, cold over the sugar, and to allow the two to remain to- 
gether for a few hours, in a covered vessel, occasionally stirring, and then 
to apply a gentle heat (preferably that of steam or a water-bath), to finish 
the solution. It is erroneously thought by some persons that a syrup can- 
not be properly prepared unless it is well boiled ; but if this method be 
adopted, tiie ebullition should only be of the gentlest kind, and should be 
checked after the lapse of one or two minutes. When it is necessary to 
thicken a syrup by boiling, a few fragments of glass should be introduced, 
in order to lower the boiling point. To make higlily transparent syrups, 
the sugar should be in a single lump, and by preference taken from the 
bottorp or broad end of the loaf; as, wlien taken from the end, or if it be 
powdered or bruised, the syrup will be more or less cloudy. Syrups are 
judged to be sufficient!}' boiled when some taken up in a spoon pours out 
like oil ; or, a drop cooled on the thumb-nail, gives a proper thread when 
touched. When a thin skin appears on blowing the syrup, it is judged 
to be completely saturated. The practice of completely saturating the 
water with sugar is a bad one. Under ordinary circumstances, a syrup 
with a very slight excess of water keeps better than one fully saturated. 
In the latter case, a portion of sugar generally crystallizes out on stand- 
ing, and thus, by extracting sugar from the remainder of tlie syrup, so 
weakens it, that it rapidly ferments and spoils. This change proceeds at 
a rapidity proportionate to the temperature. Saturated syrup, kept in a 
vessel that is frequently uncorked, or exposed to the air, soon loses suffi- 
cient water, by evaporation from its surface, to cause the formation of mi- 
nute crystals of sugar, which, falling to the bottom of the vessel, continue 
to increase in size at the expense of the sugar in the solution. On the other 
hand, syrups containing too much water also rapidly ferment, and become 
acescent ; but of the two, tiiis is the lesser evil, and may be more easily pre 
vented. The preservation of syrups is best promoted by keeping them in 
a moderately cool, but not very cold place. They are better kept in small 
rather than in large bottles, Ss the longer a bottle lasts the more frequently 
it will be opened, and, consequently, the more it will be exposed to the air. 
By bottling syrups while boiling hot, and immediately corking down and 
tying the bottles over with bladder, perfectly air-tight, they may be pre- 
served, even at a summer heat, for years without fermenting or losing their 
transparency. The crystallization of sj'rup, unless it be over-saturated with 
sugar, may be prevented by the addition of a little acetic or citric acid. 
The fermentation of syrups may be effectually prevented by the addition 
of a little sulphite of potassa or of lime. Fermenting syrups may be im- 
mediately restored by exposing the vessel containing them to the tempera- 
ture of boiling water. In making the above additions to syrup, care must 
be had not to mix incompatible substances. Thus, in general, tlie two 
methods referred to cannot be practised together. 

Sugar, to Clarify. — To everj- three pounds of loaf sugar, allow the 
beaten white of one egg, and a pint and a half of water ; break the sugar 
small, put it into a nicely-cleaned brass pan, and pour the water over it ; 
let it stand some time before it be put upon the fire, then add the beaten 
whites of the eggs ; stir it till the sugar be entirely dissolved, and when it 
boils up, pour in a quarter of a pint of cold water, let it boil up a second 
time, take it off the fire, and let it settle for fifteen minutes ; carefully take 
off all the scum, put it on the fire, and boil it till sufficiently thick, or if re- 
quired, till candy high, in order to ascertain which, drop a little from a spoon 
into a small jar of cold water, and if it becomes quite hard, it is then sufli- 
ciently done ; or dip the spoon into the sugar, plunge it into cold water, 
draw off the sugar which adheres to the spoon, and if it be hard and snaps, 
the fruit to bo preserved must be instantly put in and boiled. 




DYING, BLEACHING AND EENOYATING. 

For Tailors, Milliners, Scourers, ]5yers, Laundries, 
Hatters, Lace Manufacturers, and Home Use. 

Lace, to Clean. — For point lace. Fix the lace in a prepared tent, 
draw it straiglit, make a warm lather of Castile soap, and, with a tine brush 
dipped in, rub over the point s^ently ; and when it is clean on one side, do 
the same to the other ; th.en throw some clean water on it, in wliich a little 
alum has been dissolved, to take off the suds ; and having some thin starcli, 
go over with the same on tlie wrong side, and iron it on tiie same side when 
dry ; then oj)en it with a bodkin, and set it in order. To clean point lace, 
if not very dirty, without wasliing: fix it in a tent as the former, and go 
over with fine bread, tlie crust being pared off; and when it is done, dust 
out the crumbs, &c. For ivhite silk lace or blonde. Take a black bottle 
covered with clean linen or muslin, and wind tlie blonde round it, securing 
the ends with a needle and tlircad, not leaving the edge outward, but cover- 
ing it as you proceed. Set the bottle upright in a strong cold lather of 
white soap and very clear soft water, and place it in tlie sun, liaving gently 
with your hand rubbed the suds up and down on the lace. Keep it in the 
sun every day for a week, changing the lather daily, and always rubbing it 
slightly when the suds are renewed. At the end of the week take the 
blonde off the bottle, and pin it backward and forward on a large pillow, 
covered with a clean tight case. Everj' scollop must have a separate pin ; 
or more, if tlie scollops are not veiy small. The plain edge must be pinned 
down also, so as to make it straiglit and even. The pins should be of the 
smallest size. When quite dry, take it off, but do not starch, iron, or 
mess it. Lay it in long loose folds, and put it away in a pasteboard bo.\. 
To icash thread lace. Rip off the lace, carefully pick out the loose bits of 
thread, and roll tiie lace very smoothly and securely round a clean black 
bottle, previouslj' covered with old white linen, sewed tiglitly on. 'J\ack 
each end of the lace witli a needle and thread, to keep it smooth ; and be 
careful in wrapping not to crumple or fold in any of the scollops or pearl- 
ings. After the lace is on the bottle, take some of tlie best sweet oil, and 
with a clean sponge wet the lace thorouglily to its inmost folds. Have 
ready in a wash-kettle a strong cold lather of clean water and white Castile 
soap. Fill the bottle with cold water, to prevent it bursting, cork it well, 
and stand it upright in the suds, with a string round the neck, secured to 
the ears or handle of the kettle, to prevent its rolling about or breaking 

213 



204 DYERS, BLEACHERS, RENOVATERS, &C. 

while over the fire. Let it boil in'tlie suds for an liour or more, till the lace 
is clean and wliite all through. Drain off the suds, and dry \^ on the bot- 
tle in the sun ; wlien dr\-, remove tlie laee from tlie bottle, and roll it round 
a wide ribbon block ; or lay it in long- folds, place it within a sheet of 
smooth white paper, and press it in a large book for a few days. 

Veil, White Lace, to Wash. — Put the veil into a strong lather of 
white soap and very clear water, and let it simmer slowly for a quarter of 
an hour. Take it out and squeeze it well, but be sure not to rub it. Rinse 
it in two cold waters, with a drop or two of liquid blue in the last. Have 
ready some very clear and weak gum arable water, or some thin starch, or 
rice-water. Pass the veil through it, and clear it by clapping. Then 
stretch it out even, and put it to dry on a linen cloth making the edge as 
straight .'IS possible, opening out all the scollops, and fastening each with 
pins. When dry, lay a piece of thin muslin smoothly over it, and iron it 
on the wrong side. 

Flannel, Properties of. — As an article of clothing, flannel is supe- 
rior to any other, botii for personal comfort and the preservation of health. 
When worn as underclothing its advantages are numerous and important. 
It acts on the surface of the skin, and exercises the most beneficial action, 
by keeping the pores clean and in a state most favorable to perspiration. 
It has also the advantage of absorbing the perspiration as soon as emitted, 
and allowing its watery portion to ])ass off into the atmosphere almost as 
soon as formed. Thus, persons who wear flannel next their skin, seldom 
catch cold from changes of temperature, even though perspiring profusely. 
In a variable climate every person should wear flannel, not only in the 
colder season, but throughout the year ; tlie substance of the material being 
regulated according to the coolness or mildness of the season. In fact, flan- 
nel is required even more in summer tlian in winter, because persons per- 
spire more freely in warm than in cold weatlier, and are consequently 
more susceptible of cold ; while at that period of the year their clothing is 
less capable of protecting them from the effects of siulden changes of tem- 
perature. Flamiel clothing should be removed at night upon going to bed, 
otherwise the body does not receive the due amount of warmth and com- 
fort from it during the day. Some persons imagine that flannel may be 
worn with impunity for an extraordinary length of time without changing; 
but this is an error, as flannel in time, from the repeated absorptions of 
perspiration which it undergoes, has a species of incrustation forming on 
its surface, which impedes rather than assists the operation of the pores, 
and creates considerable irritation of the skin. Flannels, therefore, for the 
purposes of health and cleanliness, should be changed once a week. Flan- 
nel is sometimes objected to from the irritation it causes when first worn, 
and for this trifling inconvenience is often discarded after a few hours trial. 
This may in part be obviated by turning the flannel, and wearing the smooth 
and outer surface next the skin. 

Flannel, to Clean and Preserve. — To ivash flannel. — Take half 
the weight of soda that there is of soap, boil them with water, allowing a 
gallon to every pound of soap, and use it when perfectly cold. Wet the 
flannel in cold water, then wash it in fresh cold water, with some of the 
boiled mixture amongst it ; wash them in this, changing tlie water till tlie 
flannel becomes perfectly clean ; then rinse it well in cold water, and dry it 
in the shade. To scour flannels. — Slice half a pound of yellow soap, and 
dissolve it in boiling water, so as to make it of the thickness of oil ; cover 
the flannels with warm water, add a lump of pearlash, and about one-third 
of the soap solution ; beat them till no head rises on tlie water; then pour 
it off, and proceed as before with hotter water, without pearlash. To prevent 
flannels from slirinkini/. — Put them on the occasion of the first washing into 
a pailful of boiling water, and let them lie till cold. To preserve the color 
of flannels. — Mix four tablespoonfuls of flour with four quarts of water, 
and let it boil, stirring the whole time. When it has boiled thoroughly, 
put the flannel articles that are to be washed into a pan or tub, and pour 



DYERS, BLEACHER^, RENOVATERS, &C. 295 

over them half tlie quantity of tlie mixture in a boiling state. When the 
water has become cool enougli to hold tlie hand in it, wash the flannels in 
the usual wa}', but without tlie addition of soap ; then rinse in three or 
four waters, and having let tliem drain as much as possible, put them back 
into the tub or pan, and pour over them the remaining flour and water 
in the boiling state. When cool enough, wash them as before ; rinse well, 
and lay them out to dr}' without wringing. 

Linen. — This well-known article of wearing apparel, and general do- 
mestic use, is made in every variety of quality, from the coarsest to the 
finest. It is difficult to give directions for judging of the fineness of linen, 
the best guide being furnished by the comparison of one quality with an- 
other, and bearing in mind the peculiar characteristics of each. One of the 
most striking properties of this material is, that it is a non-conductor of 
heat, and tlierefore it is better adapted for summer wear than for winter use. 
Yet even in this capacit}'^ it must be adopted with caution, and with deli- 
cate persons, especially, it should never be worn immediately next to the 
skin, the reason being that tlie perspiration, instead of being passed off 
tlirough the fabric, as with cotton, remains on the inner surface 
and by interrupting the free action of the pores, creates tliat cold 
and clammy sensation, which is as disagreeable to the feelings as it 
is injurious to the liealth. For external articles of clothing, how- 
ever, linen will be found a cool and agreeable wear during the hot sum- 
mer months ; thus, a linen jacket, or linen bonnet or cap, by its non-con- 
ducting properties, is enabled to resist the heat of the sun which is brought 
in contact with it, and to prevent its penetrating inwards to tlie body or 
the head. The cool and soothing nature of linen renders it especially well 
adapted for binding up wounds or applying to sores, and neither cotton nor 
any other material should be used when this can be obtained. For this 
purpose every housewife sliould always have a store of linen rags deposit- 
ed in some accessible place, and in a fit condition to apply immediately, so 
that they may be used upon an emergency. 

Linen, Preservation of. — When linen is well dried, and laid by for 
use, the chief precaution to attend to for its preservation, is, to secure it 
from damp and insects. The former is effected by placing tlie linen in 
wardrobes, drawers, or boxes situated in apartments which are naturally 
dry, and which have fires occasionally lighted in them ; the ravages of in- 
sects may be prevented by the use of a judicious mixture of aromatic 
shrubs and flowers, cut up and sewn in linen bags, and interspersed among 
tlie shelves and drawers. These ingredients may consist of lavender, 
tiiyme, roses, cedar-shavings, powdered sassafras, cassia lignea, &c., to which 
a few drops of rose water, or other strong scented perfume li.ave been 
added. When linen is placed by for any length of time without being used, 
it should be brought forth occasionally and hung up in tlie open air ; by 
this means, it is prevented from becoming discolored, and the creases are 
prevented from wearing into holes. Mildewed linen may be restored by 
soaping the spots while wet, covering tliem witli fine chalk scraped to pow- 
der, and rubbing it well in. In all cases, it will be found more consistent 
with economy to examine and repair linen that may stand in need of it pre- 
vious to sending it to the laundry. It should be borne in mind, that too 
frequent washing is liable to wear out linen more than ordinary use ; and 
therefore the process should not be repeated oftener than is absolutely ne- 
cessary. It will also be found an excellent plan to iiave every article num- 
bered, and so arranged after washing that each may be worn in its regular 
turn, and accomplish its proper term of domestic use. 

Linen, To remove Stains from. — Fruit stains may be removed bj- 
rubbing the stain on each side with yellow soap ; then tying up a piece of 
pearlasli in it and soaking it well in hot water ; the stained part should af- 
terwards be exposed to the sun and air until removed. Ink-stains may be 
removed by wetting the part with warm water, and applying salts of lemon. 
Wine stains will disappear, if the articles stained are placed in boiling milk, 



296 DYERS, BLEACHERS, RENOVATERS, &C. 

and suffered to boil until the st.ains disappear. Scouring drops for remov- 
ing sjiots, grease, &o., from linen, may be compounded from an ounce each 
of spirits of turpentine and essence of lemon, and applied with' a camel's 
liair brush. The essence must be recently made, or it will leave a circle 
round tlie spot. 

Woollens, to Clean and Wash. — In the washing of woollens, soft 
water must be used ; and to make the necessary lather, a pound of soap 
must be \nit into a gallon of water, and boiled until quite dissolved ; the 
articles are then to be washed in two waters, as warm as can be borne, 
adding, from time to time, as much of the soap lather as may be needed. 
Wring the woollens out each time, then throw them into a clean tub, and 
cover them witii boiling water. Let them remain until cool enough to ad- 
mit of handling, then rinse them thoroughly, and wring them dry. It should 
be particularly observed, that the water used for rinsing must be hard. This 
method is applicable to any kinds of woollens ; but for large and heavy ar- 
ticles, such as blankets, rugs, &c., it is preferable to omit the wringing. In 
all cases, the articles should be spread out perfectly straight and smooth. 
Another metliod is as follows : — <Jrate six or eight large raw potatoes into 
a i)an or other deep vessel, pour on two gallons of cold spring water, and 
let it remain undisturbed for forty-eight hours ; then pour off the water 
clear into a capacious pan or tub, and take care that no portion of the sedi- 
ment mingles witli the water. Dip the articles into this clear liquid, and 
pass them to and fro in sucii a manner that they cannot become creased. 
Rubbing must be wholly avoided. By this process, woollen articles will re- 
main perfectly smooth, and need no ironing, an operation which injures the 
color of woollens. When thorouglily clean, hang them on a line to drip, 
and, when half dry, turn them, and if they require straightening, pull them 
out. When perfectly dry, their appearance will be improved l)y folding 
them, and placing them under heavy pressure for some houps. If the ar- 
ticles are greasy, but half the water should be used at first, and the remain- 
der reserved for a second rinsing. If the colors of the articles are of a 
delicate nature, the potatoes used should be carefully pared previous to 
scrai)ing. 

Woollens, to Preserve. — When woollen articles are not in use, they 
may be preserveil, first by drying them before a fire, then letting tliem 
cool, and afterwards mixing among them bitter apples, sewn in muslin bags, 
and placed between the folds of the articles. 

Kid Gloves, to Clean. — Wash the hajids thoroughly clean, then put 
on the gloves and wash them, as though you were washing your hands, in a 
basin containing si)irits of turpentine, until quite clean ; then hang the gloves 
uj) in a warm jilace, or where there is a free current of air, which will carry 
olf all the smell of the turpentine. Or, make a strong lather with curd soap 
atid warm water, in which steep a small piece of new flannel. Place the 
gloves on a flat, clean, and unyielding surface, such as the bottom of a dish, 
and having thorougldy soaped the flannel (when squeezed from the Intlier), 
rub the kid till all diit be removed, cleaning and resoaping the flannel from 
time to time. Care must be taken to clean every part of the glove, by 
turning it in every direction. The gloves must be dried in the sun or before 
a moderate fire, and when quite dry they must be gradually pulled out ; 
they will then look as well as new. To clean colored Lid yluves, have ready 
on a table a clean towel folded three or four times, a saucer of new milk, 
and another saucer containing a piece of brown soap. Take one glove at a 
time, and spread it smoothly on the folded towel. Then dip in the milk a 
piece of flannel, rub it on the soap till it receives a tolerable quantity, and 
then with the soaped flannel conmience rubbing the glove. Begin at the 
wrist and rub lengthwise towards the ends of the fingers, holding the glove 
firmly in 3our right hand. Continue tliis process until the glove is cleaned 
all over with the soap and milk. When done, spread them out, and pin them 
on a line to dry gradually. When nearly dry, pull them out evenly, the cross 
way of the leather. When quite dry, stretch them on your hands. 



DYERS, BLEACHERS, RENOVATERS, &C. 297 

Glotes, to Clean. — Damp them sliglitly, stretch tliem gently over a 
wooden hand of appropriate size, and clean tliem with a sponge dipped in 
recently rectified oil of turpentine or camphinc ; as soon as they are dry, 
withdraw them gently from the stretcher, and suspend them in a current of 
air for a few days, or nntil they cease to smell of the turpentine. Heat 
must be avoided. If ordinary oil of turpentine be used a little essence of 
lemon may be added to it. The oil should be used liberally, and the first 
dirty portion should be sponged off with clean oil. Doeskin, Buckskin, and 
Wash-leather gloves, are cleaned as follows : — Stretch them on a hand, or lay 
tliem flat on a table, and rub into them a mixture of finely powdered ful- 
ler's earth and alum ; sweep this off with a brush, sprinkle them with a mix- 
ture of dry bran and whiting, and lastly, dust them well off. But if the 
gloves are very much soiled tliey must be treated as follows : — Wash them 
in lukewarm soft water, with a little curd soap, ox-gall, or bran-tea, then 
stretch them on wooden hands, or pull them into siiape without wringing 
them ; next rub them with pipe-clay and yellow ochre made into a paste 
with ale or beer ; let them dry gradually, and, when about half drj^, rub 
tliem well, so as to smooth tiiem and put them into shape ; when tiiey are dry, 
brush out the superfluous color, cover them with paper, and smooth them 
with a warm iron. For washing gloves, the best application is a strong lather 
made of curd soap with new milk; or water will do. A very small quan- 
tit}' of liquid will suffice. Before wetting the glove, run a strong tliread 
through the opposite sides, close to the wrist binding. Leave it about a 
quarter of a yard long, and make a large knot at each end. This is to form 
a loop or handle by which to hang up the glove to dry, and keep it open. 
Having prepared the lather, put one glove on the hand, and apply the lather 
by means of a shaving brush or piece of fine flannel, carrying the strokes 
downwards — that is, from the wrist or arm to the tips of the fingers. Con- 
tinue this process till the dirt disappears ; tiien dab the glove with a clean 
soft towel till the soap is removed. Take off the glove, blow into it to open' 
all the fingers, and, by means of tiie aforesaid loop, hang it to dry in a siiady 
but airy place. The loop sliould be fixed on two pegs, or by strings fast- 
ened to a line in such a manner as to keep the sides of the glove apart while 
drying. When dry, they will have regained their original color and be 
smooth, glossy, soft, and of the proper shape. 

Buckskin Gloves, to Clean. — AVash them in warm water and soap 
until the dirt is removed, then pull them out into tlieir proper shape, or 
stretch them on wooden hands. Do not wring them, but place them one 
on the other and press the water out. Mix a little pipe-clay, or pipe- 
clay and yellow ochre (according to the color required), with vinegar or 
beer. Rub this over the outside of the gloves and let them dry gradually 
in the shade or by the fire, but at some distance from it. When' about half 
dry, rub them well and stretch them on the hand or wooden mould ; after 
the}' are rubbed and dried, brush them with a soft brush, to extract the 
dust. Finally, iron the gloves with a smoothing iron moderately heated, 
taking the precaution to place a piece of cloth or paper over them ; when 
this process is completed they will look equal to new. Tanned gloves, 
commonly called Limerick, are genteel and economical in spring and au- 
tumn, as they do not soil so soon as white. The tan color is made by in- 
fusing saffron in boiling water for about 12 hours, and rubbing the infusion 
over tlie leather with a brush. The water should be soft, and never applied 
in any case at more than blood heat. 

Starch Polish. — White wax, 1 oz. ; spermaceti, 2 oz. ; melt them to- 
gether with a gentle heat. When you iiave prepared a sufficient amount 
of starch, in the usual way, for a dozen pieces, i)ut into it a piece of the 
polish about the size of a large ])ea ; more or less, according to large or 
small washings. Or thick gum solution (made by pouring boiling water 
n])on gum arable), one tablespoonful to a pint of starch, gives clothes a beau- 
ful gloss. 

Starch Polish. — Get two ounces of white gum-arabic, and pound it to 

13* 



298 DYERS, BLEACHP.RS, RENOVATERS, 

a powder ; next put it into <a pitcher and pour on it a pint of boiling water ; 
tlien cover it and let it stand over night; in the morninsr pour it carefully 
from the dregs into a clean bottle and cork it tightlv, and keep it for use. 

To Make Washing Easy. — Take a half pound of hard soap cut fine 
and dissolved, a half pound of soda ; dissolve each by itself, and when so 
done put them together, and boil, adding one teacupful of strained lime- 
water. Put this in to boil the clothes. I3oil th.em twenty minutes. This 
will serve several boilers full. The clothes must be previously soaked, and 
soap rubbed on the stained spots. You can wash the finest material with 
this ; and colored clothes boiled in this will not fade. 

Directions for Washing Calicoes. — Calico clotiies, before they are 
put in water, should have the grease spots rubbed out, as tiiey cannot be 
seen wlien the whole of the garment is wet. They should never be washed 
in very hot soaji suds ; that which is mildly warm will cleanse them quite 
as well, and will not extract the colors so much. Soft soap should never be 
used for calicoes, excepting for the various shades of yellow, which look 
the best washed with soft soap, and not rinsed in fair water. Other colors 
should be rinsed in fair water, and dried in the shade. When calicoes in- 
cline to fade, tlie colors can be set by washing them in hike-warm water, 
with beef's gall, in the proportion of a teacupful to four or five gallons of 
water. Rinse them in fair water — no soap is necessary, without the clothes 
are very dirty. If so, wash them in lukewarm suds, after they liave been 
first rubbed out in beef's gall water. The beef's gall can be kept several 
months, by squeezing it out of the skin in which it is enclosed, adding salt 
to it, and bottling and cork tight. The water that potatoes have been 
boiled in is an excellent thing to wash black calicoes in. When there are 
many V)lack garments to wash in a family, it is a good plan to save, during 
the week, all the water in which potatoes are boiled. The following 
method is said to set the colors of calicoes so that they will not fade by 
subsequent washing. Infuse three gills of salt in four quarts of boiling 
water; put in the calicoes, (which should be perfectly clean ; if not so, the 
dirt will be set.) Let the calicoes remain in till the water is cold. I have 
never seen this tried, but I think it not improbable that it may be an excel- 
lent way to set the colors, as rinsing calicoes in cold salt and water serves 
to set the colors, particularly of black, blue, and green colors. A little 
vinegar in the rinsing water of pink, red, and green calicoes, is good to 
brighten the colors, and keep them from mixing. All kinds of calicoes but 
black look better for starching, but black calicoes will not look clear if 
starched. On this account potato water is an excellent thing to wash them, 
if boiled down to a thick consistence, as it stiffens them without show- 
ing. 

To Wash White Lace. — The following recipe for washing white lace 
is generally found more successful than anj- other. Cover a glass bottle 
with white flannel, then wind the lace around it, tack it to the flannel on 
both sides, and cover the whole with a piece of flannel or linen, which sew 
firmly round it. Then steep the bottle over night in an ewer, with soap 
and cold water. Next morning wash it with hot water and soap, the soap 
being rubbed on the outer covering. Then steep it again for some hours in 
cold water, and afterwards dry in the air or near the fire. Remove the 
outer covering and the lace is ready, no ironing being required. If the lace 
is verj^ dirty, of course it must be washed a great deal. 

To Make Starch. — Take a teaspoon of starch to each shirt ; put it 
into a clean tin basin or an earthen bowl. Now prepare a little blueing 
water in a teacu]), and pour just enough on to the dry starch to dissolve it ; 
then pour on boiling water from the teakettle until it is well cooked, and as 
thin as needed for the collars ; it should be thinned for the l)Osoms. After 
the hot water has been added stir in a tablespoon of gum arable water and 
one-quarter teaspoon of salt into each pint of starch. The salt prevents 
the starch from sticking to the iron, and the gum arable gives the polish. 
When the starch is nearly cool it is ready for use. Dip in the collars, or 



DYERS, BLKACHEUS, RENOVATEUS, &C. 299 

whatever articles are to be starolied, wet them tliorouglily, and spat them 
some ; roll them up tight in a dry clotli, an<l let tiiem lay an hour or two. 
Wlien you commence ironing, place a piece of clean muslin over that which 
is to he ironed until it is partiall}' dry ; then remove the cloth, and finish 
up with a good hot iron. 

To Wash Flannels. — Soak all night in soft soap-suds. In the morn- 
ing wash in tlie same water and rinse in two waters, using no hot water. 

To Dye Black. — Allow a pound of logwood to each pound of goods that 
are to be dyed. Soak it over night in soft water, then boil it an iionr, and 
strain the water in which it is boiled. For each pound of logwooil, dissolve 
an ounce of blue vitrol in lukewarm water sufHcient to wet the goods. Dip 
the gooils in — when saturated with it, turn the wiiole into the log- 
wood dje. If the goods are cotton, set the vessel on the fire, and let tiie 
goods boil ten or fifteen minutes, stirring them constantly to prevent 
their spotting. Silk and woollen goods should not be boiled in the dye-stuff, 
but it should be kept at a scalding heat for twenty minutes. Drain the 
goods without wringing, and hang them in a dry, shady place wliore they 
will iiave the air. Wlien dr}', set the color by, put them into scalding hot 
water that has salt in it, in the proportion of a teacupful to three gallons of 
the water. Let the goods remain in it till cold, then hang them where they 
will dry ; (they should not be wrung.) Boiling hot suds is the best thing to 
set the color of black silk — let it remain in it till cold. Soaking black dyed 
goods in sour milk, is also good to set the color. 

Prepare the goods by scouring well with soap and water, washing the 
soap well out and dipping in warm water, previous to immersion in the dye 
or mordant. Goods should be well aired, rinsed, and properly hung up after 
dyeing. Silks and fine goods should be tenderly handled, otherwise injury 
to the fabric will result. 

In accommodation to the requirements of dyers, many of the following 
receipts describe dyes for large quantities of goods, but to make them equally 
adapted for the use of private families, they are usually given in even quan- 
tities, so that it is quite an easy matter to ascertain the quantity of materials 
required for dyeing, when once the weight of the goods is known ; the quan- 
tity of materials used being reduced in proportion to the smaller quantity of 
goods. 

To Fix Dyes. — New Process. Mr. Kipping, of Manchester, England, has 
a new process of fixing dyes. He dissolves 20 oz. of gelatine in water, anil 
adds 3 oz. of bichromate of potash. This is done in a dark room. The col- 
oring matter is then added and the goods submitted thereto; after which 
they are exposed to the action of light; the pigment thus becomes insoluble 
in water and the color is fast. 

Blaok on Cotton. — For 40 lb. goods, iise sumac 30 lbs., boil }( hour, let 
the goods steep over night, and immerse them in lime water 40 minutes, 
remove and allow them to drip ^ hour, now add copperas, 4 lbs., to the 
sumac liquor, and dip one hour more ; next work them through lime water 
for 20 minutes, next make a new dye of logwood 20 lbs., boil 2^ hours, and 
enter the goods 3 hours, then add bichromate of potash 1 lb. to the new d3-e, 
and dip 1 hour more. Work in clean cold water and dry out of the sun. 

Black Dye on Wool, for Mixtures. — For 50 lbs. of wool take bi- 
chromate of potash 1 lb. 4 ozs., ground argal 15 oz., boil together, and put in 
the fabric, stirring well, and let it remain in the dye 5 hours ; take it out, 
rinse slightly in clean water, then make a new dye, into which put logwood 
n}4 Ihs. Boil 1^ hours, adding chamber lye 5 pts. Let the fabric remain 
in all night, and wash out in clean water. 

Chrome Black for Wool. — For 40 lbs. of goods, use blue vitriol 3 lbs., 
boil it a short time, then dip the wool or fabric ^ of an hour, airing frequently; 
take out the goods and make a dye with logwood 24 lbs. ; boil }4 hour, 
dip 1^ of an hour, air tlie goods, and dip ^ of an hour longer, wash in 
strong soap suds. A good fast color. 

Aniline Black on Silk or Cotton. — Water, 20 to 30 parts, chlorate of 



300 DYERS, BLEACHERS, RENOVATERS, &C. 

potassa, 1 part ; sal-ammoniac, 1 part ; cliloride of copper, 1 part ; aniline 
1 part ; and hydrochloric, 1 part, prreviously mixed together. The fabric or 
yarn is dried in ageing rooms at a low temperature for 24 hours, and washed 
afterwards. 
Aniline Black for Dyeing. — Water, 20 to 30 parts, chlorate of potassa, 

I part ; sal-ammoniac, 1 part ; cliloride of copper, 1 part ; aniline hydrochloric 
acid, of each 1 part, previously mixed together. It is essential tliat the pre- 
paration should be acid, and tlie more acid it is the more rapid will be the 
production of tiie blacks ; if too much so, it may injure the fabric. 

Yellow Dyes. — To dye a buff color, boil equal parts of annatto and 
common potash, in soft clear water. When dissolved take it from the fire , 
wlien cool, put in the goods, whicli should previously be washed free from 
sjjots and color ; set them on a moderate fire, where they will keep hot, till 
the goods are of tiie shade you wish. To dye salmon and orange color, tie 
annatto in a bag, and soak it in warm soap suds, till it becomes soft, so that 
you can squeeze enough of it through the bag to make the suds a deep yel- 
low — put in llie articles, which should be clean and free from color ; boil 
them till of the shade you wish. There should be enough of the dye to 
cover the goods — stir them while boiling, to keeping them from spot- 
ting. This dye will make the salmon and orange color, according to the 
strengtli of it, and the time the goods remain in. Drain them out of the dye 
and dry them quick, in the shade — when dry, wash them in soft soap suds. 
Goods dyed in this manner sliould never be rinsed in clear water. Peach 
leaves, fustic, and saffron, all make a good straw or lemon color, according 
to the strength of the dye. They should be steeped in soft fair water, in 
an earthen or tin vessel, and then strained, and the dye set witii alum, and 
a little gum arable dissolved in the dye, if you wish to stiffen the article. 
When the dye-stuff is strained stiffen the articles in it. 

To Dye Aniline Yellow. — This color is slightly soluble in water, and 
for dyers' use may be used directly for the preparation of the bath dye, but 
is best used by dissolving 1 lb. of dye in 2 gals, alcohol. Temperature of 
bath should be under 200^^ Fall. The' color is much improved and brightened 
by a trace of sulpliuric acid. 

Yellow on Silk. — For 10 lbs. goods use sugar of lead, TJ ozs., alum, 2 
lbs., enter the goods and let them remain 12 iiours, remove tliem, drain and 
make a new dye with fustic 10 lbs. Immerse until the color suits. 

Yellow on Cotton. — For 40 lbs. goods, use sugar of lead, 3 lbs. 8 oz., 
dip the goods 2 hours. Make a new dye with bi-chromate of potash, 2 lbs., 
dip until the color suits, wring out and dry, if not yellow enough repeat the 
operation. 

Dyes for Fjqrs. — For Black, use the hair dye described in these receipts. 
Brown, use tincture of logwood. Red, ground Brazil-wood, \ lb. ; water, \\ 
quarts ; cochineal, \ oz. ; boil the Brazil-wood in the water one hour ; strain 
and add the cochineal ; boil fifteen minutes. Scarlet color, boil \ oz. saf- 
fron in i pint of water, and pass over the work before applying the red. 
Blue, logwood, 7 oz. ; blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; water, 22 oz. ; boil. Purple, logwood, 

II oz. ; alum, 6 oz. ; water, 29 oz. Green, strong vinegar, 1| pints ; best 
verdigris, 2 oz. ground fine; sap green, ^ oz. ; mix altogether and boil. 

To Dye Furs. — Any dye that will color wool will also color furs, and an 
immense number of such dyes can be found under the dyers' department. In 
buying furs examine the density and length of the down next the skin, this 
can easily be done by blowing briskly against the set of the fur, if it is 
very close and dense it is all right, but if it opens easily and exposes much 
of the skin, reject it. 

Lime Water for Dyers' Use. — Put stone lime, 1 lb., and strong lime 
water, 1^ lbs. into a pail of water ; rummage well for 7 or 8 minutes, then 
let it rest until the lime is precipitated and the water clear ; ad il this quan- 
tity to a tubful of clear water. 

Liquid Dye Colors. — 1. Blue. Dilute Saxon blue or sulphate of indigo 
with wjiter. If required for delicate work, neutralize with chalk. 2. Purple. 



DTERS, BLICACnERS, RENOVATERS, &C. 301 

Add a little alum to a strained decoction of logwood. 8. Green. Dissolve 
sap green in water and add a little alum. 4. Yellow. Dissolve annatto in a 
weak lye of subcarbonate of soda or potaslh 5. Golden color. Steep French 
berries in liot water, strain, and add a little gum and alum. 6. Red. Dis- 
solve carmine in ammonia, or in weak carbonate of potash water, or infuse 
powdered cochineal in water, strain, and add a little gum in water. 
Tiie preceding colors, thickened with a little gum may be used as inks in 
writing, or as colors to tint maps, foils, artificial flowers, &c., or to paint on 
velvet. 

To Eender Aniline Colors Soluble in Water. — A solution of gela- 
tine in acetic acid of almost the consistence of syrup is first made, and the 
aniline in fine powder is gradually added, stirring all the time so as to make 
a homogeneous paste. Tlie mixture is then to be heated over a water bath 
to the temperature of boiling water and kept at that heat for some time. 

To Preserve Goods and Clothing from Mildew. — Alum, 2 lbs., dis- 
solved in 60 lbs. water ; blue vitriol, 2 lbs., dissolved in 8 lbs. of water ; to 
•which is added gelatine, 1 lb., dissolved in 30 lbs. of water; acetate of Iea<l, 
I lb. dissolved in 30 lbs. of water. The solutions are all hot, and separately 
mixed, with the exception of the vitriol, which is added. 

New Mordant for Aniline Colors. — Immerse the goods for some 
hours in a bath of cold water in which chloride or acetate of zinc has been 
dissolved until the solution shows 2*^ Baume ; for the wool the mordanting 
bath sliould be at a boiling heat, and the goods should also be placed in a 
warm bath of tannin, 90^ Falir., for half an hour. In dyeing, a hot solution of 
the color must be used, to which should be added, in the case of the cotton, 
some chloride of zinc, and, in the case of the wool, a certain amount of tan- 
nin solution. 

To Bleach Linen. — Mix common bleaching-powder, in the proportion of 
1 lb. to the gallon of water ; stir it occasionally for tiiree days, let it settle, 
and pour it off clear. Then make a ley of 1 lb, of soda to a gallon of boiling 
soft water, in which soak the linen for 12 hours, and boil it half an hour ; 
next soak it in the bleaching liquor, made as above ; and lastly, wash it in the 
usual manner. Discolored linen or muslin may be restored by putting a 
portion of bleaching liquor into the tub wherein the articles are soaking. 

Solitaire. — Sulphate or muriate of manganese dissolved in water with 
a little tartaric acid imparts this beautiful bronze tint. The stuff after being 
put through the solution must be turned through a weak lye or potash, and 
afterwards through another of chloride of lime, to brighten and fix it. Prtts- 
siate of copper g[\es a, bronze or yellowish bi-oum color to silk. The piece well 
mordanted with blue vitriol, may be passed through a solution of pntssiate of 
potash. 

Slate Colored Dte. — To make a good dark slate color, boil sugar-loaf 
paper with vinegar, in an iron utensil — put in alum to set the color. Tea 
grounds, set with copperas, makes a good slate color. To produce a light 
slate color, boil white maple bark in clear water, with a little alum — the 
bark should be boiled in a brass utensil. The dye for slate color sliould be 
strained before the goods are put into it. They should be boiled in it, and 
then hung where they will drain and dry. 

Slate Dte on Silk. — For a small quantity, take a pan of warm water, 
and about a teacupful of logwood liquor, pretty strong, and a piece of 
pearlash the size of a nut ; take gray colored goods and handle a little in 
this liquid, and it is finished. If too much logwood is used, the color will 
be too dark. A Straw color on silk. — Use smartweed, boil in a brass vessel, 
and set with alum. 

Brown Dye on Cotton or Linen. — Give the pieces a mixed mordant 
of acetate of alumina and acetate of iron, and then dye thehi in a bath of 
madder, or madder and fustic, when tlie acetate of alumina predominates 
the dj'e has an amaranth tint. A cinnamon tint is obtained by first giving a 
mordant of alum, then a madder bath, then a batli of fustic, to which a 
little green copperas has been added. 



302 DYERS, BLEACHERS, RENOVATERS, &C. 

Brown on Silk. — Dissolve annatto, 1 lb., pearlasli, 4 lbs., in boiling 
water, and pass the silk tlirongh it for 2 hours, then take it out, squeeze it 
well and dry ; next give it a mordant of alum, and pass it first through a 
bath of Brazil-wood, and afterwards tlirough a bath of logwood to which a 
little green copperas has been added, wring it out and dry, afterwards rinse 
well. 

Cinnamon or Brown on Cotton and Silk. — Give the goods as much 
color, from a solution of blue vitriol, 2 oz., to water, one gal., as it will take 
up in dipping 15 minutes ; tlien run it through lime-water ; this will make 
a beautiful sky-blue of much durability ; it has now to be run through a 
solution of prussiate of potash, 1 oz., to water, 1 gal. 

Bismarck Brown for Dyeing. — Mix together 1 lb. Bismarck, 5 gals, 
water, and j{ lb. sulphuric acid. This paste dissolves easily in hot water and 
may be used directly for dyeing. A liquid dye may be prepared by making 
the bulk of the above mixture, to 2 gals, with alcohol. To dye with the 
above mixture, sour with siilphuric acid ; add a quantity of sulphate ot 
soda, immerse the wool, and add the color by small portions, keeping the 
temperature under 212° Fahr. Very interesting shades may be developed 
by combining the color with indigo paste or picric acid. 

Aniline Brown Dye. — Dissolve 1 lb. of the brown in 2 gals, of spirit, 
specific gravity 8200, add a sufficient qnantitj' to the dye bath, and immerse 
the fabric. Wool possesses a very strong affinity for this color and no 
mordant is required. 

Chestnut Brown on Straw Bonnets. — For 25 hats, use ground sanders, 
1^ lbs., ground curcuma, 2 lbs., powdered gall nuts or sumac, % lb., rasped 
logwood -jL lb. Boil all together with the hats in a large kettle (so as not 
to crowd) for 2 hours, then withdraw the hats, rinse, and let them remain 
over night in a bath of nitrate of 4° Baume, when they are washed. A 
darker brown may be obtained by increasing the quantity of sanders. To 
give the hats the desired lustre, they are brushed with a brush of dog's 
(couch) grass, when dry. 

A Brown Dye on Wool may be induced by a decoction of oak bark, 
with variety of shade according to the quantity emploj'ed. If the goods be 
first passed through a mordant of alum the color will be brightened. 

Dark Snuff Brown on Wool. — For 50 lbs. of goods, take camwood, 10 
lbs., boil for 20 minutes, then dip the goods for % of an hour, then take 
tliem out, and add to the dye fustic, 25 lbs. ; boil 12 minutes and dip the 
goods j^ of an hour, then add blue vitriol, 10 ozs., copperas, 2 lbs. 8 ozs., dip 
again 40 minutes ; add more copperas if the shade is required darker. 

Brown on Cotton. — Catechu or terra japonica gives cotton a brown 
color, blue vitriol turns it on the bronze, green copperas darkens it, when 
applied as a mordant and th« stuff boiled in the bath boiling hot. Acetate 
of alumina as a mordant brightens it. The French color named " Car- 
melite " is given with catechu, 1 lb., verdigris, 4 ozs., and sal-ammoniac, 5 ozs. 

Brown on Wool and Silk. — Infusion or decoction of walnut peels dyes 
wool and silk brown color, which is brightened by alum. Horse-chestnut 
peels also impart a brown color ; a mordant of muriate of tin turns it on the 
bronze, and sugar of lead the reddish brown. 

Red Dyes. — Madder makes a good durable red, but not a brilliant color. 
To make a dye of it, allow for half a pound of it tliree ounces of alum, and 
one of cream of tartar, and six gallons of water. This proportion of ingre- 
dients will make sufficient dye for six or seven pounds of goods. Heat half 
of the water scalding hot, in a clean brass kettle, then put in the alum and 
cream of tartar, and let it dissolve. When the water boils stir the alum and 
tartar up in it, put in the goods, and let them boil a couple of hours ; then 
rinse them in fair water — empty the kettle, and put in three gallons of water, 
and the madder ; rub it fine in the water, then put in the goods, and set 
them where they will keep scalding hot for an hour, without boiling — stir 
them constantly. When they have been scalding an hour, increase the fire 
till they boil. Let them boil five minutes ; then drain them out of the dye, 



DYERS, BLEACHERS, RENOVATERS, &C. 303 

and rinse them, without wringing, in fair water, and liang them in tliesliade, 
wliere they will dry. To dye a fine orimsun, take for eaeh j)ound of goods 
two and a half ounces of ahun, an ounce and a lialf of wliite tartar — put 
tiieni in a hrass kettle, with sufficient fair water to cover jour goods; set it 
wliere it will boil briskly for several minutes ; ti)en put in the goods, which 
should be waslied clean, and rinsed in fair water. When the goods have 
boiled half an hour, take them out, witliout wringing, and liang it wliere it 
will cool all over alike, without drying : empty out the alum and tartar 
water, put fresh water in tlie kettle, and for each pound of goods to be dyed, 
put in an ounce of cociiineal, powdered fine. Set the kettle on the fire, and 
let the water boil fifteen or twenty minutes ; then put in sufiicient cold 
water to make it lukewarm, put in the goods, and boil them an hour and a 
quarter — take them out witliout wringing, and dry thenj in a shad}' place. 
Tlie blossoms of the Balm of Gilead, steeped witli fair water in a vessel, 
then strained, will dye silk a pretty red color. The silk should be washed 
clean, and free from col<jr, then rinsed in fair water, and boiled in the 
strained dye, with a small piece of alum. To dye a fine delicate pink, use 
a carmine saucer — the directions for dyeing come with the saucers. It is 
too exj)eiisive a dye for bulky goods, but for faded fancy shawls and rib- 
bons, it is quite worth the while to use it, as it gives a beautiful shade of 
pink. 

Bed Madder. — This color is mostly used for army uniforms, &c. To 
100 lbs. of fabric use 20 lbs. of aluni, 5 lbs. of tartar, and 5 lbs. of muriate 
of tin. When these are dissolved, enter the goods, and let them boil for 2 
hours, then take them out, let cool, and lay over niglit. Into fresh water, 
stir 75 lbs. of good madder, and enter the fabric at 120° Fahr. and bring it 
up to 200° in the course of an hour, handle well to secure evenness, then 
rinse and dry. 

Scarlet with Lac Dye. — For 100 lbs. of flannel or yarn, take 25 lbs. of 
ground lac dye, 15 lbs. of scarlet spirit (made as per directions below), 51bs. 
of tartar, 1 lb. of flavine, or according to sliade, 1 lb. of tin crystals, 5 lbs. 
of muriatic acid. Boil all for 15 minutes, then cool the dye to 170° Fahr. ; 
enter the goods, and handle tiiem quickly at first. Let them boil 1 hour, 
rinse them while yet hot, before the gum and impurities harden. This 
color stands scouring with soap better than cochineal scarlet. To this dye, 
a small quantity of sulphuric acid may be used, as it dissolves the gum. 

Akiline Red. — Enclose the aniline in a small muslin bag ; have a kettle 
(tin or brass ) filled with moderately hot water and rub the substance out. 
Then immerse the goods to be colored, and in a short time they are done. 
It improves the color to wring the goods out of strong soap suds before 
putting them in the dye. This is a permanent color on wool or silk. 

Red Dte for Wool. — For 40 lbs. of goods, make a tolerably thick paste 
of lac dye and sulphuric acid, and allow it to stand for a day. Now take 
tartar, 4 lbs., tin liquor, 2 lbs. 8 ozs., and 3 lbs. of the above paste, make a 
liot bath with sufficient water, and enter the goods for ^ hour, afterwards 
carefully rinse and dry. 

Scarlet Dye with Cochineal. — For 50 lbs. of wool, yarn, or cloth, use 
cream of tartar, 1 lb. 9 ozs. ; cochineal pulverized, 12^ ozs., muriate of tin 
or scarlet spirit, 8 lbs. ; after boiling the dye, enter the goods, work them 
well for 15 minutes, then boil them 1^ hours, slowly agitating the goods 
while boiling, wash in clean water, and dry out of the sun. 

To Dye Aniline Scarlet. — For every 40 lbs. of goods, dissolve 5 lbs. 
white vitriol (stilphate of zinc) at 180° Fahr., place the goods into this bath 
for 10 minutes, then add the color, prepared by boiling, for a few minutes, 
1 lb. aniline scarlet in 3 gals, water, stirring the same continually'. This 
solution has to be filtered before being added to the bath. The goods re- 
main in the latter for 15 minutes, when they have become browned and 
must be boiled for another lialf hour in the same bath after the addition of 
sal-ammoniac. The more of this is added the deeper will be the shade. 

Crimson. — For 1 lb. of silk, alum, 3 oz. ; dip at hand-heat, 1 hour ; take 



30 [ DYEKS, BLEACHERS, RENOVATERS, &C 

i# 
out and dniin, wliile making a new. dye, by boiling, 10 minutes, cochineal, 
3 oz. ; bruised nut-galls, 2 oz. ; and cream of tartar, ^ oz., in one pail of 
water; when a little cool, begin to dip, raising tlie heat to a boil, con- 
tinuing to dip 1 hour, wasli, and dry. 

Lilac Dye on Silk. — For 5 Ihs. of silk, use archil, 7-J lbs., mix it well 
witii the liquor ; make it boil | hour, dip the silk quickly, then let it cool, 
and wash it in river water, and a fine half violet, or lilac, more or less full, 
will be obtained. 

ruRPLE Blue on Wool. — 100 lbs. of wool are first dipped in the blue 
vat to a light shade, then boiled in a solution of 15 lbs. of alum, and 3 lbs. 
of half retined tartar, for 1| hours, the wool taken out, cooled, and let stand 
24 hours. Then boil in fresh water 8 lbs. of powdered cochineal for a few 
minutes, cool the kettle to 170° Fahr. ; handle the prepared wool in this for 
1 iiour, when it is ready to cool, rinse, and dry. By coloring first with 
cochineal, as aforesaid, and finishing in the blue vat, the fast purple or 
dalilia, so mucli admired in German broadcloths, will be produced. Tin 
acids must not he used in this color. 

Mulberry on Silk. — For 5 lbs. of silk use alum, 1 lb. 4 ozs., dip 50 min- 
utes, wash out, and make a dye with Brazil-wood, 5 ozs., and logwood, IJ 
ozs. by boiling togetlier; dip in this -J- hour, then add more Brazil-wood and 
logwood, equal parts, until the color suits. 

Dark Steel Color. — Mix black and white wool together in the pro- 
portion of 50 lbs. of black wool to 7| lbs. of white. For large or small quanti- 
ties keep the same proportion, mixing carefully and throughly. 

Light Silver Drab. — For 50 lbs. of goods use logwood, ^ lb., alum, 
about tlie same quantity ; boil well, enter tlie goods, and dip tiiem for 1 
hour. Grade the color to any desired shade, by using equal parts of log- 
wood and alum. 

Orange DvE.—For 40 lbs. of goods, use sugar of lead, 2 lbs., boil 15 minutes, 
when a little cool, enter the goods, and dip for 2 hours, wring them out, 
make a fresh dye with bi-chromate of potash, 4 lbs., madder, 1 lb., immerse 
until of the desired color. The sliade may be varied by dipping in lime 
water. 

Orange Dye. — For 50 lbs. of goods, use argal, 3 lbs., muriate of tin, 1 qt., 
boil and dip 1 hour ; then add to the dye fustic, 25 lbs. ; madder, 2^ qts. and 
dip again 40 minutes. If preferred, cochineal, 1 lb. 4 ozs. may be used in- 
stead of the madder, as a better color is induced by it. 

Violet Dye on Silk or Wool. — A good violet dye may be given by- 
passing the goods first through a solution of verdigris, then through a 
decoction of logwood, and lastly alum water. A fast violet may be given 
by dyeing the gbods crimson with cochineal, without alum or tartar, and 
after rinsing, passing tiiem through the indigo vat. Lhwns or Cottons are 
first galled with 18% of gall nuts, next passed througli a mordant of 
alum, iron liquor, and sulphate of copper, working them well, then worked 
in a madder bath made with an equal weiglit of root, and lastly brightened 
with soap or soda. 

Aniline Violet and Purple. — Acidulate the bath by sulphuric acid, 
or use sulphate of soda ; both these substances render the shade bluish. Dye 
at 212° Fahr. To give a fair middle shade to 10 lbs. of wool, a quantity of 
solution equal to ^ to %" ozs. of the solid dye will be required. The color of 
the dyed fabric is improved by washing in soap and water, and then passing 
through a batii soured by sulphuric acid. 

Dye for Wool or Silk. — Color between Purple and Blue. For 40 lbs. 
of goods, take bichromate of potash, 8 ozs., alum, 1 lb., dissolve all and 
bring the water to a boil, and put in the goods ; boil 1 hour ; then empty the 
dye, and make a new dye witii logwood, 8 lbs., or extract of logwood, 1 lb. 4 
ozs., and boil in tliis 1 hour longer. Grade the color by using more or less 
logwood, as you wish it dark or light in tiie color. 

Purple Dye. — For 40 lbs. of goods, use alum, 3 lbs., muriate of tin, 4 tea- 
cups, pulverized cochineal, 1 lb., cream of tartar, 2 lbs. Boil the alum, tin 



DTERS, BLEACHEKS, RENOVATERS, &C. 305 

and cream of tartar, for 20 minutes, add the cochineal and boil 5 minutes, 
immerse the goods 2 hours, remove and enter them in a new dye composed 
of Brazil-wood, 3 lbs., logwood, 7 lbs., alum, 4 lbs., muriate of tin, 8 cupfuls, 
adding a little extract of indigo. 

Purple on Cotton. — Get up a tub of Iiot logwood liquor, enter 3 pieces 
give tliem 5 ends, hedge out ; enter them into a clean alum tub, give thera 
5 ends, liedge out ; get up anotiier tub of logwood liquor, enter, give them 5 
ends, hedge out ; renew your alum tub, give them 5 ends in that, and finish. 

Purple Dye for Silk. — For 10 lbs. of goods, enter your goods in blue 
dye batli, and secure a light blue color, dry and dip in a warm solution con- 
taining alum 2^ lbs. Should a deeper color be required add a little extract 
of indigo. 

Pink Dye for Cotton. — ^For 40 lbs. of goods, use redwood, 20 lbs., 
muriate of tin, 2J lbs. ; boil the redwood 1 hour, turn off into a large vessel 
add the muriate of tin, and put in the goods, let it stand a few minutes (5 
or 10), and a nice pink will be produced. It is quite a fast color. 

Pink Dte for Wool. — For 60 lbs. of goods, take alum, 5 lbs. 12 ozs., 
boil and immerse the goods 50 minutes, then add to the dye cochineal well 
pulverized, 1 lb. 4 ozs., cream of tartar, 5 lbs., boil and enter the goods 
while boiling, until the color is satisfactory. 

Wine Color Dye. — For 50 lbs. of goods use camwood, 10 lbs., boil 20 
minutes, dip the goods 1 hour, boil again, and dip 40 minutes, then darken 
with blue vitriol, 15 ozs., and should you wish it darker, add 5 lbs. of cop- 
peras. 

SOLFERINO AND MaGENTA DyES ON WhITE WoOLLEN, SiLK, OR COTTON 

AND Woollen Mixtures.— -For 1 lb. of woollen goods, Mcgenta shade, 9Q grs. 
apothecaries' weight of aniline red will be required ; dissolve in a little warm 
alcohol : using say 6 fluid ozs. of alcohol, or about 6 gills alcohol per oz. of 
aniline. Many dyers use wood spirit because of its cheapness. For a Solfci-- 
ino shade, use 64 grs. aniline red, dissolved in 4 ozs. alcohol, to each 1 lb. of 
goods. Cold water, 1 qt., will dissolve these small quantities of aniline red, 
but the cleanest and quickest way will he found by using the alcohol, or 
wood spirit. Clean the cloth and goods by steeping at a gentle heat in weak 
soap suds, rinse in several messes of clean water and lay aside moist. The 
alcoholic solution of aniline is to be added from time to time to the 
warm or hot dye bath, till the color on the goods is of the desired shade. 
The goods are to be removed from the dye bath before each addition of 
the alcoholic solution, and the V)ath is to be well stirred l]efore the goods are 
returned. The alcoholic solution should be first dropped into a little water 
and well mixed, and the mixture should then be strained into the dye bath. 
If the color is not dark enough after working from 20 to 30 minutes, repeat 
the removal of the goods from the bath, and the addition of the solution, 
and the re-immersion of the goods from 15 to 30 minutes more, or until 
suited, then remove from the bath, and rinse in several messes of clean 
water, and dry in the shade. Use about 4 gals, water for dye-bath for 1 
lb. of goods ; less water for larger quantities. 

Violet Dye on Straw Bonnets. — Take alum, 4 lbs., tartaric acid, 1 lb., 
chloride of tin, 1 lb. Dissolve and boil, allow the hats to remain in the boil- 
ing solution 2 hours, then add as much of a decoction of logwood and carmine 
of indigo as is requisite to induce the desired shade, and lastly, rinse finally in 
water in which some alum has been dissolved. 

Dye for Feathers. — Black : Immerse for 2 or 3 da3's in a bath, at first 
hot, of logwood, 8 parts, and copperas or acetate of iron, 1 part, — Blue : with 
the indigo vat. Brown : by using any of the brown dyes for silk or woollen. 
Crimson : a mordant of alum, followed by a hot bath of Brazil wood, after- 
wards by a weak dj-e of cudbear. Pink or Rose: with safflower or lemon 
juice. P/um.-with the red dye, followed by an alkaline bath. Red: a 
mordant of alum, followed by a bath of Brazilwood. Yellow : n mordant 
of alum, followed by a bath of turmei'ic or weld. Green Dije: Take of 
verdigris and verditer, of each, 1 oz. ; gum water, 1 pt. ; mix them well and 



306 DTERS, BLEACHERS, RENOVATERS, &C. 

dip tlie feathers, they liaving bee'n first soaked in hot water, into tlie said 
mixture. For Purple, use lake and indigo. For carnation, vermilion and 
and smalt. Tliin gum or starcii water sliould he used in djeing featliers. 

Another Manner of dyeing Feathers. — Feathers may be dyed of var- 
ious colors, as follows : — Blue. — One ounce of oil of vitriol by measure, one 
draclmi of the best indigo in powder, mix them well together, and let the 
mixture stand for a day or two ; when wanted, shake it well, and put a table- 
spoonful of it into a quart of boiling water. Stir it well, put the feathers in, 
and let them simmer for a few minutes ; then take them out and lay them 
by to dry. Green, — Mix the indigo liquid with turmeric, and pour boiling 
water over it ; let the feathers simmer in the dye until they have attained 
the shade desired. Lilac. — Put two teaspoonfuls of cudbear into a quart 
of boiling water ; let it simmer a few minutes before the feathers are put 
in. Pink. — Three deep pink saucers in a quart of boiling water, with a 
small quantity of cream of tartar. If a deep color be required, use four 
saucers. Let the feathers remain in the dye for several liours. Scarlet. — 
Into a quart of boiling water dissolve a teaspoonful of cream of tartar, put 
in a teaspoonful of prepared cochineal, and then a few drops of muriate of 
tin. Yellow, — Put a tablespoonful of the best turmeric into a quart of boil- 
ing water ; when well mixed, put in the feathers. More or less of the tur- 
meric will give them different shades, lighter or deeper, and a very small 
quantity of soda will give tliem an orange hue. 

Feathers to Clean. — Feathers may be cleansed of their animal oil as fol- 
lows : — Take for every gallon of clean water one pound of quicklime, mix 
them well together, and when the undissolved lime is precipitated in 
fine powder, pour off the clear lime water for use. Put the feathers to be 
cleaned into another tub, and add to tliem a portion of the clear lime water 
sutficient to cover them about three inches when well inmiersed and stirred 
about therein. The feathers when thoroughly moistened will sink down and 
should remain in the lime water three or four days, after which the foul liquor 
sliould be separated from them by laying them in a sieve. The feathers should 
be afterwards well washed in clean water, and dried upon nets, the meshes 
of which may be about the fineness of cabbage nets. The feathers must 
be from time to time shaken on the nets, and as they become dry they will 
fall through the meshes, and may then be collected for use. The admission 
of air will be serviceable in drying. The process will be completed in 
three weeks, and after being thus prepared the feathers will only require 
to be beaten to rid them of the dust. To clean ivhite, brown, or fawn-colored 
feathers, dissolve some fine white soap in boiling soft water, and add a small 
piece of pearla^h. When the water is just cool enough for the hand to bear 
it, pass tlie feathers several times through it squeezing them gently with the 
hand. Repeat the same process with a weaker solution of soap, and then 
rinse the feathers in cold water beating them across the hand to expel the 
water ; when they are nearly dry, draw each fibre or flue over the edge of 
a small blunt knife, turning it around in the direction you wish the curl to 
take; then if the feather is to be flat, place it between the leaves of a book 
to press it. Black feathers may be cleaned with water and some gall, pro- 
ceeding as above. 

To Clean Ostrich Feathers. — Cut some white curd soap in small pieces 
pour boiling water on them and add a little pearlash. When the soap is 
quite dissolved, and the mixture cool enough for the hand to bear, plunge 
the feathers into it, and draw them througli the hand till the dirt appears 
squeezed out of them, pass them through a clean lather with some blue in 
it, tl;en rinse them in'cold water with blue to give them a good color. Beat 
them against the hand to shake off the water, and dry by shaking them 
near a fire. When perfectly dry, coil each fibre separately with a blunt 
knife, or ivory folder. 

To Bleach Feathers. — Place the feathers from 3 to 4 hours in a tepid 
dilute solution of bi-chromate of potassa, to which, cautiously, some nitric 
acid has been added (a small quantity only). To remove a greenish hue 



DYERS, BI-EACIIERS, KENOVATERS, &C. 307 

induced by this solution, place them in a dilute solution of sulphuric aeid, 
in water, whereby the feathers become perfectly wliite and bleached. 

Colors for Artificial Flowers. — The French employ velvet, fine cam- 
bric a,m\ foVHorthe petals, and taffeta for tlie leaves. Very recently tliin 
plates of bleached whalebone have been used for some portions of the artifi- 
cial flowers. Colors and Stains. Blue.— Imligo dissolved in oil of vitriol, and 
the acid partly neutralized with salt of tartar or whiting. Green. — A solution 
of distilled verdigris. Lilac. — Liquid arcliil. Red. — Carmine dissolved in a 
solution of salt of tartar, or in spirits of iiartshorn. Violet. — Liquid archil 
mixed with a little salt of tartar. Yellow. — Tincture of turmeric. The 
colors are generally applied with tlie fingers. 

Grekn and Blce Dye, for Silks and Woollens. — For green dye, take 
a pound of oil of vitriol, and turn it upon iialf an ounce of Spanish indigo, 
that has been reduced to a fine powder. Stir them well together, then add 
a lump of pearl ash, of the size of a pea ; as soon as the fermentation ceases, 
bottle it ; the dye will be fit for use the next day. Chemic blue is made in 
the same manner, only using half the quantity of vitriol. For woollen goods, 
the Eastern indigo will answer as well as the Spanish, and comes much lower. 
This dye will not answer for cotton goods, as the vitriol rots the threads. 
Wash the articles that are to be dyed till perfectly clean, and free from 
color. If you cannot extract the color by rubbing it in hot suds, boil it out ; 
rinse it in soft water, till entirely free from soap, as the soap will ruin the 
dye. To dye a pale color, put to each quart of soft warm water that is to 
be used for the dye, ten drops of the above composition ; if you wish a deep 
color, more will be necessary. Put in the articles without crowding, and 
let them remain in it till of a good color ; tlie dye stuff should be kept warm ; 
take the articles out without wringing, drain as much of the dye out of 
them as possible, then hang them to dry in a shad}^ airy place. They should 
be dyed when the weather is dry ; if not dried quick, they will not look nice. 
When perfectly dry, wash them in lukewarm suds, to keep the vitriol from 
injuring the texture of the cloth. If you wish for a lively bright green, mix 
a little of the above composition with yellow dye. 

Green Dye on Silk. — Take green ebony, boil it in water, and let it 
settle; take the clear liquor as hot as j'ou can bear your hands in it and 
handle your goods in it until of a bright yellow ; then take water and put 
in a little sulphate of indigo ; handle your goods in this till of the shade de- 
sired. The ebony may previously be boiled in a bag to prevent it sticking 
to the silk. 

Green Dye on Wool and Silk. — Equal quantities of yellow oak and 
liickory bark, make a strong yellow bath by boiling, shade to the desired 
tint by adding a small quantity of extract of indigo. 

Green Fustic Dye. — For 50 lbs. of goods u-se 50 lbs. of fustic with alum 
11 lbs. Soak in water until the strength is extracted, put in the goods until 
of a good yellow color, remove the chips, and add extract of indigo in small 
quantities at a time, until the color is satisfactory. 

Aniline Green on Silk. — Iodine green or night green dissolves easily 
in warm water. For a liquid dye, 1 lb. may be dissolved in 1 gal. alcohol, 
and mixed with 2 gals, water, containing 1 oz. sulphuric acid. 

Green on Cotton. — For 40 lbs. of goods, use fustic, 10 lbs.; blue vitriol, 
10 oz. ; sof t soap, 2^ qts. ; and logwood chips, 1 lb. 4 ozs. Soak the log- 
wood over night in a brass vessel, put it on the fire in the morning adding 
the other ingredients. When quite hot it is ready for dyeing ; enter the 
goods at once, and handle well. Diiferent shades may be obtained hy let- 
ting part of the goods remain longer in the dye. 

To Dye Wool vtith Aniline Green.— For wool, prepare two baths, one 
containing the dissolved dye and a quantity of carbonate of soda or borax. 
In this the wool is placed, and the temperature is raised to 212 degrees Falir. 
A greyish green is produced, which must be brightened, and fixed iu a 
second bath of water 100 degrees Fahr., to which some acetic acid has been 
added. Cotton requires preparation by sumac. 



308 DYERS, BLEACHERS, RENOVATERS, &C. 

To Dye with Alkali Blue a'nd Nicholson's Blue. — Dissolve 1 lb. of 
the dye in 10 yals. boiling water, add this by small portions to tiie dye bath, 
whicli should be rendered alkaline by borax. The fabric should be well 
worked about between each addition of the color. The temperature must 
be kept under 212° Fahr. To develo])e the color, wash with water, and pass 
through a bath containing sulphuric acid. 

Aniline Blue. — To 100 lbs. of fabric dissolve li lbs. aniline blue in 3 
qts. hot alcohol ; strain through a filter and add it to a bath of 130° Falir. ; 
also 10 lbs. glauber salts, and 5 lbs. acetic acid. Enter the goods and han- 
dle them well for 20 minutes ; ne.xt heat it slowly to 200° Falir. ; then add 5 
lbs. sulphuric acid, diluted with water. Let the whole boil 20 minutes 
longer; then rinse and dry. If tlie aniline be added in two or three propor- 
tions during the process of coloring, it will facilitate the evenness of the 
color. 

Logwood and Indigo Blue Dye for Cloth. — 100 lbs. of cloth, color 
the cloth first by one or two dips in the vat of indigo blue, and rinse it well, 
then boil it in a solution of 20 lbs. of alum, 2 lbs. of ha'f-refined tartar, and 
5 lbs. of mordant, for 2 hours, then take it out and cool. lu fresh water boil 
10 lbs. of good logwood for half an hour in a bag or otherwise ; cool off to 
170° Fahr. before entering ; handle well over a reel, let it boil for half an 
hour, then take it out, cool, and rinse. This is a very firm blue. 

Blue Dye for Hosiery. — 100 lbs. of wool are colored with 4 lbs. Guate- 
mala or 3 lbs. Bengal indigo, in the soda or wood vat ; then boil in a kettle 
a few minutes, 5 lbs. of cudbear or 8 lbs. of orchil paste ; add 1 lb. of soda, 
or better, 1 pail of urine, then cool the dye to about 170° Fahr. ; and enter 
the wool. Handle well for about 20 minutes, then take it out, cool, rinse, 
and dry. It is all the same if the cudbear is put in before or after the indi- 
go. 3 ozs. of aniline purple dissolved in alcoiiol,^ pt. can be used instead of 
the cudbear. (Wood spirit is cheaper than alcohol, and is much used now 
by dyers for the purpose of dissolring aniline colors). It produces a very 
pretty shade, but should never be used on mi.xed goods which have to be 
bleached. 

Chemic Blueing or Extract of Indigo. — Take oil of vitriol, 2 lbs., and 
stir into it finely pulverized indigo, 8 ozs., stirring briskly for the first i hour, 
then cover it up, and stir 4 or 5 times daily for a few days, then add a little 
pulverized chalk, stirring it up, and keep adding it as long as it foams ; it 
will neutralize the acid. Keep it closely corked. 

Dark Blue Dye. — Suitable/or Thibets and Lasiings. — Boil 100 lbs. of the 
fabric for 1| hours in a solution of alum, 25 lbs. ; tartar, 4 lbs. ; mordant, 6 
lbs. ; extract of indigo, 6 lbs. ; cool them as usual. Boil in fresh water from 
8 to 10 lbs. of logwood, in a bag or otherwise, then cool the dye to 170° 
Fahr. ; reel the fabric quickly at first, then let it boil strongly for one hour. 
This is a very good imitation of indigo blue. 

Blue on Cotton. — For 40 lbs. of goods, use copperas, 2 lbs. ; boil, and 
dip 20 minutes, then dip in soap suds, and return to the dye 3 or 4 times ; 
then make a new bath with prussiate of potash, ^ lb. ; oil of vitriol, 1^ pt. ; 
boil ^ hour, rinse out and dry. 

Sky Blue on Cotton. — 60 lbs. of goods, blue vitriol, 5 lbs. Boil a short 
time, then enter the goods, dip 3 hours, and transfer to a bath of strong 
lime water. A fine brown color will be imparted to the goods if they are 
then put through a solution of prussiate of potash. 

Saxon Blue. — For 100 lbs. tliibet or comb yarn, use alum, 20 lbs. ; 
cream of tartar, 8 lbs. ; mordant, 2 lbs. ; extract of indigo, 3 lbs., or car- 
mine, 1 lb., makes a better color. When all is dissolved cool the kettle to 
180° Fahr. ; enter and handle quickly at first, then let it boil ^ hour, or un- 
til even. Long boiling dims the color. Zephyr worsted yarn ought to be 
prepared, first by boihng it in a solution of alum and sulphuric acid, and 
then the indigo is added afterwards. 

Clothing Renovator. — Soft water, 1 gal. ; make a strong decoction of 
logwood by boiling the extract with the water. Strain, when cool add 2 



DYERS, BLEACHERS, RENOVATERS, &C. 309 

ozs. gum arabic in powder ; bottle, cork well, and set aside for use ; clean 
the coat well from grease and dirt, and apj)ly the above liquid with a 
sponge evenly. Dilute to suit tlie color, and liang in the shade to dry; 
afterwards brush the nap smooth, and it will look like new. 

To Remove Stains from Broadcloth. — Take an ounce of pipe clay 
that has been ground fine, and mix it witli twelve drops of alcohol, and tlie 
same quantity of spirits of turpentine. Whenever you wish to remove any 
stains from clotli, moisten a little of this nii.xture witli alcohol, and rub it 
on the spots. Let it remain till dry, tlien rub it off with a woollen cloth, 
and the spots will disaj)pear. 

To Extract Paint from Cotton, Silk, and Woollen Goods. — Satu- 
rate the spot witli spirits of turpentine, and let it remain several liours, then 
rub it between the hands. It will crumble away, without injuring either 
the color or texture of the article. 

To Remove Black Stains on Scarlet Woollen Goods. — Mix tartaric 
acid with water, to give it a pleasant acid taste, then saturate the black 
spots with it, taking care not to have it touch the clean part of the gar- 
ment. Rinse the spots immediately, in fair water. Weak pearl-ash water 
is good to remove stains that are produced by acids. 

To Remove Grease. — Aqua ammonia, 2 ozs. ; soft water, 1 quart; salt- 
petre, 1 teaspoonful ; shaving soap in shavings, 1 oz. ; mix altogether; dis- 
solve the soap well, and an}' grease or dirt tliat cannot be removed with 
this preparation, nothing else need be tried for it. 

To Extract Stains from White Cotton Goods and Colored Silks. 
— Salts of ammonia, mixed with lime, will take out the stains of wine from 
silk. Spirits of turpentine, alcohol, and clear ammonia, are all good to re- 
move stains on colored silks. Spots of common or durable ink can be re- 
moved by saturating them with lemon-juice, and rubbing on salt, then put- 
ting them where the sun will shine on them hot, for several hours. As fast 
as it dries, put on more lemon-juice and salt. When lemon-juice cannot be 
obtained, citric acid is a good substitute. Iron mould maj' be removed in 
the same way. Mildew and most other stains can be removed by rubbing 
on soft soap and salt, and placing it where the sun will shine on it hot. 
Where soap and salt will not remove stains, lemon-juice and salt will gen- 
erally answer. The above things will only remove stains in warm, clear 
weather, when the sun is hot. Sulphuric acid, diluted with water, is very 
effectual in removing fruit stains. Care should be taken not to have it so 
strong as to eat a hole in the garment, and as soon as the stain is out, it 
should be rinsed in pearl-ash water, and then in fair water. Colored cotton 
goods, that have common ink spilt on them, should be soaked in lukewarm 
sour milk. 

To Restore Silks Discolored by Acids. — Silks that have changed 
color by acids, can be restored by using hartshorn. Don't be afraid of it 
on the silk. 

To Renew Old Silks. — Unravel and put them in a tub, cover them 
with cold water, let them remain one hour ; dip them up and down, but do 
not wring; hang up to drain, and iron while yet very damp, and they will 
look beautiful. 

To Remove Mildew from Linen. — Wet the linen which contains the 
mildew with soft water ; rub it well with white soap ; then scrape some 
fine chalk to powder, and rub it well into the linen ; lay it out on the grass, 
in the sunshine, watching it to keep it damp with soft water. Repeat the 
process the next day, and in a few hours the mildew will entirely disap- 
pear. 

To Clean Furs. — For dark furs ; warm a quantity of new bran in a 
pan, taking care that it does not burn, to prevent which it must be briskly 
stirred. Wiien well warmed rub it thoroughly into the fur with the hand. 
Repeat this two or three times, then shake the fur, and give it another 
sharp brushing until free from dust. For white furs ; lay them on a table, 
and 'ub well with bran made moist with warm water, rub until quite dry, 



310 DYERS, BLKACHKUS, RENOVATEUS, &C. 

and afterwards witli dry brau. The wet bran should be put on with 
flannel, then dry with book muslin. Liglit furs, in addition to the above, 
should be well rubl)ed with magnesia or a piece of book muslin, after the 
bran process, against the way of the fur. 

Removing Spots. — For scouring drops for removing spots, grease, etc., 
from linen or any other substance, take of spirits of turpentine and essence 
of lemon, of each one ounce. Tiie essence must be newly-made, or it will 
leave a circle round the spot. 

To Extract Grease from Silks, Paper, Woollen Goods, and 
Floors. — To remove grease spots from goods and paper, grate on them, 
very tliick, Freiicli chalk, (common chalk will answer, but is not as good as 
the French chalk.) Cover the spots with brown paper, and set on a mod- 
erately warm iron, and let it remain till cold. Care must be taken not to 
have the iron so hot as to scorch or change the color of the cloth. If the 
grease does not appear to be out on removing the iron, grate on more 
chalk, heat the iron again, and put it on. Repeat the process till the grease 
is entirely out. Strong pearl-ash water, mixed with sand, and rubbed on 
grease spots in floors, is one of the most effective things that can be used 
to extract the grease. 

To Extract Oil Spots from Finished Goods. — Saturate the spot 
with benzine, then place two pieces of very soft blotting paper under and 
two upon it, press well with a hot iron, and the grease will be absorl)ed. 

To Take Out Mildew. — Mix soft soap and powdered starch, half as 
much salt, and the juice of a lemon ; put it on both sides with a brush. Let 
it lay on the grass for a daj' and a night, till the stain comes out. 

To Remove Spots from Silk. — It is said that spots may be removed 
from silks by pouring a few drops of spirits of turpentine on the soiled 
parts. The spirit, on exhaling, takes off with it the oil that causes the 
spots ; and grease may be extracted by scraping French chalk and putting 
on the soiled part, and then holding it near the fire or over a warm iron. 
The grease, by this process melts, and the French chalk absorbs it. Brush 
or rub off the chalk, and if the stain is not etfectuall}' removed, repeat the 
operation, if necessary. Ink cannot be removed from a light silk without 
applying chemicals that are apt to injure the texture and color of the silk. 

How TO Make Old Clothes Look New. — If the articles are very dirty 
and contain grease spots, dissolve a little strong soap in warm water, and 
mix with it a small quantity of ox-gall ; touch over all the spots of grease, 
dirt, etc., and rub them well with a stiff brush until they are entirely re- 
moved, after w;hich the garment should be rubbed all over with a brush or 
sponge and warm water, to which should be ailded more of the soap and 
ox-gall. After the garment has been well rubbed over with this mixture, 
rinse until the water passes off clean. Then hang up to dry. 

To Remove Ink Stains. — Ink stains may easily be removed from cot- 
ton or linen by washing the spot that is stained in salt and water. This 
should be done previous to its being washed with soap, for soap sets the 
color. 

Directions for Cleaning Silk Goods. — When silk cushions, or silk 
coverings to furniture, become dingy, rub dry bran on it gently, with a 
woollen cloth, till clean. Remove grease spots and stains as in direction 
No. 410. Silk garments should have the spots extracted before being 
waslied — use hard soap for all colors but yellow, for which soft soap is the 
best. Put the soap into hot water, beat it till it is perfectly dissolved, then 
add sufficient cold water to make it just lukewarm. Put in the silks, and 
rub them in it till clean ; take them out without wringing, and rinse them 
in fair lukewarm water. Rinse it in another water, and for bright yellows, 
crimsons, and maroons, add sulphuric acid enough to the water to give it 
an acid taste, before rinsing the garment in it. To restore the colors of the 
different shades of pink, put in the second rinsing water a little vinegar 
or lemon juice. For scarlet, use a solution of tin ; for blues, purples, and 
their shades, use pearl-ash ; and for olive-greens, (hssolve verdigris in the 



DYERS, BLEACHERS, RENOVATERS, &C. 311 

rinsing water — fawn and browns should be rinsed in pure water. Dip the 
silks up and down in the rinsing water ; take tliem out of it witliout wring- 
ing, and dry them in the shade. Fold them up while daiu]) ; let them re- 
mainJ:o have the dampness strike through all parts of them alike, then put 
them in a mangier — if you have not one, iron them on the vvi-ong side, with 
an iron only just hot enough to smooth them. A little isinglass or gum 
arabic, dissolved in the rinsing water of gauze shawls and ribbons, is good 
to stiffen them. The water in which pared potatoes have been boiled, is 
an excellent thing to wash black silks in — it stiffens, and makes them 
glossy and black. Beef's gall and lukewarm water is also a nice thing to 
restore rusty silk, and soap-suds answer very well. They look better not 
to be rinsed in clear water, but they should be washed in two different 
waters. 

To Take Stains of any Kind Out of Linen. — Stains caused by Acids. 
— Wet the part, and lay on it some salt of worm-wood. Then rub it with- 
out diluting it with more water. 

Another. — Let the cloth imbibe a little water without dipping, and hold 
the part over a lighted match at a due distance. The spots will be re- 
moved by the sulphureous gas. 

Another watj. — Tie up in the stained part some pearl-ash ; then scrape 
some soap into cold soft water to make a lather, and boil the linen till the 
stain disappears. 

Stains of Wine, Fruit, &c., after they have been long in the 
Linen. — Rub the part on each side Avith yellow soap. Then lay on a mix- 
ture of starch in cold water very thick; rub it well in, and expose tiie linen 
to the sun and air till the stain comes out. If not removed in three or four 
days, rub that off, and renew the process. When dry, it may be sprinkled 
with SI little water. 

Dyes for Hats. — The ordinary bath for dyeing hats, employed by the 
London manufacturers, consists, for twelve dozen, of 144 lbs. of logwood ; 
12 lbs. of green sulphate of iron or copperas ; lyi lbs. verdigris. The log 
wood having been introduced into the copper, and digested for some time 
the copperas and verdigris are added in successive quantities, and in the 
above proportions, along with every successive two or three dozen of hats 
suspended upon the dripping machine. Each set of hats, after being ex- 
posed to the bath with occasional airings during forty minutes, is taken off 
the pegs, and laid out upon the ground to be more completely blackened by 
the peroxydizement of the iron with the atmospheric oxygen. In three or 
four hours, the dyeing is completed. When fully dyed, the hats are well 
washed in running water. 

To Dye Hats. — The hats should be at first stronglj^ galled by boiling 
them a long time in a decoction of galls witli a little logwooil, that the dye 
may penetrate the better into their substance; after which a proper quan- 
tity of vitriol and decoction of logwood, with a little verdigris, are added, 
and the hats continued in this mixture for a considerable time. They are 
afterwards put into a fresh liquor of logwood, galls, vitriol, and verdigris, 
and, when the hats are of great price, or of a hair which with difficulty takes 
the dye, the same process is repeated a third time. For obtaining the most 
perfect color, the hair or wool is dyed blue previously to its being formed 
into hats. 

Chip or Straw Hats or Bonnets may be dyed black by boiling them 
three or four hours in a strong liquor of fpgwood, adding a little copperas 
occasionally. Let the boimets remain in the liquor all night ; then take out 
to dry in the air. If the black is not satisfactory, dye again after drying. 
Rub inside and out with a sponge moistened in fine oil ; tiien block. 
Red Dye. — Boil ground Brazil-wood in a lye of potash, and boil your straw 
hats, &c., in it. Blue Dye. — Take a sufficient quantity of potash lye, 1 lb. 
of litmus or lacmus, ground ; make a decoction and then put in the straw, 
and boil it. 
To Color Straw Hats or Bonnets a Beautiful Slate. — First, soak 



312 DYERS, BLEACHERS, RENOVATERS, &C. 

tlie bonnet in ratlier strong warm suds for 15 minutes to remove sizing or 
stiffening; tlien rinse in warm water, to get out the soap ; now scald cud- 
hear, 1 oz., in suflHcic!it water to cover the hat or bonnet ; work the bonnet 
in tliis dv'e, at 180*-' of heat, until you get a liglit purple, now have a bucket 
of cold water, blued witli the extract of indigo, }^ oz., and work or stir the 
bonnet in tiiis, until the tint pleases ; dry, then rinse out with cold water, 
and dry again in the sliade. If j^ou get the purple too deep in shade the 
final slate will be too dark. 

Waterproof Stiffening for Hats. — Mix 18 lbs. of sliellac with 1^ 
lb of salt of tartar (carbonate of potash), and 5^ gals, water. These ma- 
terials are to be put in a kettle, and made to boil gradually till the lac is 
dissolved, when the liquid will become as clear as water, witiiont any scum 
on the top, and if left to cool, will have a thin crust upon the surface of 
a whitish cast, mixed with the light impurities of the gum. When this skin 
is taken off, tlie hat body is to b;,' dipped into the mixture in a cold state, 
so as to absorb as much as possible of it ; or it may be applied with abrusli 
or sponge. Tlie hat body, being thus stiffened, may stand till it becomes 
dry, ornearly so ; and after it has been brushed, it must be immersed in 
very dilute sulphuric or acetic acid, in order to neutralize tlie potash, and 
cause the shellac to set. If the hats are not to be napped immediately, they 
may be thrown into a cistern of pure water, and taken out as wanted. 

New Bleach for Wool, Silk, or Straw. — Mix together 4 lbs. ox- 
alic acid, 4 lbs. table salt, water, 50 gals. The goods are laid in this mixture 
for one hour, they are then generally well bleached, and only require to be 
thoroughly rinsed and worked. For bleaching straw it is best to soak the 
goods in caustic soda, and afterwards to make use of chloride of lime or 
Javelle water. The excess of chlorine is afterwards removed by hyposul- 
phite of soda. 

Silver Grey Dye on Straw. — For 25 hats, select your whitest hats 
and soften them in a bath of crystallized soda to wliich some clean lime 
water has been added. See "Z/me wa/er" below. Boil for two hours in a 
large vessel, using for a bath a decoction of the following, viz. : alum, 4 lbs., 
tartaric acid, y% lbs., some ammoniacal cochineal, and carmine of indigo; a 
little sulphuric acid may be necessarj' in order to neutralize the alkali of the 
cochineal dye. If the last mentioned ingredients are used, let the hats re- 
main for an hour longer in the boiling bath, then rinse in slightly acidulated 
water. 

Bleaching Straw Goods. — Straw is bleached by simpljj^ exposing it in 
a closed chamber to the fumes of burning sulphur, an old fiour barrel is the 
apparatus mos't used for the purpose by milliners, a flat stone being laid on 
•the ground, the sulphur ignited thereon, and the barrel containing the goods 
to be bleached turned over it. The goods should be previously washed in 
pure water. 

Bleaching Cotton. — It is a well established fact that cotton cloth that 
is bleached by chemical processes before it goes into market, does not wear 
as well as that which is unbleached, and is very liable in time to turn yel- 
low ; also it is very much harder to sew upon it. Sheets and pillow cases 
can be made up far quicker before the cotton has been wet, and allowance 
can be made for shrinking ; indeed, any garment can be made if this 
item is borne in mind. Make a good suds of soft water and lye 
soap, if you have it; put the cotton cloth in cold suds, and bring it 
to a boil ; then take the cloth or garment out, and when cool spread out 
on the snow or grass. Have a tub of suds close bj' so as to dip the goods 
in once each day. In three days they will be bleached to a snow whiteness, 
and keep white till worn out. This is the way our grandmothers bleached 
their marvellous webs of linen and damask, and it is too good a practice to 
be forgotten, or go out of use. When the apple trees art' in bloom, spread 
out garments that have turned j^ellow, after boiling in suds, and they will 
be cleansed white as snow. 




Mechanical Telegrapli Instrument. — For Students, Colleges, &c. 

TELEGEAPHY 

DESIGNED FOR BEGINNERS. 



INTRODUCTORY. 

A Simple Description of the Morse System of Tele- 
graphy, PARTICULARLY ADAPTED FOR SeLF INSTRUCTION 

IN THE Art. 

Br JESSE H. BUNNELL. 



The extensive increase in the practical use of Telegraplis in connection 
with many branches of business has made Telegraphy ahuost a necessary 
part of a business education CA'en for those who do not expect to practise 
for a livelihood this most interesting and pleasant occupation. 

Many of the more prominent manufacturers now find it to be not onlj'- a 
great convenience, but, in fact, an absolute necessity, to liave a telegrapli 
between the business oflBce or salesroom and the factory. 

The case is the same wherever there are two or more departments of 
the same business located at a distance from each other and requiring fre- 
quent communication. 

The Bookkeeper, Clerk or Salesman who can add to liis other acquire- 
ments a knowledge of Telegraphy will frequently find this knowledge use- 
ful to his employers as well as valuable to himself. 

Erom tlie simplicity and peculiarly interesting nature of the pursuit, it 
proves to be neither tedious nor difficult to learn — tlie practice being more of 
a pleasant pastime than a labor, while a fair degree of skill may be acquir- 
ed in a very short time. 

One of the best plans by which a number of persons at a time may 
practice and learn Telegraphy at home is to connect, by a wire and instruments, 
several different residences situated either adjacently or at a distance from 
each other. 

In this way neighbors and friends may jointly own a wire to which 
there is attached an instrument in each house, placing them all in electrical 
communication with each other for conversation by telegraph or for prac- 
tice at learning Telegraphy. 

The cost of such lines is exceedingly moderate — a mile of suitable wire and 
thirty-five insulators costing about $27.00, while the aggregate cost of the 
Batteries and instruments will average about ten dollars for each instrument 
connected. Beyond these amounts, the labor of putting up the wire (and 

14 



314 



TELEGEAPHT. 



erecting poles wliere tliere are neither trees nor buildings on wliicli to fasten 
the wire) is tlie only additional expense of a complete working line. 

This estimate applies as well to all short lines which are put up to serve 
purposes of convenient communication or for practice. It is the object of 
this work to furnish all information necessarv to enable the amateur tele- 




^ 






m 






H 






cc 






>^ 






CO 






W 






cc 






p^ 






O 






^ 




;zi 






c 




1 


H 

3 




•^ 


O 


H 


§ 


f^ 


if} 


!.. 


o 


1—1 


-§ 


Pm 




s 


Q 


CO 


^s 


P^ 


« 


to 


H 


W 


1? 


o 


P4 


1^ 


125 


<^ 




O 


W 




Q 


^ 






Oi 






U 






h-1 






W 






1^ 






;2i 






p 






PQ 







grapher to build and operate a line of telegraph as well as to understand 
the principles upon which the Electric Telegraph is based. 

The Battery being the first essential part of the entire apparatus, the 
study should here begin. 

It is from action created in the Battery that is first generated tlie electric 



TELEGRAPHt. 315 

current, which, in practical Telegraphy, is made to traverse long or short 
distances tiirough the conducting medium of metallic wires, and this current 
of electricity, so generated in the Batterj', and so conducted through the 
wires, is then, by means of tlie proper instruments, whicli are herein des- 
cribed, made to give out tangible signals, which, being arranged in the form 
of an alphabet, enables us to read or speak as it were from ani"^ distance, 
by this means, instantaneously ; for the electric current requires but a small 
fraction of a second's time to travel many hundreds of miles through the wires. 

With the cut of the apparatus on the preceding page is represented one 
cell of Gravity Battery of tlie kind now most generally used for telegraphic 
purposes throughout the United States. It consists of a glass jar, about 
seven inches high, nearly filled with water, immersed in which at the bottom 
is a cross-form plate of copper, having fastened to it an insulated conduct- 
ing wire, which, passing out at the upper part of the jar, constitutes what is 
termed the "copper" or " positive pole" of tlie Battery. Around and on the 
copper in the bottom of the jar are placed a few ounces of sulpliate of copper. 

Suspended above (by means of a brass tripod, or " hanger," as it is 
called), is a wheel of zinc,, the body of which is allowed to remain beneath 
the surface of the liquid in the jar. The brass hanger is made to serve as a 
conductor from the zinc by means of a connecting post and screw for the at- 
tachment of a wire to one of its arms. This constitutes the negative or zinc 
pole of the Battery. Now, if the wire projecting upward from the copper 
be connected with the zinc, by attaching it at the screw-post on tlie hanger, 
a current of electricty will constantly flow from the copper to the zinc 
through the wire, and will cease to flow the moment the wire is disconnect- 
ed. If the wire from the copper is made a mile in length, and its end con- 
nected in the same manner with the zinc, the current will flow through its 
entire length and come back to the zinc, just as surely as though the dis- 
tance were but a few inches, and will 
instantaneously cease to flow the mo- 
ment the wire is disconnected or 
broken at any point its entire length. 

Where currents more powerful 
than can be produced by a single cell 
are required, additional cells are 
added, by connecting either tlie cop- 
per or zinc pole of the first cell to the 
opposite pole of the next, and so on ; 
80 that in a series of fifteen or twenty 
cells, if the unconnected pole of the ceil at one end was copper, that pole 
would constitute the copper pole of the entire Battery, and the unconnected 
zinc at the other end would be the zinc pole of the entire Battery. By con- 
necting the end of a wire of any length to the zinc or copper pole of such a 
Battery, and its opposite end to the remaining pole, a much more powerful 
current would pass through the wire tlian if the Battery consisted of but one 
cell. Telegraph companies, on their long lines, use Batteries of from twenty 
to one hundred cells each. (See page 339.) 

To Put the Battery in Opekation. 

Fill the glass jar about two-thirds full of water ; place the copper in the 
bottom so that it rests as nearly level as possible, and its wire passing straight 
upward at one side of the jar. Then drop about half a pound of sulphate 
of copper into the jar, so the lumps will lay evenly on the bottom or around 
and on the copper. Then suspend the zinc so that the body of the wheel is 
about two inches above the copper. As the Battery does not at once begin 
to act in its fullest strength when newlj' set up, it is well to connect the cop- 
per with the zinc and leave it so for a few liours before using. Tliis is done 
by fastening the wire from the copper into tlie screw-jiost of tlie zinc danger, 
and will soon cause the Battery to work u]) sufficientiy to be ready for use. 




316 TELEGRAPHY. 

Tlie Battery should be kept supplied' with enough sulphate of copper so that 
a blue color can always be seen in the liquid at the bottom of the jar, rising 
to within an inch of the lower surface of the suspended zinc. If it is found 
that the blue color rises higher than this, it is tiiereby indicated too much 
sulphate of copper is being used, and no more should be put in until the blue 
has receded almost to the very bottom of the jar. The latter state of the 
Battery indicates that more sulphate of copper is required. Water should be 
from time to time added to that in the jar, to replace the loss by evaporation. 
Once in two or three months it will be necessary to thoroughly clean 
the Battery. Take out the zinc carefully ; then the copper in tlie same man- 
ner ; pour the liquid into a separate jar, leaving behind the oxide and dirt 
which may have gathered in the bottom of the jar. Wash the latter out 
completely, and return to it the clean liquid wliich it had in it before ; put 
back the copper to its place ; put in a few crystals of sulphate of copper ; 
clean the zinc thoroughly by scraping and washing, and return it also to its 
place. The Battery will then be in good order, and should not be disturbed 
excepting when necessary to clean it or add sulphate. The power of this 
Battery depends very much upon tlie position in which the zinc is placed 
with reference to the copper? To get the most active effect, lower tlie zinc 
to within about an inch of the copper, taking care not to allow a contact 
between the two. To decrease the power and render the Battery more con- 
stant or lasting, raise the zinc farther away from the copper. 

Conductors and Insulation. 

Mention is made in the preceding chapter of the use of wire as the 
means of conducting current (see page 338) of electricity from one pole of a 
Battery to any given point, and thence back to the opposite pole, making the 
" circuit, " as it is called, complete. Certain substances are found to conduct 
electricity with more or less facility, and these substances are called con- 
ductors, while through otlier matter no currents whatever will pass. The 
latter class of substances are called non-conductors or insulation mediums. 

In Telegraphy there are used as conductors, principally, copper, iron, 
brass, and platina. As insulation, gutta-percha, hard and soft rubber, glass, 
silk and cotton fibre, dry wood, bone and ivory. 

Iron in the shape of wire is usually employed for outside conductors, 
because of its durability, cheapness, and strength, although it is not as perfect 
a conductor as copper, which latter is generally used for all wires inside of 
buildings and offices. 

In conducting currents of electricity from one point to another, as in 
Telegraphy, it is; found necessary to use non-conductors wherever a fastening 
of the wire is made, in order to prevent escape of tlie fluid at these numer- 
ous points. For this purpose, glass is principally used for outside wires, the 
' glass " insulators" being first made fast to the pole or building, whereon the 
wire is to be suspended, by means of a wooden pin," (see page 339) or "brack- 
et," after which the wire is strung, and tied to the glass witli a short piece of 
iron "tiewire." Inside of offices, hard and soft rubber tubes are used where 
the wires pass through the windows, and the copper conducting wires are 
usually covered with a coating of gutta-percha, or wrapped with a continu- 
ous covering of cotton or silk. The latter is principally used as a covering 
for the wires inside the finer instruments. For the handles or knobs to the vari- 
ous instruments which require manipulation, hard rubber is generally used. 
The Eaktii as a Conductor. 

It is found that when one pole of a Battery is connected with the earth, 
and the wire from the opposite pole carried to a point at any distance away, 
and also connected with the eartii, the current will flow as readily as though 
the " circuit" had been made complete by the use of a return wire. It is 
therefore shown that tlie earth is practically one vast conductor. This is 
principally due to the fact that moisture is everywiiere present beneath the 
surface of the earth, and water itself is known to be a very fair conductor. 

Telegraph companies make great practical use of earth conduction by 



TELEGRAPHY. S17 

using it in all cases for their numerous lines, both long and short, thus 
saving the construction of a separate or return wire on eve^y circuit. 

Magnets and Keys. (See pages 341 and 342.) 
A careful reading of tiie foregoing will iiave enabled tlie student to 
understand how currents of electricity are generated and made to travel 
through space. The next feature of the stuily nill be the means v?hich are 
employed to make these currents transmit signals. 




The basis of the entire Telegrapliiu npparatus is the electro-magnet and the 
transmitting " key. " The electro-magnet is constructed as follows: Two 
bars of soft iron, having round Iieads of rubber or wood, thus making spools 
of each, are fastened together by means of a short, tlat bar of ironsin|larly 
soft. The round bars in the spools of the magnet are called the •' cores." 
The flat connecting bar at the back is called the "back armature, " by Tele- 
graphers, to distinguish it from tlie movable piece in front, which is to be 
attracted to the " cores, " or withdrawn by the spring, and which is called 
the armature. 

A silk or cotton-covered wire is wound in continuous turns about the 
cores, until a diameter of about an inch and a half is attained, and each 
core or spool of the magnet contains a great number of turns of the wire 



318 TKLEGRAPHT. 

jiroiintl it. Now, if a current of electricit}' be sent through this wire, it will, 
l)y its passing tlirough tlie numerous turns, cause the iron cores within to 
become magnetic and to possess tlie power of attracting with considerable 
force aiij' piece of iron brouglit near to tlieir ends. Tlie cores, being made 
of soft iron, will lose their magnetism and cease to exert any attractive 
power, the moment tlie current" ceases to flow. The actual power of the 
attractive force thus exerted is directly dependent upon the power of the 
Battery which supplies the current, or, more properly speaking, upon the 
power of the current itself. Strong currents will cause the magnets to at- 
tract with a power of several pounds. 

Keys are simply a contrivance for making or breaking the contacts 
whicli control the passage of the current — a brass lever, swung on a pivot, 
liaving a rubber handle which the operator grasps slightly with the thumb and 
fore-tingers. (Seepage 343.) On pressing the lever downward, aplatinapoint 
projecting under the lever is brought into contact with another platina point 
set into an insulation of rubber in the base of the key, so that there can be 
no electrical connection between them unless the key is pressed down, or 
" closed," as it is termed. A conducting wire being separated at any point, 
and one of its ends connected with the lever or base of the key, and the 
otiier end witli the metal set into tlie rubber insulation, would convey the 
current while the key was closed, and cease to do so the moment it was 
opened. Platina is used at the points where the electrical contacts are made 
and broken, because it does not readily fuse or tarnish. An extra lever at 
the side of the key is called the " circuit-breaker," and is used as a means 
of keeping the circuit closed when the hand of the operator is not on the 
key. When the circuit-breaker is pushed into its closed position, it makes 
contact with a brass lip, which latter is fastened to the rubber along with 
the lower platina point. This, then, has the same effect as though the key 
was pressed downward and contact made at the points. 

The cut on page 317 represents a magnet with its armature suspended 
from a spring, and connected with it by a wire, a battery and a key. From 
what has now been explained, it may be seen that when the key is closed a 
current from the Battery will pass through the wire and magnet, and cause 
the latter to attract the armature, overcoming the resistance of the spring, 
and that the instant the key is opened the current will cease to flow, the 
magnet cease to attract, and the spring will instantly draw the arma- 
ture back to its original position. In this way the armature is made to fol- 
low exactly the movements of the key, no matter at what distance they 
may be placed from each other, althougli in practice it is found that as the 
circuits are lengthened, more Battery power and more delicate instruments 
are required than on short lines. 

The ichole basis of the Telegraph system is this duplication at one point, by 
the magnet andits armature , of the motions made on the key by the hand of the 
operator, at another separate and distant point. 

During the first years of Telegraphy, the Morse Register was the only 
means employed to put into tangible form the signals transmitted over the 
wires. 

The cut on page 320 represents a working instrument of this kind, such 
as are now used in telegraph offices where all or a portion of the operators, 
employed are not able to read by sound. And on page 353 will be found the 
code of signals already spoken of and which are known as the Morse Alphabet. 

In order to give the clearest possible idea of the operation of a Register, 
bv which it records these signals, reference is made to the next paragraph, 
containing an outline diagram of the main working parts of the instrument 
and an accompanying explanation. (See cut on page 319.) 

Morse Alphabet and Register. 

The armature of the magnet is attached to a lever, and this lever, which 
swings on a pivot in the middle, is provided at the end with a pointed pin or 
screw, which is caused to press upwards against a strip of paper whenever 



TELEGRAPn-T. 319 

tlie magnet attracts, and to return to its former position wlicn tlie reverse is 
the case. Meaiiwliile the paper is kept moving steadily forward, so that if 
tlie lever-pin is pressed against the paper, for onl\' an instant of time, a 




short mark or dot appears pressed or embossed iiiio the paper. If for a Ion 
ger time, the mark would be proportionately longer, or a dash. If alternately, 
the marks would come consecutively, and have spaces between them. As the 
Morse Alpliabet consists entirely of dots, dashes, spaces, and extra long dashes, 
the letters and numerals are easily made with these marks and their combi- 
nations. So that as the hand of the operator, on the key at a distant point, 
makes short or long strokes, dots, or dashes, or spaces, these same marks ap- 
pear on the paper as it comes from tlie Register, and being based on the forma- 
tion given by the Morse Alphabet, are as easily umlerstood by the receiving 
operator as though they appeared in tlie well-known Roman characters. 

After the Telegraph had been in successful operation for several years, tlie 
operators began to discover that, with practice, tliey could more easily disting- 
uish the dots and dashes by tlie clicking sounds tliatcame from tlie instrument, 
when the lever responded to the sisjiials, than tliev could read them from 
the paper. This was the beginning of what is called READING BY SOUND. 
At the present time none are considered good operators who cannot read by 
sound, and there are comparatively few Registers in use in the United States. 



32a 



TELEGRAPHY. 




TELEGRAPHY. 321 

To Set Up the Instrument for Practice. 

Having set up the Battery according to directions given (see page 315) 
connect, as shown in tlie cut, one wire from the copper pole of tlie Battery to 
oneof the brass binding-posts of tlie instrument, and one wire from the zinc 
pole to the remaining binding-post ; screw down the instrument firmly to the 
table with the screw in the base, as its best sound is tliereby ])roducod. See 
that none of the screws are loose in their places, and that the armature lever, 
which is the speaking tongue of the Telegraph, plays freelj^ with a move- 
ment of about one-sixteenth of an inch. The spring, which draws the ar- 
mature lever upwards, and is called the adjustment, should only be set at 
sufBcient tension to raise tlie lever when no current is passing through tlie 
magnets. If drawn too tightly, tlie spring will not allow the armature to 
respond to the attractions of the magnet. When the instrument is not in use, 
leave the circuit-breaker of the key open, so that the Battery will not be in 
action, and its power accordingly economized. See that the platina points of 
the key are kept clean from dirt or dust, tiius preventing imperfect contact 
from being made. 

The key is provided with screws for the purpose of regulating its play 
to suit the band of the operator, and to regulate also the pressure of the 
spring beneath it, for the same purpose. 

A little practice will enable the student to judge best for himself as to 
how this should be set. 

The best way to acquire the habit of correct Morse writing in the start, 
is by practising with another student at the same instrument, one at making 
letters, while the other, by listening, endeavors to name them. Tiiis is ex- 
cellent practice for both ; it is the beginning of sound-reading on the part 
of the one who names the letters, wliile the one who writes on the key must 
make the signals distinctly and correctly, or they cannot possibly be distin- 
guished by the other. Start rightly, and practice will soon make perfection 
of skill. No mental effort whatever is required of the practical operator to 
construct a Morse letter the moment his eyes come to it. And in transmit- 
ting messages he transmits the right signals in a continuous stream with as 
little effort or thought as the accomplished penman rapidly writes the words 
of a manuscript. The click of an instrument is as easily understood by a 
" sound operator" who has had an experience of a year or two, as his own 
language spoken in the clearest of accents. 

After two or three weeks of practice together over one instrument, two 
persons should be able to read eacli otlier's writing slowly, and should also 
have become familiar with the instruments, Batterj', and tlie principles of 
their operation. Separate practice over a short line between different rooms 
or buildings may tlien with advantage begin, each student having an instru- 
ment connected at his own end of the wire, and all communication between 
them necessarily being made by telegraph. According to the length of line 
between the two instruments, two or more cells of Batterj', arranged in 
series, as described on page 315., will he required to operate in this way. 
Connect instruments and Battery as follows : (See cut on page 322.) 

The return circuit may be made either by a continuous wire, as indicated, 
or by connection with the earth at each end, G G. For the wires of but a 
short distance in length, the return wire is best ; for out-door lines of more 
than a few hundred feet in length, use ground-wires, as earth connections 
are called. To make a ground wire, connect a wire to a plate or sheet of 
metal, zinc, iron, or tin ; bury the latter in moist earth. The plate of metal 
should present not less than three square feet of surface. Gas and water 
pipes are, however, the best for this attaciiment, and whenever they are 
within reach should be used instead of buried plates in the earth. ^ 

In running an out-door wire between points at any distance apart, it should 
be insulated (by using glass or rubber insulators) from all direct contact with 
buildings, posts, or trees. (See page .338.) This prevents " escape " of the cur- 
rent, by which it would otherwise be diverted from its proper course through 

14* 



322 



TELEGRAPHY. 



botli of tlie instruments, and reaching tlie eartli by a shorter route, would cir- 
culate to its opposite pole in the Battery without liaving any effect whatever 
on the distant apparatus. To make a joint or splice in wire, brighten the ends 
by scraping them, and twist each wire around the otlier as closely and firmly 
as possible, so that no strain will draw them apart. (See page 338.) 




In running wires inside of a building, use insulated copper wire covered 
either with cotton or gutta-percha; fasten it in place with small staples or 
tacks, but in doing so be careful not to allow tlie covering to he opened or 
stripped from the wire, nor to allow the latter to come in contact with gas 
or water pipes, or metal posts. 

In the beginning, when two persons are first practising over a short wire, 
arranged as described, ordinary conversation carried on by Telegraph is as 
good a means of practice, both at sending and at reading, as anything else. 
Then proceed with alternately sending printed matter from newspapers or 
books and copying it with a pen or pencil from the instrument by sound as 
the other sends it. As each improves, both in reading by sound and in 
sending plainly, this will become a very pleasant and interesting occupation. 

It is often desired to connect three or more instruments or " ofBces " in 
tlie same wire, each office being in a different locality. 



TELKGRAPHV. 



823 




Tlie above diagram illu,s(rates the manner of connecting wires, instru- 
ments and Batteries, on such a line, Batteries being placed at each end of the 
wire. Battery at A has its zinc pole connected to the earth and its copper 
to tlie line ; necessarily therefore the other Battery at B presents its zinc 
pole to the line and its copper to the earth. If both Batteries were connect- 
ed with the same pole in the line, they would neutralize each other and no 
current whatever would be produced. 

The line is connected as sliown from the Batter}' to the first instrument 
and on to the next in such a way that the current is made to pass througli 
each and every instrument on the route. 

Each office should have a call or signal for itself. (See page 335.) Any one 
or two letters of the alphabet will suit, and serves in working over the line as 
the name of whatever oflfice it is applied to. One office desiring to communi- 
cate with another, writes on tlie line the call of that office, tliree or four 
times, followed by his own call, and repeats tins operation indefinitely, or 
until he is answered l)y the office calling. The office answering the call 
makes the letter " I " tliree or four times and signs his own call. The re- 
ceipt of a communication is answered by the signal " K," followed by 
the signal or call of the office receiving it. If the receiver, from any cause, 
fails to read or understand any portion of tlie communication, he calls ^or 



324 



TKLEGRAPHY. 




a repetition hy " breaking-in" and saying " G A" ( go ahead from), and 
giving the Last word understood by him. If he wishes it repeated entirely, 
lie says " R R" ( repeat). 

It is necessary where two or more offices are connected together on a 
line, that every key should be kept closed by having its circuit-breaker shut, 
excepting only while sending communications. If any one key on the en- 
tire line is left open, all communication is stopped. The reason for this has 
already been fully explained. 

As lightning is frequently attracted to out-door lines, and thereby enters 
the offices, sometimes damaging the instruments or even setting fire to cur- 
tains or other inflammable materal 
about the instrument table, a 
simple and cheap intrument called 
" lightning arrester and cut-out," is 
used for the purpose of intercepting 
and carrying to the earth such dis 
charges of lightning as would be 
liable to cause damage. This 
apparatus is entirely effective, and 
is a complete safeguard against 
lightning. 

When several persons are jointly 

" Excelsior Lightniiis; -iriester and Cut Out practising on a line in which there 
ami Ground Switch Oombnied. are a number of separate instru- 

ments, placed either in different rooms or in different houses, all are thus 
in communication with each other, and while any one of them is writing, 
all the rest can simultaneously practice at reading by sound. 

Main lines of Telegraph are arranged in precisely the same way. With 
wires of many miles in length, main Batteries, containing a large number 
of cells, are placed at the end stations. The return circuit is made through 
the earth the entire distance, and each office connected to the line 
in the manner here discribed. The means employed to " tap " a 
Telegraph line (which is sometimes done in case of railway accidents and 
for other purpose), are very simple, and will serve to iWustrate this. The 
wire is simply cut, and its two ends connected to a portable instrument in 
the hands of a " sound-operator," who may then easily read all that passes 
over the wire. 

Practical Directions. 

The question'is often asked, " How much Battery or how many cells, 
and what kind of Battery will work a certain length of line to which are 
connected a certain number of instruments 1 " 

Tiie Gravity Battery (see cut on page ol4) described herein, is the adopted 
stnndard form in general use by most companies, and is considered to be 
the best for all ordinary purposes. For short lines,etc., its proper use may 
be practically set down according to the proportions given below ; bearing 
in mind,liowever, that the greater the number of cells of Battery used, the 
more powerfully the instruments will work, and that if it is found when 
one or more instruments are properly connected in a circuit according to 
directions, it or they do not work with enough strength to give the amount 
of sound wanted, addition of nnn-e Battery will produce better results. 

For one instrument, use one or two cells of Gravity Battery. For two 
instruments in connection, not farther than 100 feet apart, two. or three 
cells, adding one cell for each additional instrument connected to the same 
wire ; also add further one cell for each qiiarter of a mile added to the 
length of tlie wire up to one mile, and then two or three colls for each ad- 
ditional mile. 

For such lines, " No. 12 Galvanized iron" is the least expensive wire 
8uit<able for tlie purpose. For lines of between one and twelve miles in length 



TELEGUAPHY. 325 

the instruments are required to liave tlieir magnets wound with finer wires 
than those used on circuits of less tlian one mile. Such instruments are 
designated as being of " 20 ohms resistance." Tliis fact should be remem- 
bered when ordering equipments for a line of over on& and under twelve 
miles long. 

Never use in the same line instruments of different resistance. Whatever 
other differences there may be in the instruments, they should be all alike 
in resistance. 

For more complete description of Morse Telegraplis as they are at pre- 
sent operated, the student is now referred to Part II. commencing on page 
338. 

In Part I. will be found all the necessary rudimentary exercises and in- 
struction which pertains to the practical acquirement of skill in Morse writ- 
ing and reading, together with forms of messages, manner of communicat- 
ing over a wire, abbreviations used, etc. 

Although our principal design is to instruct in the art of reading 
by sound, yet those who desire to acquire the faculty of reading from 
paper will find the instructions equally well suited to their wants, it being 
impossible to give directions adapted to sound reading which are not appli- 
cable to reading by sight ; indeed, every one pursuing the latter method is, 
in reality, governed quite as much by the clicks of the register as by the 
impression whicli it makes. 

The system of instruction adopted in the first part is the result of close 
and long continued observation. It not only tells the student precisely how 
to proceed in the formation of nearly every character, but, in showing the 
right way, depends much on pointing out to him where and how he is likely 
to fail. Like observation has also made it clear that the Morse characters 
should never be placed before tlie student in alphabetical order. Tiiis part 
is intended to be practised and mastered as fast as read. 

The second part, in setting forth the construction of a telegraph line, and 
the principles on which it is operated, although drawing to some extent on 
the imagination, aims to instruct synthetically, by commencing with the 
fundamental principles of electro-magnets, and explaining addition after ad- 
dition until a full line is pictured, as well as tlie various obstacles arising to 
impedeor interruptits workings. History and theory are entirely discarded, 
the present condition of the telegraph and the known principles on which its 
working depends being all that is valuable to the student. This portion may 
be studied in connection with the writing exercises, and it should be reviewed 
a number of times. 

While it is believed that the student, in following the line of instruction 
as herein laid before him, will progress more rapidly than by the adoption 
of any other mode of procedure, he is warned against falling into the too 
common error of expecting great results from little labor. There is no duty 
of a telegraphist which any person of ordinary ability may not readily learn 
to perform, if he will but bestow the attention which he should willingly 
give to any undertaking. Students with a clear understanding of the cus- 
toms and principles set forth in these instructions, and able to copy each 
other's telegraphic writing by sound at the rate of thirty-five words pef 
minute, may consider themselves operators. 



326 TELEGRAPHY. 

PART I. 

INSTRUCTIONS IN MANIPULATIONS AND BUSINESS FORMS. 



MORSE CHARACTERS, 

Lor cypher TEISHP 6 A U 

V 4NDB 8G7 Exclamation 

F Comma Semicolon Quotation X W 1 
Parenthesis Q 2 Period SMS 

Paragraph Interrogation Italics 9 K J OR 
& C Z Y 

These characters, forty-five in number, are formed of three simple ele- 
mentary marks ; the dot, the sliort dash, and the long dash. These elements 
uncombined, are respectively E, T, and L or ciplier. The reniainhig forty- 
two are made up of tlie dot and tlie short dasli, tlie long dash never being 
used in combination, nor repeated except to repeat the letter or figure whicli 
it represents. Tlie original intention was to use a longer dash for the cipher 
than for tiie letter L, but practice has made no difference in them, the long 
dash being invariable translated according to its connection. As an initial, 
or when joined with letters, it is always L ; when found among figures it is 
necessarily' a cipher. 

Six of the S3'mbols, C, O, R, Y, Z, and &, contains e.ach a space, the 
ehorter separation of the elements being denominated breaks. Tlie latter 
are only long enough to make the elements distinct from one another : the for- 
mer occupies about the room that do a dot and a break. 

It is well for every operator to be familiar with all tlie cliaracters in the 
preceding table, though some of the punctuation marks are not in general 
use, and on some lines hardly known. A careful examination of their for- 
mation is all that is necessary before commencing to practise them, as tliey 
can generally be committed to memory sooner than they can be made with 
the key. 

Marks of quotation, parenthesis, or italics, are placed both before or 
after the word or words affected by their use. 

The main points to be acquired as a basis for the whole are embraced in 
the following six principles, which are to be mastered before any attempt is 
made to form other characters. 

First principle, Dots close together. 

Second " Dashes close together. 

Third " Lone dots. 

Fourth " Lone dashes. 

Fifth " A dot with a dash closely following. 

Sixth " A dash closely followed by a dot. 



POSITION AND MOVEMENT OF THE HAND. 

Place the first two fingers on the top of the button to the key.with the thumb 



TELEGRAPHY. 327 

partly beneath it, thus forming a gentle grasp on tlie button. Let tlie fingers 
resting on it be considerably bent, so tliat the thumb will not slip from the 
under side, and the wrist and arm 1)e entirely clear of the table. The wrist 
must be perfectly limber, and no stiffness should be given to any part of the 
hand. No exertion is to be made with the thumb and fingers other than in 
grasping the key, and from this they should not be permitted to fiy during 
manipulation. They borrow their force from the hand and wrist, which 
should move directly up and down through a distance of about three-quar- 
ters of an inch. The motion, both up and down, must he free -AndLfuU, and 
of moderate firmness. A large majority of students write with much too 
little force, and they are inclined to limit the amount of movement, holding 
the lever down when it should rise, and keeping it up when they should press 
it down. 

Avoid the error of pressing down with the fingers while the wrist is 
thrown up, and vice versa. The wrist, hand, fingers, and key should 
move in the same direction. 

Remembering that the downward movement produces sounds correspond- 
ing with dots and dashes, and the upward motion the sounds representing 
breaks and spaces, the student ma}' proceed with the Jirst principle, making 
a series of dots at the rate of four or five a second, or as fast as a detached 
lever watch ticks. No attempt to increase this speed should be made until 
the whole alphabet can be readily formed when the rate can be gradually 
accelerated thirty or forty per cent. Fifty per cent, increase makes very 
rapid manipulation. Some will find it necessary to write even more mod- 
erately ; and no one should manipulate more rapidly than he can do it well. 
The series of dots should be drilled on until the raps sound as regular as if 
made by clockwork. 

The second principle may be started at the rate of one dash to a second 
of time, and slowly increased to three. Though uniformity in the accelera- 
tion of stroke is here desired, the important end to be obtained is a close 
proximity of the dashes — breaks and not spaces being wanted between them. 
In this exercise the rule is to hold the lever down ; the exception being to 
allow an upward ^asA of the hand, bringing the key down again in the 
shortest possible time. If the upward motion he full, it is impossible for the 
most rapid operator to make his marks, whether dots or dashes, too near each 
other, where a regular space is not required. It must be continually borne 
in mind that every character not containing a space must be compact, and 
not open and disjointed, so as to entirely change the meaning by a division 
of one character into two or more shorter ones. 

In commencing the third principle the student will be assisted by the 
knowledge that nearly every first attempt at making a single dot produces 
a short dash. A quick but firm downward flash of the key will form a good 
letter E. The hand should no sooner start downward than it is quickly 
raised, as if the first movement were a mistake. This principle holds true 
in every case where a space follows a dot. 

In drilling on this, or any other character, it should not be repeated too 
rapidly ; nor should the thumb and fingers be taken from the key during 
the short intervals, but through every space the thumb should pull up gent- 
ly on the key ; during manipulation there must always be either an upward 
or downward press\ire exerted. 

The fourth principle, T, L, and cipher, requires quite as much care as the 
letter E. An untrained hand sometimes makes T too short, but is rather 
inclined to the other extreme, especially when writing words ; and it, almost 
without exception, fails to make L, or cipher, of sufficient length ; indeed, 
both are so varied that in not a few cases students will be found making L 
shorter than T. 

The time consumed in making the short dash is about equal to that oc- 
cupied in pronouncing the word <<?«. For L, double tlie time must be given 
or about one second. It had better be made much longer th&n is nei.-essary 
than a little too short, for in the former case it (;annot be misinterpreted. 



328 TKLEGRAPHY. 

A dot with a clash closely foliowing, or tlie.^^ principle, is executed by 
giving tlie key one flasli and one moderately slow closing, the hand going 
with a bound from tlie dot to tlie dash. The pronunciation of the word a- 
(jaiti, with the second syllable strongly accented, furnislies very correct time 
for the letter A. At tlie start, most every one finds himself inclined to make 
the dot too long and the dash too short, but more particularly to separate 
them too much. 

The sixth principle, a dash closely followed by a dot, is one of the most 
difficult combinations. The tendency of the unpracticed to shorten the dash 
and lengthen the dot is so great that they are frequently reversed, forming 
A. This, however, can generally be remedied much sooner than they can 
be brought near enough together. 

Measuring the time for the dash as correctlj' as possible, for the dot the 
hand must give a quick flash, as if it were trying to place the dot on top of 
the dash. The student must not think of taking his hand up from the dash 
before beginning the dot ; that is, the downward position of the ke}' is to be 
taken as the starting point of the dot. 

A strict observance of this rule will alone prevent the occurrence of a 
spa(;e after the dash. 

Timing by the pronunciation of the word story, dwelling on the first syl- 
lable rather longer than usual, and clipping the last very short, may prove 
to be good assistance. No more time should elapse between the dash and 
tlie dot than separates the two syllables of story in its pronunciation. 

Justice having been done the six fundamental principles, the following 
exercises may be taken up in regular order, each character to be made many 
times before the next is practiced ; 

EXERCISE I. 

E I S H P 6 



After practising these separately until the right number of dots can be 
made and the last dot in each character as short as the others, run them for- 
ward and backward several times, making each one but once before proceed- 
ing to the next. 

EXERCISE 11. 

A U V 4 



In this exercise be particularly cautious to leave no space between the 
dots and the dash. This is the only error likely to be made. Let the dash 
follow the dots just as closely as if it were itself a dot. 

It should be observed that this exercise is merely prolonging the last dot 
in I, S, H, and P. 

EXERCISE ni. 
lASUHVP 4 



These are to be produced in couples, as represented, but no letter is to be 
made twice in succession. The object is to make and readily detect the 
difference in those in the same couple on account of their similarity. 

EXERCISE IV. 

N D B 8 



TELEGRAPHY. 329 

Directions for the formation of N have already been given. It is only 
necessary to remember tliat the dots must be started from the depressed 
position of the hand, and that the last dot in each must be made by a move- 
ment seemingly quicker than that required for the others. 

EXERCISE V. 

A Comma F Semicolon Quotation 

X W 1 Parenthesis 



Each of these, it will be seen, commences with A ; and care should be 
taken to begin tliem accordingly. The comma and quotation, being notliing 
more than A's close together, should be made without difficult3^ F is proba- 
bly as difficult as any character in this exercise. A and N must be thought of 
at nearly the same instant. It may be commenced with the dash much too 
long, in order to get the dots placed near enough to it, and then the dash 
may be gradually Shortened until it becomes of proper length. 

The semicolon can be referred to A and F, or comma and E closely uni- 
ted. X is likely to be separated into A I, or more frequently into E D. 

In forming W and 1 care must not only be taken to have them compact, 
but to get the dashes of equal length. The general tendency is to make 
the last one too short, and not in these alone, but wherever two or more 
dashes occur together. 

There seems to be no better rule for the parenthesis than to put A and 
U close together. 

EXERCISE VI. 

U Q 2 Period 3 



The warnings already given should make these characters comparative- 
ly easy, as they differ from some in Exercise V. only in starting with a dot 
or two more. V and E, closely joined, will fdVm 3 ; and U D will make a 
period when properly put together. 

EXERCISE VII. 

M G 7 5 Exclamation 



Paragraph 

The breaks in these, as made by the young operator, are seldom short 
enough, and the last dash, as before remarked hardly long enough. 
7 must not be turned into M I or M A, as is many times done. 

EXERCISE VIII. 

9 Interrogation Italics K J 



If any difficulty is experienced with 9, it should be formed from T U or 
D T, accordingly as the student may be oppositely inclined to divide it. 

Any other guide seems unnecessary for the next two characters. J and 
K are generally more difficult of formation than any of the other characters, 
ninety-nine persons in one hundred insisting on dividing the one into double 
N, and the other into N T. K should always be practised before J, and by 



330 TELEGRAPHY. 

closely following T with A, the movement for the latter being uppermost in 
the mind. 

After the K motion is firmly fixed in the hand and mind, J may be pro- 
duced by simply adding one dot, extreme caution being taken not to change 
the second dash into a dot and space, forming D E. 

EXERCISE IX. 

O R & C Z Y 



These can only be referred to E, I, and S, of which they are made. The 
spacing should be just sutBcient to easily show that they are not intended 
for I, S and H. The tendency is to open them too much, or make a dasli of 
the dot immediately preceding the space. 

Exercise X. 

When all the characters have been correctly made,' according to the 
preceding exercises and accompanying directions, they may then be prac- 
tised in alphabetical order, but not before ; for tiiis reason they do not 
appear alphabetically anywliere in this book. Tlie very common desire to. 
begin making them in this order, and to write one's own name, even before the 
letters composing it have been tried separately, is altogetlier wrong, and 
sliould never be indulged in. 

From this time onward the student should continually bear in mind that 
unless he is on tlie alert he will be making heavy dots just before spaces 
separating dots from dashes, but more especially daslies from dashes, and 
making T's too long and L's much too short. Tiiere are, liowe ver, certain com- 
binations of letters in whicli some of these tendencies are reversed, Thus, 
a difficulty is found in getting the dasli in 8 near the dots, and yet the same 
individual, in writing ^A, finds it too convenient to join tlieni into tlie figure 
which lie is inclined to separate. Tlie same is true in regard to an and 
figure 1, 7«fi and G, N and te, D and ti. Tiiere is a strong inclination to join 
A, or a lone dot, to the last end of T and L, more particularly the latter. 

Uniformity of space between letters, and between words also, is of no 
less importance than correct proportion of tlie letters tlieniselves. The dis- 
tance between two adjacent letters sliould be about great enough to accom- 
modate one dot, though some operators place tliem still nearer. Double 
tills space is to be left between words. A very common fault of young 
operators is to' run their words too closely togetlier — a fault which causes 
more trouble in reading than any other otie feature of poor manipulation. 

To the rule for spacing letters tiiere are two exceptions : 

Double E must contain a space nearly as great as tliat between words. 

Double L, or two or more ciphers, need not be spaced, and they usually are 
not. If properly made they cannot be mistaken for anything else, as no 
character is formed of two or more long marks. 

Tlie words let, tell, little, take, lake, and train will furnish good exercise 
f )!■ overcoming some wrong and strong tendencies. 

When more than tliree figures are used to express a wMiole number they 
should be divided into periods of three figures each, as in ordinary notation, 
the periods being spaced from each other the same as words. Thus 1,250, 
095 in telegraphic writing will be 



In fractions, one dot is made to represent the line between the numera 
tor and the denominator. 

1-2 is thus expressed : 

7-8 " " 

4 3-5 '• " — 



TELEGRAPHY. 881 

No sign for dollars or cents is employed, consequently these words must 
be written out in full. Indeed, nothing can be telegraphed which cannot be 
spelled. Some private marks, as those used on boxes of goods, can, in sub- 
stance, by transmitted by substituting for them words expressing tiieir 
shape. 

ABC may be sent diamond A., triangle B., square C. 

When the directions thus far have been thoroughly executed and the 
figures have become as famliar as the letters, most any short words may 
be taken up and written without a copy to be looked at. In learning the 
telegraph, the fault of going over a great deal and doing nothing well is a 
universal one. In writing from memory less ground is likely to be poorly 
run over, and one learns to send and spell at tlie same time, which, at first 
is ratlier difficult. 

As one cannot learn to read by sound from his own writing, he always 
knowing wliat is intended to be made, two persons must practice together, 
taking turns at reading and writing, and each correcting the faults of tlie 
otlier. 

At first the characters must be learned separately, then short words, 
chosen and written slowly and very distinctly, and well spaced. It is im- 
possible to give much instruction tliat will assist in recognizing tlie different 
sounds — but there is one point to be noted — the lever makes a sound at eacii 
movement, the downward motion producing a heavier one, or tliat repre- 
senting dots and dashes ; or, more properly, the heavy stroke indicates tlie 
commencement of a dot or a dash, and the lighter sound shows when the 
mark ceases. E makes just as much noise as does L, tlie only difference 
being in the length of time between the lieavy and the liglit sounds, L hav- 
ing no sound except at the ends. Then, if the recoil or lighter vibration be 
dispensed with, E, T, and L will all sound alike. Strict attention must be 
paid to this fact in all tlie letters having spaces in them, in order tliat they 
may not be confounded witii tlie letters wiiich they would form if the dot im- 
mediately preceding the spa'.'e were changed to a dash, filling up the sp.ace. 

Thus compare well tlie sounds of O and N, R and D, C and F, & and B 
Z and Q, Y and X. 

Messages. 

The form of regular dispatches differs but little from that of letters. 
Each is first dated, then addressed to some party ; next comes the informa- 
tion to be communicated, followed by tlie name of the person writing it. 

The terms applied to tiie different portions of a telegram are date, ad- 
dress, body, signature and check; and this is the order in which a dispatch is 
written and sent over a line. 

The check is the number of words in the body of a message, and the 
price of transmission. 

What the party sending the message says to the part}' addressed, or all 
that occurs between the address and the signature, constitutes the body ; 
and this alone is counted and cliarged for, unless there are more distinct 
signatures than one, in which case all but the last signature is counted. 
Any number of names, however, constituting one firm, is to be regarded as 
but one signature. 

Telegrams should contain as few words as possible, and at the same time 
clearly convey the meaning intended. The use of "Dear Sir," "Yours, 
&c.," is entirely unnecessary, and seldom indulged in, as they must be con- 
sidered a part of the body of the message. 

Notwitlistanding the adoption by leading telegraph companies of certain 
rules for counting, there is not at the present time any uniformity in tlie 
reckoning of compound words. It was tiie design of tliese companies to 
have most compound words counted one word for the wliole compound, but 



332 TELEGRAPHY. 

the customs of operators have made tlie exception a better guide than the 
rule. 

To-day, to-night and to-morrow, are each one word. 

Except A. M, and P. M., meaning forenoon and afternoon (which are 
called one word each) every initial is counted a word. And F. O. B., C. O. D., 
signifying free on hoard and collect on deliverij, are three words each. Custom 
has made two words of such numbers as twenty-six, forty-eight, seventy- 
two, &c., &c. 

No abbreviations are permitted in the body of a message, and all num- 
bers are first spelt out in full and afterward repeated in figures — the 
words and not the figures, being counted. 

When desired, a company will insure the correct transmission of a dispatch 
for a tariff fifty per cent, higher than the usual rate, in which case it is re- 
peated back to the operator first sending it, and he compares the repetition 
witli tlie original copy. 

Some lines have also doubled their rates on a certain kind of com- 
mercial dispatch, called cipher message. The body of tliese is made up 
of disjointed words, apparently conveying no idea, and is intended to be 
understood only by the party addressed. 

There is but one method of charging for messages, ten words always be- 
ing the greatest number that can be sent for the least money. Any number 
less than ten costs the same as ten, but each word in excess of that number 
is subject to a certain additional charge. The rates on different lines, and 
for different distances on the same line, vary ; but the system of charging is 
precisely the same throughout this country. 

If two or more copies of one dispatch are delivered to different parties, 
each copy must be paid for at the full rate. 

Agents frequently send the same thing to five or six persons or firms. 

Tlie charges on a telegram going over any number of lines are a// paid in 
advance or all collected on delivery. As dispatches themselves are valueless to 
a telegraph company, pre-payment is usually required ; but when it is known 
that the party addressed can be found and the charges collected of him, a 
message is sent collect. 

Correct Form of Ordinary Telegrams. 

Buffalo, May 9th, 18G5. 
To Fisher & Hamilton, 

New York. 

Send thirty-five (35) gross, at seven three-eighths (7^) Funds to-morrow. 

T. M. Long. 

10 75Pd. 

The operator sending has to insert the abbreviations "Fr." (from) and 
" Sig. (signature). With " Fr." he starts to write the dispatch, and at the 
end of the bod}' " Sig." is introduced, as a warning to the operator receiving, 
that lie may place the signature in its proper position. These abbreviations, 
or the ivords they represent, are never copied by the receiver. 

The month and year of the date are never sent over the line, and some- 
times tlie day of the month is not, when it is transmitted the same day on 
which it is written. If written or handed into the office a day or more before 
sent, the correct date is telegraphed. 

When the party sending, requests the hour and minute of the date to be 
transmitted, the request is complied with. 

A period should always be used at the end of the address, and at the 
close of every complete sentence, except just before the signature. It is never 
placed after initials, and no kind of punctuation is made use of, except at th« 
end of the address and in the body of the dispatch. 

Many operators punctuate only with the period, scarcely knowing the 
shorter pauses. 

The foregoing message should therefore be thus written on the line. 



TELEGRAPHY. 333 



The clieck (Ck.) 10 75 Pd. (paid), signifies tliat tliere are ten words in the 
message, and that the'[)rice of transmission is 75 cents (the amount being 
always stated in cents), the abbreviation " Pd." showing tliat the dispatch is 
prepaid. " Col." accompanies some checks, indicating that tiie charges are 
to be collected of the party to whom the message is addressed. 

When " Pa." is found in a check it is an order to pay out the amount fol- 
lowing it, usually to a connecting line, but sometimes to the messenger for 
delivering the message some distance from the telegraph office. 

There are several forms of checks having one signification, but that can 
be easily understood by remembering that the check of every dispatch which 
is not prepaid must contain the term Col. ; and thattlie absence of Col. always 
determines prepayment, even if Pd. does not accompany the check. 

In the following forms, all which appear in the same group are of like 
import : 

Checks for Prepaid Dispatches going over but one Company's Line. 

10 50 10 50 Pd 10 Pd 50 

10 N Y 50 Pd 

The last form, in use on some lines, is to place before the amount the 
"call" of the ofiice which receives the charges whether prepaid or not, and 
after the amount to state if Pd. or Col. It will be seen that in tliis form the 
letters, both before and after the amount, decide the place of payment. 
Checks for Dispatches going over but one line, and to be Paid on Deliveri/. 
10 Col 60 10 50 Col 10 NY 50 Col 

Checks for Messages going over two or more Lines, and indicating Prepayment. 
10 90 40 ■ 10 90 Pa 40 

10 Pd 90 Pa 40 10 N Y 50 & 40 Pd 

Each of these four forms means that 90 is the total charge, 50 of it be- 
longing to the first company and 40 to the connecting line. 

Checks for Dispatches going over two err more lines, Charges to be paid at the des 

tination. 
10 Col 90 Pd 40 10 N Y Col 90 Pd 40 

10 N Y 50 & 40 Col 

These forms show that the company delivering the message collects of 
the address 90, keeps 50 of it, and pays 40 to tlie line connecting witii it. 

Wlien a dispatch goes over several lines, and is prepaid, two amounts are 
used in the check until it passes over the last line, when it is reduced to its 
simplest form — one amount : when collect over a number of lines, one amount 
is used in the first check, and two amounts in all of the rest. 

The form 10 90 Pa 40 orders to be paid to the next line all that does not 
belong to the line sending. Thus if a message of 10 words goes over four 
different lines, the charge on each of which is 25, the check will be on the 
First line, 10 100 Pa 75 
Second " 10 75 Pa 50 
Third " 10 50 Pa 25 
Fourth " 10 25 



334 TELEGRAPHY. 

In using the form 10 N Y 50 & 40 Pd, each line keeps its own rate separ- 
ate in the first amount, tlie second being the tariff for tlie remainder of llie 
route, whetiier one or several companies. 

Thus, for four lines, each charging 25, we liave : 
First line, 10 A 25 & 75 Pd 
Second " 10 B 25 & 50 Pd 
Third " 10 C 25 & 25 Pd 
Fourth " 10 D 25 Pd 

The first form of check for a collect message going over four lines at 25 
cents each, gives ; 

First line 10 Col 25 
Second " 10 Col 50 Pd 25 
Third " 10 Col 75 Pd 50 
Fourth " 10 Col 100 Pd 75 

The last style, under like circumstances, produces : 

First line, 10 A 25 Col 
Second " 10 B 25 & 25 Col 
Third " 10 C 25 & 50 Col 
Fourth" 10 D 25 & 75 Col 

The first company sending a collect message receives its charges from the 
second company ; tiie second collects from the third the rate of the first 
added to its own ; from the fourth the third receives the charges over the 
first three lines, and so on, until the last company, on delivering the mes- 
sage, collects from tlie party addressed the full amount for transmission. 

On a free message, in place of the check, is sent " D H," signifying " Dead 
Head," or no charge. Sometimes tiie number of words in D H messages is 
sent the same as in paid dispatches ; but in many instances, as on railroad 
lines, where it is well understood what communications should be_/5ee, even 
the D H is omitted. 

Form of Cipher Dispatch, as used on Military Telegraphs, or by Speculators, to 
render it unintelligible to all except the party addressed. 

To Brown, Henderson & Co., 

Hartford, Ct. 
Aloud rampart honor deal boots bang bag cut order fox. 10 30 Pd 

Form of Dispatches between Offices correcting errors, or making inquiries relating 
to tlie business of the line. 

These are known as Ofs (office) messages, and are of course, D H. 
To Chicago Ofs. 

Can't find Hawley & Jones, 25 Fulton St., message 18th, signed Peterson. 
Give better address. 

New York Ofs. 
'■ Reply. 

To New York Ofs. 

Find Hawley & Jones, 75 Fulton St. not 26. Hurry answer. 

Chicago Ofs. 

To understand more particularly the method of sending and receiving 
dispatches, it must be known that every olfice has a call, which is usually 
one or two of the letters occurring in the name of tlie place, but in a few 
instances a letter not to be found in the name, or a figure, is used. The calls 
are tlie signals made use of in arresting tlie attention of the different stations 
as desired ; therefore, all offices on tlie same line, or at least all that com- 



TELEGRAPHY. 335 

munic.ite direct, one with another, must have different signals. Operators 
must in all cases be able to distinguish their own calls by sound. 

One ofSce desiring to conitnunii:ate with another, makes the call of that 
station three or four times, tlien gives his own office signal, and keeps re- 
peating this until he receives a reply, or gets tired of calling. 

An office answering a call makes the letter I two or three times more or 
less, then it'? own call. 

An acknowledgement of the receipt of any kind of communication is 
made by returning K, followed by the call of the office receiving the 
commimication. 

Writing one's own office call is termed sir/ninf) ; and tliis must be done 
once and o«(y once, at tlie close of everything that is written over a line, be 
it calling, answering calls, giving O K, sending messages, or conversing. 

Let N Y be the call for New York, and B that for Boston, and the New 
York operator will call the attention of the Boston operator thus : 



Boston in reply, says: -- 

When Boston calls New York, these signals merely change places. 

In acknowledging the receipt of a dispatch, Boston replies with 

- , or sometimes precede the O K with the letter I a few 

times. 

No communication is ever sent until the office to receive it has been 
called ; and a reply has been returned ; and no message is ever regarded as 
transmitted until the office receiving it gives K, or commences to send 
back other dispatches. 

Some lines number all their messages which are not D. H., each office 
commencing in the morning, or wlienever its day's business begins )sonie- 
times 6 P. M.), with No. 1 for each message liaving a ilestination different 
from others, then putting No. 2 on the next one going to the same place and 
80 on ; so that no two messages, sent to the same place, from any one place, 
in one day, will have the same number on them. If an office sends 20 mes- 
sages to one station in one day tlie numbers will run from 1 up to 20. If 
dispatches go to 20 offices, one to each, all of them will bear No. 1. Tlie 
loss of a communication is much less likely to occur when it is thus marked. 
In transmitting messages thus numbered, the number is the first thing that 
is sent : " Fr " comes directly after it. 

When an operator discovers that he makes a telegraphic character wrong, 
he corrects himself by re-writing the word in whicli the error occurs : and if 
he sends a wrong word and detects his mistake, he says, " Msk " (mistake), 
and goes back to the word preceding. 

It is the duty of every operator to count the number of words in the 
body of every message he receives, and if his counting does not agree with 
the number sent over the line, to immediately inform the sender of the fact, 
by stating how many words he has received. The operator sending them 
counts his copy also, and, if he finds that there has been a miscount of tlie 
original message, he corrects his check ; but if he sees that the words are 
correctly counted, he begins to repeat the body of the message, and proceeds 
until the operator receiving discovers the error. 

Sometimes the initials only are repeated. The main object of counting 
messages in offices receiving them is to avoid incorrect transmission. 

If, while receiving anything over a line, an operator for any reason does 
not get it satisfactorily, he at once calls for a repetition of the unintelligible 
part by using some abbreviation, meaning " go ahead " or " start at," and 
writing the last word which he gets perfectly. 

Tiie operator receiving a dispatch should always mark on the blank, in 
a place provided for that purpose, the hour and miimte of its reception, and 
the one sending must put on the face of his copy, in some convenient place, 
the hour and minute at which he sends it, and sometimes also the initials ol 



336 



TELEGRAPHY. 



botli sender and receiver, and the name or number of the wire on wliicli 
it is sent. Some offices mark on one corner of original messages, the time 
at which they are received from tlie public. 

ABBREVIATIONS 

are used in conversation, news reports, office, and other D. H. messages, 
and about paid messages, but never in tlie body of them. The number of 
abbreviations in use ontiie various lines is quite large, but those wiiich are 
used alike by all are comparatively few. Numerical abbreviations differ so 
greatly in their meaning on different lines, tliat it is deemed best not to 
lumber the student with information whicli lie may have to unlearn. 

The following list, including those wliicli have one signification on all 
lines, will give the student such a start that he can easily learn others from 
their connection : 



Abv. 


Above. 


Btn. 


Between. 


Ads. 


Address. 


Btr. 


Better. 


Ae. 


Are. 


Bsns. 


Business. 


Af. 


After. 


C. 


Can. 


Ay. 


Any. 


Co. 


Commence. 


Abt 


About. 


Cur. 


Current. 


Agn. 


Again. 


Col. 


Collect. 


Ahr. 


Another. 


Cd. 


Could. 


Amt. 


Amount. 


Ci. 


Circuit. 


Ans. 


Answer. 


Ck. 


Check. 


B. 


Be. 


Cm. 


Come. 


Bf. 


Before. 


Co. 


Company. 


Bk. 


Back. Book. 


Cmn. 


Common. 


Bn. 


Been. 


Com. 


Communication. 


Bat. 


Battery. 


Condr. 


Conductor. 


Bbl. 


Barrel. 


Chgs. 


Charges. 


Brk. 


Break. 


Dd. 


Did. 


Dg. 


Doing. 


Kw. 


Know. 


I). H. 


Free. 


Lv. 


Leave. 


Dn. 


Done. 


Lro. 


Learn. 


Ds. 


Does. 


Ltr. 


Letter. 


Dw. 


Down. 


Ltl. 


Little. 


E. 


Of the. 


Ma. 


May. 


Eh. 


Each.. 


Md. 


Made. 


Ehr. 


Either. 


Mk. 


Make. 


Ex. 


Express. 


Mkg. 


Making. 


F. 


Of. 


Mh. 


Much. 


Fi. 


Fire. 


Mr. 


More. Mister. 


Fr. 


From. 


Mt. 


Meet. 


Frt. 


Freight. 


Mv. 


Move. 


Fwd. 


Forward. 


Min. 


Minute. 


Fig. 


Figure. 


Msk. 


Mistake. 


Guar. 


Guaranteed. 


Mtr. 


Matter. 


G. A. 


Go Ahead. 


Msg. 


Message. 


Gd. 


Good. 


Msngs. 


Messenger. 


Gg. 


Going. 


Nh. 


North. 


Gi. 


Give. 


N. 


Not. 


G.M. 


Good Morning. 


Na. 


Name. 


Gn. 


Gone. Good Night. 


Ni. 


Night. 


G, 


Ground. 


Nn. 


None. 


H. 


Have. 


No. 


Number. 


Ha. 


Has. 


Nr. 


Near. 


Hd. 


Had. 


Ns. 


News. 


Hf. 


Half. 


Nvr. 


Never. 









TELEGRAPHY 




Hm. 


Him. 






Nsy. 


Necessary. 


Ho. 


Who. 






Ntg. 


Nothing. 


Hr. 


Hear. 


Here 


, 


N. M. 


No More. 


Hs. 


His. 






O.K. 


Correct. 


Hu. 


House. 






Ovr. 


Over. 


Hw. 


How. 






Obg. 


Oblige. 


Hy. 


Heavy 






Ofs. 


Office. 


Htl. 


Hotel. 






Ohr. 


Other. 


Ik. 


Like. 






Op. 


Operator. 


Imniy. 


Immediately 




Pa. 


Pay. 


Inst. 


Instrument. 


Instant 


Pc. 


Place. 


Impsb. 


Impossi 


ble. 




Pd. 


Paid. 


Iiupt. 


Important 




P.O. 


Post Office. 


K. 


Take. 






Pis. 


Please. 


Kg. 


Taking. 






Ppr. 


Paper. 


Kn. 


Taken. 






Psb. 


Possible. 


Kp. 


Keep. 






Qk. 


Quick. 


Kps. 


Compliments 


>. 


Qt. 


Quite. 


R. 


For. 






Tnk. 


Thank. 


Rr. 


Repeat. 


Railroad. 


Tm. 


Them. To-morro 


Rs. 


Raise. 






Tn. 


Then. 


Rt. 


Right. 






Tr. 


Their. There. 


Rhr. 


Rather. 






Ts. 


This. 


Rtn. 


Return. 






Ty. 


They. 


S. 


Was. 






Tel. 


Telegraph. 


Sa. 


Same. 






Tho. 


Though. 


Sd. 


Should. 


Said. 


Trn. 


Train. 


Sh. 


Such. 






Thot. 


Thought. 


SI. . 


Shall. 






Thru. 


Tlirough. 


Sm. 


Some. 






U. 


You. 


Sn. 


Soon. 






Ur. 


Your. 


Su. 


South. 






Ut. 


But. 


Ss. 


Says. 






Un. 


Under. 


St. 


Street. 






Und. 


Understand. 


Sfb. 


Stop for breakfast. 


V. 


Very. 


Sfd. 


<( « 


dinner. 


w. 


Will. 


Sft. 


It tt 


tea 




Wa. 


Way. 


Sfn. 


tt tt 


the 


night 


Wd. 


Would. 


Sig. 


Signature. 




Wh. 


Which. 


Snil. 


Small. 






Wi. 


With, Wire. 


Stk. 


Stock. 






Wk. 


Week. Weak. 


Smtg. 


Sometliing. 




Wl. 


Well. 


Stix. 


Sticks. 






Wn. 


When. 


T. 


The. 






Wr. 


Where. 


Tt. 


That. 






Ws. 


West. 


Td. 


To-day. 






Wt 


What 


TfE. 


Tariff. 






Wy. 


Why. 


Tg. 


Thing. 






Whr. 


Whether. 


Ti. 


Time. 






Wrd. 


Word. 


Tk. 


Think. 






X. 


Next 


Besides the foreg 


oing, there are several large classes of wo 


certain terminations, 


which are abbreviated in a regular manner 


The termination 


ing drops in 










ed 


' e. 






ion or ian ' 


' io or ia. 








ive * 


' ie. 










ial ' 


' ia. 










ble 


' e. 










ful 


* u. 










ess ' 


' es 





337 



16 



338 TELEGRAPHT. 

PART 11. 

PRACTICAL SCIENCE. 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRO-MAGNETIC 
TELEGRAPHS. 

All telegraphs effecting communication by means of Magnets, produced 
by electric currents, are styled Electro-Magnetic ; and in each are to be 
found five principal parts, as follows : 

Conductors, for conveying the motive power — electricity — between spaces 
more or less distant. 

Insulators, to confine the electric current to the conductor. 

Batteries, for producing the motive power. 

Magnets, with the appurtenances, to be actuated by electricity. 

ManipniMinq keys, for controlling the current. 

Conductors and Insulators. 

To make liglitning our obedient servant we must understand that there 
ire certain substances through whicii it will readily pass, while other bodies 
allow it to move with great difficulty, or entirely obstruct its passage. The 
first-named are conductors, the otliers non-conductors or insulators. In these 
two general classes are found many shades of difference, so that there are 
all degrees of conducting power, from the best conductor to the best insul- 
ator. Metals and their alloys rank first as good conductors. Amofig the 
best of these are silver and copper, different authorities placing different 
ones at the head, while iron and platinum, as regards their power of conduc- 
tion, are quite low in this class. The only non-metallic substance whose 
conductibility at all approaches that of the metals is carbon, well calcined. 
Other forms of this element, as charcoal and plumbago, conduct in a less 
degree, while the diamond, which is pure crj'stallized carbon, is a good in- 
sulator. Some acids, saline solutions, moist earth, animals, and green 
vegetables, are conductors in a still smaller degree. Pure water is yet low- 
er in the scale, and, when frozen so as to be perfectly dry, is a non-conductor. 

There is a great variety of substances having so feeble a power of con- 
duction that they are regarded as non-conductors. Among such are clialk, 
lime, marble, and stone generally ; rust of metals, fibrous substances, as 
wood, wlien dry, leather, parchment, feathers, papers, hair, wool, silk and 
cotton. Dry air, sulphur, rosin, sealing wax, gutta perciia, shellac, rubber 
and glass, are the best of insulators. Any substance reduced to a powder 
liecomes a conductor to a certain extent, on account of its absorption of 
moisture. Frictional electricity, whicli is vastly more intense than gal- 
vanic, can pass through glass only by making a fracture ; hence, glass 
may be said to be an absolute non-conductor. 

As oxides of metals can scarely be considered conductors, all joints in 
a wire, over wJiich an electric current is to pass, should, when formed, be 
perfectly clean. In making a splice in a wire, enougli of the two ends to 
form a joint siiould first be brightened, and then each wire should be firmly 
wound aroutul the otlicr { Fig. 1), the different convolutions touching ono 




TELEGRAPHY. 



3^9 



another, and passing, as near as may be, at right angles with the wire 
which they surround. A wire, in being spliced, must never be bent back 
and wound upon itself, forming a loose loop, which, for telegraphic pur- 
poses, is very um-eliable. 

In splicing two wires in an oflBce, each one 
should be given eight or ten convolutions; but 
four or five will answer for tiie line wire, because 
the strain on it always keeps those joints firm. 
Splices in offices, however, should be avoided as 
much as possible. 

It must be noticed that, in order to keep a 
current of electricity confined to a wire over 
which it is wished to pass, the wire must not be 
permitted to touch ether conductors in such a 
manner that the current will run off on them. 
This is accomplished by suspending the wire on 
insulators; and when tlius separated from otlier 
conducting bodies it is said to be insulated. Glass 
and vulcanized rubber are articles chiefly em- 
ployed in the insulation of telegraph lines. A 
section of the glass insulator, and the manner in 
which it is attached to the pole, are exhibited in 
Fig. 2. B is a bracket, usually of oak, which is 
spiked to the pole P. Over the upper part of tliu 
bracket tits tlie glass G. The line wire passes 
by the side of the glass, to wliich it is fastened 
by a "tie" wire. The glass on the under s-ide is 
concave, for the purpose of keeping that por- 
tion dry during wet weather, to prevent the cur- 
rent from passing from the wire to the pole. Pig. 2. 




Galvanic Batteries. 



In the fluid of each cup of every galvanic battery two pieces of solid con- 
ductor are placed, one end of each projecting above the fluid. These ends 
are termed poles. One of these pieces is always zinc ; the other, some finer 
metal, or carbon. 

A battery will generate no electricity, except while some unbroken con- 
ductor is touching both poles, or the poles themselves are in cont.Tct with 
each other. The conductor, as of wire, may be any length, and the battery 
will force electricity through it if the continuity be perfect, but the slight- 
est imaginable opening in any portion of the wire will completely obstruct 
the passage of any electricity. The flow of electricity is known under the 
name of current : wliiie circuit is the term applied to the conductor, or p<ith 
for the current. The metals and fluids in the battery, as well as the wire, 
are to be considered a portion of the circuit. 

An important principle to be continually borne in mind is, that a current 
cannot be made to start from one pole of a battery unless it can pass around and 
touch the other pole, be the distance a few inches or a thousand miles. 

There are but three kinds of batteries in general use on telegraph lines 
— the Grove, the Carbon and the Daniell, or blue vitriol.* The last is the 
only one here considered, as it is the one generally, if not universally em- 
ployed at all stations where young operators are likely to be called on to 
take care of a battery. 

The Daniell battery is usually constructed as represented on page 341, in 

* Since the above was written, the Hill and Callaiid Gravity Batteries have come 
Ij. to general use on most Tclegra]>h Ijiues. In the.se Batteries the porous cell is dis- 
pensed with, the two solutions being sciiaratod by their respective specific gravities. 



340 TELEGRAPHY. 

wliicli G is a glass or glazed earthenware jar, C a cylinder of copper, open 
at the side and bottom, P C a porous cup and Z a cylinder or rod of zinc. 

A i)ocket is formed on the outer and upper side of tlie copper, for the 
purpose of holding extra crystals of blue vitriol to keep up the strength of 
the solution. Sometimes an independent pocket, suspended on the glass 
jar, is used, and the copper is in some instances, formed into a perfect jar, 
so that the glass jar is dispensed witli ; but such cups are liable to become 
leaky. 

This battery, thus put together, must stand several hours with closed 
circuit before it will acquire much strength. If a new battery of this kind 
is required to work as soon as set up, after placing tlie cups and cylinders 
in their proper position, the blue vitriol should be pulverized and put into 
the cop[)er pocket, and then warm water (not hot enough to break the 
glass) filtered througli it until the solution reaches witliin about two inches 
of tlie top of the jar. Then warm or hot water should be poured into the 
porous cup until the surfaces of the water and the blue vitriol solution are 
on a level with each other. The addition of six or eight drops of sulphuric 
acid, half a teaspoonful of white vitriol (sulphate of zinc), or of common 
salt, to the water in tlie porous cup, will cause the batterj' to start off with 
nearly full force. This battery, as generally constructed and used for local 
circuits, will run without any attention for ten or fifteen days, accord- 
ing to the length and size of the wire in the local magnet, and the num- 
ber of office hours per day. If the blue vitriol solution is kept saturated, 
whenever the battery becomes too much weakened the zincs must be taken 
out and scraped, and the water in the porous cup, with the exception of a 
tablespoonful or two ft the clear to each cup, must be thrown out and re- 
placed with clean water. If no reservations of the old water (solution of 
sulphate of zinc) be made, and nothing but pure water be used, the battery, 
after cleaning, will be very weak for some time. The blue vitriol solution 
will last a year or more, or until it becomes too filthy from external causes. 

It is well for every operator to understand that blue vitriol is oxide, or 
rust of copper, dissolved in sulphuric acid. The action of the battery 
separates the acid from the copper ; the latter being deposited on tlie copi)er 
cylinder, and the former passing throiigh the porous cup and uniting with 
the zinc, produces white vitriol, or sulphate of zinc. Therefore, the growth 
of the copper in thickness, and a corresponding diminution of the zinc, are 
neither mysterious nor illegitimate. 

Once in two or three months the copper should be taken out and the de- 
posit peeled off. This may be done several times, when the deposit will ad- 
here too firmly to the original plate to be removed. Then, when so much 
copper accumulates as to afford too little room for the porous cup, new cop- 
pers must be brought into service. 

The porous cups also became coated with copper on the outside, which, 
after a while, so fills up the pores as to render the cups worthless. 

Neglect to keep a surplus of blue vitriol in the pocket designed for that 
purpose will allow the upper portion of that solution to become weak, and 
in consequence another current (on the principle of a battery formed of one 
metal and two fluids) is set up, which eats holes through the copper cylin- 
der where the solution has become exhausted. 

The blue vitriol solution, by the combined action of evaporation and ab- 
sorption, creeps slowly up the sides of the jar, and runs over the top and down 
the outside. This feature of the Daniell battery may be obviated by rub- 
bing a little oil, melted tallow, or paraffine, on the inside of the jar above 
the solution, or by occasionally wetting the fingers and pushing down the 
crystals as they appear at the top of the jar. 

In this battery the copper pole is the positive. The zinc is the negative in 
this and every other kind of battery now in use. 

In joining together any number of cups, whether of the same or of dif- 
ferent kinds of battery, the positive pole of the first cup must be connected 
with the negative of the secoud,*the positive of the second with the negative 



TELEGRAPHY. 



341 



of tlie third, and so on throughout tlie wliole series. It matters not wliicli 
pole we commence with, if we are only careful never to connect like poles ; 
but this law must be as strictly observed in joining batteries hundreds of 
miles apart as if they stood side by side. 

No battery should be permitted to freeze, for while frozen tlie current is 
very much impaired, or altogether suspended. A battery, while warm, 
works more vigorously, as heat is a promoter of chemical action. The con- 
nections must be kept free from rust and dirt, in order to allow the current 
to pass through them freely. 




Tin; DAXIELL B.VTTEltV, TIIKKE CKLI.S. 



Magnets. 



A piece of metal tlmt will attract another at a perceptible distance, and 
with a force greater than that of gravitation, which is a property of all mat- 
ter, is a magnet. The ninnber of substances susceptible of the magnetic 
property maybe limited to five; nickel, cobalt, iron and two of its com- 
pounds. These compounds — steel (carburet of iron) and loadstone (an iron 
ore) — form permanent magnets. Magnets of .so/? iron are altogetlier used for 
telegraphic purposes, on account of their superior magnetic power and the 
great rapiditj- with which they acquire and lose it. The softer the iron the 
quiclter its action ; and, therefore, for temporary magnets it is thoroughly 
annealed. 

If a piece of soft iron be placed near a wire over which a current of elec- 
tricity is passing, the iron, under the influence of the electric current, will 
be instantly magnetized, althoiujh the two do not touch each other, and will at- 
tract any other substance that can be similarl}' affected under the same iii- 
fluence. The moment the flow of electricity stops, the iron ceases to be a 



342 



TELEGRAPHY. 



magnet ; and tlius it can be magnetized and de-magnetized far more rapid- 
ly than any iiaiid can vibrate. A bar of iron can not only become magnetic 
from a current not in contact with it, but can also impart this force to an- 
other piece of iron at a perceptible distance : in fact, there can be no attrac- 
tion until this has taken place, when eacli attracts tlie other with the same 
force ; hence, mcu/nein uttiacl nothing bnt magnets, and this attraction is always 
mutual. Tiiere are other means by whicli this peculiar property may be 
given to iron, but none of them liave any bearing on telegrapliy. 

Nearly all tiie magnetic force of an iron bar accumulates at the ends, 
which are termed ;>ci/t's ; and these poles, on account of a strange difference 
in their action, are distinguished by north and south. A north pole always 
repels a north, the same as do two soutlis ; but north and south alwaj's at- 
tract each other. One end of every magnet lias north polarity, and the other 
end has that of south ; hence, one pole of a magnet always attracts the 
other. To obtain the full power of a magnet it must be bent in the middle, 
so tiiat the ends come near eacli other, and then botli poles may be brought 
to act on the same object. When a piece of soft iron is presented to the 
poles of the magnet tiie effect of the latter on the former is imiformly such 
as to set up an attraction between the two ; tliat is, one pole cannot gener- 
ate the same polarity in another piece of metal so that the two will repel 
each other. If, instead of bringing a rod of iron near a straight wire car- 
rying an electric current, a long wire be completely covered with silk, or 
some other non-conductor, and then wound several hundred times round the 
iron rod, as thread is put on a spool, the magnetic effect of a given current 
through tlie wire will be vastly augmented. The object of covering the 
wire witli silk (insulating it) is to keep the different convolutions from touch, 
ing one anotlier, so as to compel the current to follow the whole length of 
the conductor. 

Let us take a rod of iron eight or ten inches in length, and about half an 
inch in diameter, and bend it into the form of the letter U ; then make of 
some non-conducting material, as hard rubber, two spools, each about three 
inches long, and the ends an inch and a quarter in diameter, and well fill them 
with insulated copper wire. Next, slip these spools on the limbs of the bent 
rod, join the wire of the two spools, and we shall have an electro-magnet, 
very much like some in use on telegraph lines. Both spools should be wound 




THE KEY. 



TELEGRAPHY. 343 

in the same direction, and, in joining them, both inside or both outside ends 
of the wires, should be firmly twisted together, after the silk covering has 
been removed for a short distance and the ends of tlie wires have been 
brightened. If one inside should be connected with one outside end, the 
current through one helix would neutralize the effect of the other helix, so 
that no magnet would be produced. In such a case a current through either 
lialf of the wire would magnetize the iron, but not when passed through both 
helices. 

THE KEY. 

For stopping and starting the current on a wire, or, in telegraph plirase, 
opening and closing circuit, instead of holding the two ends of a wire in tlie 
hands, and striking tliem together, the key, a device for a more convenient, 
rapid and uniform movement, is thus arranged : A movable metallic lever, M, 
(see frontispiece, fig. 4) on an arbor, is supported by screws in the elevated sides 
of a metallic base, B. Directly beneath M is another piece of metal, A, which is 
separated from B by some non-conductor (usually vulcanized rubber). On 
the top and on the centre of A is fastened a small piece of platinum wire, and 
directly above, on the lever il/, is another piece of the same metal. A screw 
enters the base at D, and serves to fasten the key firml}' to the table, and, at 
tiie same time, hold one end of the wire to be operated. In the same manner 
another one screws into A, to help to bind the key to the table, and hold the 
other end of the wire. Now, as A is insulated from B, the current cannot 
pass from one to the other, except wliile M is pressed down, bringing toge- 
tlier the two platinum points, which are, in reality, the two ends of the wire. 
As a light spring, under ^1/, is nearly always employed, keeping the platinum 
points separated, whenever the hand leaves tlie kej', a circuit closer, C, is 
added. This is a moveable brass arm screwed to tlie base, so that it can 
slide under a lip on A, thus keeping A and B electrically connected while 
tiie key is not in use. When either 3/ or C touches A, tlie key and circuit 
are said to be closed. Both must be away from A in order to open or break 
circuit. The back end of M is furnished with a screw to regulate the 
amount of movement which the lever is desired to have. The finger piece of 
both lever and circuit closer is some non-conductor, to protect the operator 
from receiving an electric shock from the wire to which the key is at- 
tached. 



MORSE SYSTEM OF TELEGRAPHY. 

The Morse system of communication does not consist in the manner in 
which the line is built, nor in the kind of battery used on it, as all systems 
are alike in tliese respects ; but it depends on the method of applying the 
current to tlie magnets, the appurtenances of the magnets, and the peculiar 
mode of causing one current to operate others. 

If a magnet, such as last described, be placed in New York, at one end of 
the wire connected with the earth by means of some good conductor, and 
from the other end of the magnet wire another one of sufficient length be 
extended to Washington — care being taken to have it touch nothing but in- 
sulators between the two cities — and this long wire attached to one pole of 
a powerful galvanic battery, the other pole of which is connected with the 
ground by a third wire, the iron of the magnet in New York will be very 
sensibly affected by the battery in Washington. If we now take a piece of 
iron long enough to cover the poles of the magnet, and bring it near them, we 
will find it to be drawn toward the magnet with a very apprecable force. 

We will produce an instrument like a portion of the Morse, by fastening the 
magnet 3/, Fig. 5, (see frontispiece) to a dry and finishing piece of board B, 
joining the second piece of iron, A, to a small brass bar, and supporting this 
bar on pivots, also fastened to the wooden base in such a position as to bring the 
iron near the poles of the magnet. This inm, and the brass bar to which it is at- 
tached, must be free to move toward and from the poles of the magnet. This 



344 TELEORAPHT, 

niovalile portion is known as the arfnature. The distance tlirough ■which the 
aiinatiiie moves is regulated by two brass posts running up from the base, 
one of thcni checliing tlie motion toward tlie magnet, and the other limiting 
tlie reverse movement; or two adjustable screws, supported by one post, 
are most frequently employed, in wiiicii case it is necessary that the point 
of .the screw checking the backward movement be made of some insulating 
body. As represented in the figure, every place to wliich a wire is to be 
attached is fiirnislied with a binding screw. By attaching to tlie armature 
a liglit spiral spring, pulling in a direction from the magnet, this portion of 
the instrument is made ready to note electric pulsations. The attractive 
power of tlie magnet must, however, overcome the force of the spring. 

Now let the wire in Washington be broken, and the magnet in New York 
will instantly lose its magnetic properties, and, in consequence, the spiral 
spring will pull the armature back. On joining the wire again in Washington 
the magnet is simultaneously charged, drawing the armature forward. If 
the opening and closing of the wire be done after the manner of telegraphic 
characters, the armature in New York will, at the same instant, click out the 
same letters, so that a sound operator will understand them with the great- 
est ease. 

Such a line may be cut in Philadelpha, and the two ends thus made be 
joined to another apparatus, precisely as in New York, when both instru- 
ments will be alike operated, and at the same moment. In like manner, 
and with like results, other instruments may be placed in Baltimore and 
Washington, and at as many intermedate points as may be desired. The 
wire may be opened and closed at any other station as well as at Washington. 
The simultaneous working of all the magnets connected with the line will 
be effected by breaking and re-establishing the continuit}' of the wire at 
amj i)oint on the route ; and this is, as has already been anticipated, done by 
means of the key. 

By reference to the remarks on batteries it will be understood why 
the ends of the line were connected with the ground at New York and 
Washington. Tlie battery was located at the latter place, and, as no cur- 
rent could go to New York without returning to the same battery, we 
either had to ])ut up a second wire for this purpose, or allow the current to 
return through the earth, which proves to be better than a return wire, 
saying nothing of the difference in expense. 

Although a battery at Washington will work a line from that place to 
the metropolis, a second battery at the latter city will improve the work- 
ing — and a third, placed at Philadelpha, might sometimes be an advantage. 
Every office, however, must have a ke}'' to send messages with, and magnet 
with which to receive them. 

Again : tracing out a line fron New York to Washington, having four 
offices on it, one in each of these two cities, and also in Philadelphia and 
Baltimore, commencing at the earth in the first named city, we find a wire 
running from the earth up into the office, and connecting with one pole of a 
galvanic batterj^ ; then from the other pole of the battery another wire, 
running into one of the binding screws of the key ; a third wire then 
extending from the other binding screw of the key to one end of the wire 
to the magnet ; and from the other end of the magnet wire a fourth wire, 
running out of the building at the top of the window, and passing along the 
route, — supported all the way on insulators fastened to poles, to keep the 
current from passing down to the ground — until the wire reaches Philadel- 
phia, where it enters tliat office, runs through the magnet and key precisely 
as in New York, and again emerges from the window. The passage of the 
line through Baltimore and Washington is nothing but a repetition of what 
has taken place in the first two cities. In the last named city, the line, af- 
ter joining the key, magnet, and battery, connects with the earth, joining 
botii ends and completing the circle. 

As any one break anywhere in the circuit completely checks all the cur- 
cent throughout the whole line, it follows that all keys must be shut except 



TELEGRAPHY, 



34c 



the one sending a message ; therefore, two dispatches cannot he sent over one 
wire at the sajne time. 

All wire used within offices is of copper. Iron is used for the Hne wire, on 
account of its superior strength and greater cheapness. 

It is not at all necessary to connect the different parts of the apparatus 
in the order just described. In ])nssing a line through an office in which are 
a battery, key, and magnet, it matters not in the least wliich of thom is 
first, second or third to be connected — the only requisite being that they 
may be joined one after another — for, place the key where you will in 
the circuit, it will do its labor of starting and stopping the entire current ; 
the magnet situated at any point on tlieline, will be operated, and the bat- 
tery will send its current over the whole line, if only properly connected 
at any place. Neither does it make any difference which way the current 
passes through the key or magnet. The reversal of the current through 
the magnet reverses the poles, but the polarity of the armature is likewise 
reversed, so that the working of the magnet remains unchanged. 

All such questions as, "Does a message liave to be forwarded at every 
office it is to pass ? " " Which way does a dispatch go over a line 1 " aiul 
" What is the method of sending in different directions ? " should be satis- 
factorily answered by the fact that, when a line is in a normal condition, 
every key in the same circuit always operates every machine situated in it, 
at tiie same instant and in the same manner. 




THE EXCELSIOR TELEGRAPH INSTRUMENT (PATENTED JUNE 24tH, 1873.) 

(Battery not attached.) 

MAIN AND LOCAL CIRCUITS. 

A line of telegraph, as this far represented, is not a very efficient one — 
and it is not the Morse system complete. Although powerful batteries be 
used on such a line, the great resistance offered by so many miles of wire 
reduces the strength of the current to such an extent that but a weak 
magnet can be produced. The motion communicated to the armature of 
the magnet is too feeble to properly mark paper, or give as satisfactory a 
sound as can be obtained by the addition of other batteries and machines 
in a certain manner. 



*It iSTiot known whether electricity is a material substance, or merely a property 
of matter ; and any opinion as to whether its transmission be in the form of a current 
by vibrations or otherwise, is sheer speculation. It is simply known that an effect 
travels with inconceivable rapidity, and seemingly in both directions. 

Professor Faraday, in speaking of the nature of electricity before the British 
Association for the Advancement of Science, thus expressed his views : " There 
was a time when I thought I knew sometliing about the matter, but the longer I 
live, and the more carefully I study the subject, the more convinced I am of my 
total ignorance of the nature of electricity." 

When as great an electrician and profoiuid a philosopher as the world has 
produced arrives at such a conclusion, the student must regard all terms seeming 
to iucUcate any form or motion of electricity as nothing more than convenient ex- 
pressions. 

15* 



346 



TELEGRAPHY. 



Tlie armature of the magnet havitig a motion precisely like tliat of the 
key, is converted into one, and used to operate another magnet, Fig. 6, (see 
frontispiece) supplied with a current from anotlier battery, Fig. 3. To accom- 
plish this, a battery, Fig 3, is stationed in tlie office, usually quite near the in 
strimient, and from one pole of it a wire, ?;, is run to the bottom of the arma- 
ture of the magnet already described. Fig. 5 ; and from the brass post, which 
checks the armature in its motion toward the magnet, a second wire, o, is 
connected witii another magnet, Fig. 6, and tiiis magnet is, witli a tiiird wire, 
d, joined to the otlier pole of the battery from which the first wire was 
started. Thus a new and very short circuit is formed of the extra battery, 
the extra magnet, and the armature of the first magnet. This short, side, or 
independent circuit, represented by dotted lines, is wiioUy confined to the 
office, and is called the local circuit. Fig. 6 is a sounder, or, in case a register 
is used, it simply takes the place of a sounder, and is connected in the same 
manner. Main circuit is the name given to the one shown in the black lines. 
The main circuit is the line itself, of vvliich tlie earth forms one-half. The 
batteries have the same name as the circuits to whicli tliey are attached. 
The map exhibits no main battery, and does not represent the different parts 
located precisely as they are to be found in an office, but it shows their exact 
relations, or how they are connected. Tlie local battery is generally placed 
under tlie table on which the instruments rest, and only enough of the ends 
of the wire for connecting the different parts are allowed to come up through 
the table.* 



* For the benefit of such as may desire to construct private Telegraph Lines for 
business or amusement, the following paragraphs from Pope's Modem Practice of the 
Electric Telcc/ra.ph are given. 

" Arbangkmenx of a Terminal Station.— Fig. 17 is a diagram showing the 
arrangement of wires, batteries, and instruments for one of the terminal stations of 
a line. 




Ra. IT 
Fig. 17. 

The line wire L, first enters the lightning arrester X. and passes thence through 
the coils of the relay M, by the binding screws 1, 2, and thence to the key K, main 
battery E, and finally to the ground at G. The local circuit commences at the x pole 
of the local batteiy E, and through the platinum points of the relay by the binding 
screws, 3, 4, thence through the register or sounder coils, S, and back to the other pole 
of the batteiy. 



TKLEGRAI'HY. 



347 



It must be distinctly understood tiiat tiie main and tlie local currents 
never toucli eacli otlier, and that the local exerts no influence whatever on the 
main. Tlie only substances wliich are in contact withtlie two circuits are the 
air and tlie wooden base B, Fig. 5, (see frontispiece) and botii of tiiese are non- 
cojidnctors. Tlie armature A, Fig. 5, closes the local circuit by striking the 

Arrangements of a "Way Station.— Fia. 18 shows a plan of the lustrumenta 
and coun«ctioiis at a way statiou. 




The line enters at L, passes through the lightning arrester, X, and thence through 
the relay M, to key K, and back to the lightning arrester, and thence to the. next station 
Jjy ^'^ hue L. The arrangement of tlie local circuit is the same as in the last figure. 
I he button C, arranged as shown in the figure, is called a " Cut, Out." When turned 
BO as to connect the two wires leiuling into the office, it allows the line current to pass 
across from one to the other without going through the instruments. The ii strumenta 
should always be cut out, by means of this apparatus, when leaving the oSice tempo- 




FiG. 21. 



rarily or for the night, and also during a thunder storm, to avoid damage to the appa- 
ratus. Fio. 21 shows a better arrangement. The ground switch Q is used to connect 
the line with the earth on either side of the instruments at pleasure. It is only used 
in case of accidents or interruptions on the lines." 



S48 TELEGRAPHY. 

screw above the magnet. That these two points naay be kept bright and raak^ 
a good connection, they are made of platinum, the same as those of the key , 
but tiie tip of the other screw is of some non-conductor, so that the current 
cannot pass over it when tiie armature is drawn back by the spring. This arm- 
ature is simply the key that operates tiie local circuit, and it may be moved 
back and forth by the finger, witliout in the least affecting tlie line. Fig. 
6 represents the portion of the Morse apparatus known as tlie receiving mag- 
net, because it is tlie first tiling affected by tlie electric pulsations on the 
line. Belay is tlie name by wiiich it is known among operators generally. 
By tiie map it is seen that every key and relay magnet is situated in the 
main circuit, and that every relay armature has a local battery and a sounder 
or register attached to it. Tlie key operates tlie relay magnet; the relay 
magnet operates the armature (by attracting without touching it) ; and the 
armature works the sounder or register in the same manner that the key 
alTects the relay. Tlie movement of the armature is feeble, but powerful 
enough to open and close tlie local, which, on account of tlie little resistance 
in sb few feet of wire, operates the sounder with many times the force of 
the armature. 

Tlie binding screws fastening the wires o ?i to tlie relay are permanently 
connected with the armature and posts by wires beneath its base. 

On vei'i/ short lines, where it is desired to use sounders loithout relays, the 
sounders will occupy the position of the relays, and the local circuits will 
be omitted. 



MANAGEMENT OF INSTRUMENTS, WIRES, AND BATTERIES. 



Ground Wires. 

If to a line from New York to Washington, liaving a main batterj' at the 
latter place only, some conducting substance be joined, and then connected 
with the earth as at Philadelphia, the current will pass over this conductor 
and return to Washington, and no electricity will reach New York to oper- 
ate that instrument. All machines between the conductor in question and 
Washington will be worked. Such a wire is named the ground wire, and 
every intermediate office is supplied with one to be used only in case of trou- 
ble on the line. When gas or water pipes enter an office, tlie ground wire 
is attached to them. Stations not having this excellent means of ground 
connection fasten a wire to a plate or rod of metal, and bury the piece of 
metal so that it is always in contact with moist earth.* 

If Philadelphia puts his ground wire in contact with the line south of 
his instrument, and there is a main battery at each end of the line, the cur- 
rents from both batteries will go only to this ground wire, and jiassing over 
it, to or from the earth, as the case may be, will return again to their re- 
spective batteries. During this state of things — the current from New York 
reaching the Philadelphia Machine — these two offices can communicate 
with each other. The current from Washington not quite reaching the in- 
strument at Philadelphia, does not permit the latter city to hold communi- 
cation with any office south of it ; but Baltimore and Washington can work 
together at the same time that New York and Philadelphia do. The ground 
wire divides the line into two independent circuits, and forms a common 

* A ground plate should have an area of at least three square feet, and be burled 
In a peipeiidicular position. 



TELEGRAPHY. 



349 



conductor for both currents, on the same principle that the earth forms one 
half of every main circuit. 

Breaks. 



Let the line so break between Pliiladelphia and Baltimore that the ends 
fall on the grouTid, and two entirely distinct lines will be the result, and 
offices on the same side of the break will work with gacli other as if noth- 
ing had happened. Should tlie southern end of a break be so near a pole 
as to hang in the air, the circuit south of it would be left open, and Balti- 
more, in order to work witli Wasliington, would have to complete the cir- 
cuit with his ground wire. Should he apply it south of his instrument, tlie 
current (from Washington) would pass over the ground wire before quite 
reaching his machine, and his inability to work would show trouble on the 
line north of him. 




The northern end of the break being on the earth, Philadelphia does 
not use his ground wire to effect communication with New York, but his 
inability to raise either ofHce south of liim, after repeated efforts, leads him 



350 TELEGRAPHY. 

to suspect some difficulty on the line. Tlien by applying his ground wire 
north of his instrument, lie finds there is no current from the Washington 
battery. Tliis simply shows liim tliat tlie line is in some way connected 
with tlie earth between him and Wasliington, probably north of Baltimore, 
because he cannot be raised; but it by no means proves tliat tbe wire is 
broke i1. 

Sliould the circuit get open between tlie two points in an office wliere 
the ground wire is applied, no current could be made to pass through that 
instrument by tlie use of the ground wire : therefore, wiienever an opera- 
tor cannot get a current from either direction, he should carefully search 
this portion of the main circuit in his office for an opening in it. 

Escapes. — In picturing a line and its workings, thus far, it has been the 
supposition tliat when any of the current on a line is broken, all of it is, and 
that the entire current always goes the whole length of the line. This is wliat 
is desired, but circumstances frequently render it impossible. Returning 
again to tlie same line, and placing a wet rope or a stick of green wood so 
as to toucii both the line and tlie earth at Philadelpliia, we find that only a 
portion of the current passes tlirougii the rope or wood, while the remainder 
of it follows the entire length of the line. 

Now let New York open his key, and he will take from the line all tlie 
current from his own battery, and tliat portion of the Washington current, 
which does not pass over the poor conductor touching the line at Phil- 
adelphia; in other words, he will interrupt just what reaches his key. 
That from the south, finding its way througli the green wood, is still pass- 
ing over the line from Philadelphia to Washington, and partially magnet- 
izing the relays on this portion of the route, and keeping the local circuits 
closed when they are wanted to be open, unless the relaj' spring has suf- 
ficient tension to overcome the residual attraction. This leakage of the cur- 
rient from the line to the ground, passes under the name of escape. Offices 
on the same side of an escape can communicate with each other as usual, 
but it is difficult, and sometimes impossible, for an office on one side receiv- 
ing writing from another station beyond tlie partial ground wire. Some 
lines are much annoyed in this manner by the interference of trees, and 
all lines are affected by rainy or foggy weatlier. In wet weather every 
pole and insulator becomes a feeble conductor — and, perhaps, the air itself 
— thus offering so many inducements for the current to run down to the 
earth that sometimes it cannot be made to go over fifty miles from the 
batter}', and, of course, a dispatch can be sent no greater distance. 

If Washington, testing an escape to determine its location, has Baltimore 
open his key, and then he (Washington) tries to operate his own instrument 
but cannot do so — because there is no current left on that end of the line — 
he knows the escape to be north of Baltimore. Now, if Baltimore closes 
his key, and the one in Philadelphia is open, and Washington finds that he 
can work his own machine, or perhaps communicate with Baltimore, it 
proves an escape to exist between Baltimore and Philadelphia. Again, if 
Washington finds a little current left on the line while Baltimore is open, 
and a still stronger one while Philadelphia has his key open, it shows an 
escape in two places. To clearly understand the ill effects of escapes, it 
must be borne in mind that sending is a systematic putting on and taking off 
the current, the cessation being equally as important as the continuance of 
it. Anything preventing a current from passing on the line is no more 
injurious than that which will not allow it to be interrupted. The portion 
of the current wliich can be broken is all that any use is made of ; all the 
escape is not only of no utility, but it is a real hindrance to an advantageous 
employment of that remaining on the line. 

It sometimes hapjieiis that the operating table becomes wet, or is ma^eof 
wood only partly seasoned, so that a portion of the main current finds a 
passage through the moisture of the table while the key on it is open. 
This does not conduct any of the current to the earth, and cannot, therefore, 
be properly called an escape, though every relay in circuit with a key on a 



TELEGRAPHY. 351 

moist table must have a high adjustment to receive the writing from such a 
key. This trouble, however, does not in the least interfere with such office 
ill receiving from other stations, nor does it at all affect other offices in 
working with one anotiier. 

Crosses. — Another annoyance, of frequent occurrence on some lines having 
two or more wires on the same poles, are " crosses," or contact of tlie dif- 
ferent line wires witlieach other — w]iich,so far as their utility is concerned, 
reduces to one wire all tlie wires tlius joined. Eacli wire crossed acts as a 
long ground wire to tlie others in contact with it. Suppose two wires, 
designated by Nos. 1 and 2, running on the same pole from New York to 
Washington, to be twisted together between Philadelphia and Baltimore. 
Next, suppose No. 1 to be left open in New York, and No. 2 in Washington ; 
now, commencing at New York on No. 2, which is closed, and tracing 
soutiiward over this wire until the cross is reached, and from that point 
over No. 1 to the southern terminus, we find a complete circuit, though 
both wires are open ; consequently, Washington and Baltimore, on No. 1, 
can work with Pliiladelphia and New York on No. 2. If Washington keeps 
both wires closed. New York or Philadelphia can operate both wires south 
of the cross by leaving either wire open and writing on the other, because 
the one wire north of the cross becomes the common conductor for both 
south of it. This is one mode for detecting and locating a cross. Another 
method is for New York to ask Philadelphia to try him on No. 2 with No. 1 
open, while New York, doing just the reverse, tries Philadelphia on No. 1 
with No. 2 open ; and, if they can work with each other on different wires, 
it shows those wires to be crossed between them. If they cannot get each 
other. New York tries the same thing with Baltimore, and so on until he 
gets to an office with which he can work on a different wire. This test 
determines the cross to be between such office and the first one from that 
station toward New York. When several wires become tangled, and at 
different places on the line, the task of locating becomes much more lengthy 
and difficult, on account of first getting the different offices to test with. 

If, instead of opening one wire. New York or Philadelphia should try to 
work one of them with the other closed, he would operate only that one 
wire north of the cross, for the other wire north and to the south of it would 
still form a perfect circuit. The same principle holds true for any number 
of wires so joined — all but one being useless so long as they remain 
together, or at least between the two offices nearest the cross, and between 
which the cross is situated. In case of a cross of two wires between Phil- 
adelphia and Baltituore, it is necessary to leave one of them open only 
between these two cities. The offices may open No. 2, so tliat New York 
and Washington ma}' communicate over No. 1 ; then Pliiladelphia may put 
his ground wire on No. 5, leaving it open south of the ground, and work 
with New York, while Baltimore, in a similar manner, communicates with 
Washington. 

Keveksed Currents. — If on a line from New York to Washington two 
main batteries be placed, with both positive or V)oth negative poles connected 
with the earth, no current will pass over the line, though the circuit is 
complete — for each battery will oppose the other, stopping all galvanic 
action. With the batteries thus located, let Philadelphia or Baltimore put 
his ground wire on in either direction, and he will get a current, for the 
ground wire divides tlie line into two distinct circuits, each of which will 
operate without interfering with the other. This is the only case in which 
tliere can be a current each way with a ground wire on, and no current with 
it off. 

An intermediate station, wishing to connect a main battery to the line, 
first finds out, from some office already having one, the direction of the 
poles of his battery ; but the same tiling may be determined in otlier ways. 

Where the current from a powerful battery is passed through the arm of 
ai individual, a greater shock is experienced in the arm connected directly 
with the zinc or negative pole tlian in the other. 



352 TELEGRAPHY. 

If a circuit be opened, and both ends of the break dipped into water, 
decomposition of tlie water will ensue, and the greatest volume of gas will 
rise from the wire leading directly to tlie negative pole. Therefore, the 
positive pole of anotlier battery, required to be put in circuit, must be con- 
nected to the wire giving the greatest shock, or evolving the most gas. 

ADJUSTMENT AND CARE OF INSTRUMENTS. 

The distance tlirough which tlie armature of the relay should move is 
very small — say equal to once the tliickness of good writing paper. Mag- 
nets always retain more or less attraction, even when the circuit is perfectly 
broken, so that the spring on the armature must always have some tension, 
and a great deal more during a humid atmosphere than while the air it 
clear and dry. This tempering of the relay spring according to tlie amount 
of magnetism, while a key is open, is adjusting ; and it is hiyh or low, as the 
force of spring is great or small. This cluii/ is the most important one connected 
with the management of instruments. It not only needs to be done several 
times a day, under tlie most favorable circumstances, but, from a few times 
daily, the frequency increases, until the operator must keep hold of the 
screw S, Fig. 5, regulating the spring — turning first one way and then the 
other nearly all the time he is either sending or receiving. Sometimes the 
slightest variation from a certain point, in either direction, will cause the 
instrument to cease working. Under such circumstances adjusting is very 
difficult, but in a large majority of instances it requires only the memory 
and the will to do it. The tempering of the relay spring is also perplexing, 
as well as the location of the trouble difficult, when a cross or an escape is 
a " swinging " one ; that is, when a wire keeps swinging against another or 
against a tree, but remaining in contact only a short time. 

Thunder storms vary the current over a line so suddenly and to such a 
degree as to cause the most difficult adjustment, at times rendering trans- 
mission utterly impossible, besides endangering the wire of the relay mag- 
net, wliich is sometimes burned with a flash, accompanied by a sharp re- 
port. 

The Aurora Borealis sometimes influences the wire In a similar manner, 
but less violently, never causing any harm other than a suspension of busi- 
ness. Several forms of lightning arresters have been made and used for con- 
ducting atmospheric electricity from the line to the earth. It matters but 
little whether it is led to the ground or not, if it is only diverted from the 
relay magnet. Every operator can make one of two pieces of wire and a 
phial of water. A short piece of wire (six inches long), considerably larger 
than that in the relay magnet, runs from each main circuit binding screw of 
the relay, and tlie ends dipped into a small bottle of water, forms one of the 
best protecticms against lightning. The distance of the wires from each 
other in the water, as also their depth in it, may be varied, but they must 
not be allowed to come together. Water being a poor conductor of galvanic 
electricity, only a small portion of the current will pass through it, the 
larger part choosing the magnetic wire ; but atmospheric electricity, being 
possessed of enormous intensity, prefers the short water route. None of 
these devices, however, are an absolute safeguard ; but during a severe 
thunder storm relays should be disconnected from the line, and in such a 
manner as to leave no break in the main circuit. 

The local circuit, being confined to the office, is subject to none of the 
fluctuations of the main. The local battery simply grows weak by use, 
when it has to be renewed. The spring on the arm of the local (sounder 
or register) magnet merely requires weakening as the battery working it 
becomes exhausted. The iron part of this arm must never come so near 
the polos of the magnet that one thickness of ordinary writing paper will 
not pass between them. If permitted to touch, the magnet discharges slow- 
ly. The same truth applies to the relay magnet and its armature. 

Tlie platinum points of the key, and more frequently those of the arma- 



TELEGRAPHY. 353 

ture of the relay, burned and rougliened by the current, sometimes fail to 
break circuit. The remedy is to rub them gently witli a very fine file, or 
draw tliem between a strip of clean paper. 

If a relay "sticks " (fails to break circuit,) it troubles only the office 
where that relay is located. K a key " sticks," it interferes with both 
sender and receiver. 



A 


- - 


1 


B - 


P 


2 


C - . - 


Q 


D 


E - - - 


•J 


E - 


S - - - 


4 


r 


T 




G 


U 




H 


V - - - 


6 


I - - 


w 


7 


J 


- X 


8 


K 


Y - - - - 




L 


q 


M 


Z - - - - 




N 


& - - - - 






MOESE CHARACTERS. 

Period 

■ " Comma 

Semicolon 

Interrogation 



Exclamation 

Parenthesis 

. . Italics ^— 

(The above Comprehensive article is taken from " Smith's Manual of Telegraphy," 
by permission of the Publishers.) 

For the benefit of any who may be desirous of learning telegraphy, we 
here append a catalogue or price list of telegraphic materials adapted es- 
pecially to the use of students of tliis fascinating and lucrative accomplish- 
ment. 

INSTRUMENTS, BATTERIES AND MATERIALS, 

Especially adapted to the requirements of Learners of 7\I<(/raphi/, Schools, Colleges, 
and the operation of all Short Telegrap/i Lines. 

THE EXCELSIOR TELEGRAPH INSTRUMENT. 

See Cut on page 345. 

(Patented June 24, 1873.) 

This apparatus is especially adapted to the requirements of the student of tele- 
graphy, and for the operation of private telegraph lines from a few feet to several 
miles in length, 

A really good and durable Telegraph Instrument at a low price has long been 
needed by the public, as telegraphy has become a necessaiy part of the business edu- 
cation of all. 

The " Excelsior Telegraph Instrument" fully meets this great want, as it is 
simple in construction that we are enabled to make it of the best material and work- 
manship for the exceeding low price of SIX DOLLARS AND FIFTY CENTS COM- 
PLETE, full size pony sounder and key, linely finished, and mounted on a mahogany 
base. Same, with Liglitning Arrester and Cut-out attached, for $7,50. 

STUDENT'S OUTFITS AND PRICES. 
No. 1,— Student's Outfit for one office, viz.. Instrument complete, l-Cell Hill Battery, Chemi- 
cals for same, 8 feet Office Wire, 1 copy Smith's Manual of Telegraphy $ 7 50 

Two No. 1 Outfits 14.50 

No. 2.— Outfit for two offices and 50 feet of Line, viz. : 2 Instruments, complete, 100 feet Insu- 
lated Wire, 4 Porcelain Insulating Knobs. 3-Cell Hill Battery, 2 Smith's Manuals . . 16.00 
No. ."i.— Outfit for two offices and 100 feet of Line, viz. : 3 Instruments, complete, 200 feet Insu- 
lated Wire, 8 Porcelain Insulating Knobs, 4-CeU Hill Battery, 2 Smith's Manuals . . 19.00 
Extra Battery, per cell . i , . (b 

Jar 20 

Copper 13 

Zmc • , 25 

Hanger 10 

Office Wire, per foot 01 

Line Wire, No. 12, Galvanized, per yard .03 

" " " per mile , . . 22.00 

Insulator, with Brackets and Spikes .,...,, 10 



354 TELEGRAPHY. 

BUNNELL'S LEARNERS' INSTRUMENT. 

SEE CUT ON PAGE 314. 

Complete and Perfect, full-sized Sounder and Key combined, with Book of Instruction^ 
Battery, Wire, and all Necessary Materials. 

[Since the invention and introduction of these instruments, less than two years 
since, four thousand sets have been sold and put in operation throughout the coun- 
try, giving the most perfect satisfaction to everybody. 

These sets ai'e made in the best manner, and are just exactly the thing wanted for 
Learners' Uses, for Telegraph Schools, or for Short Lines from a few feet to twelve 
miles long. 

LearnerB' Instrument complete, witli Battery, Book of Instructioni, Wire, and all necessary -mate- 
rials to put in operation, singly or on a Short Line $8.50 

Learner's Instrument, without Battery, &c - . . . 6.50 

Ornamental Learner's Instrument, Kubber Covered Coils, &c 7.5C 

Same Instruments, wound with hner wire so as to operate satisfactorily lines up 
12 miles in length, f 1.00 in addition to the above prices. 

Extra Buttery • per cell, 11.50 

Battery Jars each, .50 

Zinc " .40 

Coppers ** '25 

Zinc Hangers " .35 

Blue Vitriol per lb. .15 

Covered Office Wire , per foot, . 1 

Smith's Manual of Telegraphy .30 

LEARNERS' SOUJTOERS AND KEYS ON SEPARATE BASES. 

SAME STYLE AS SHOWN IN CUT OF LEARNER'S INSTRUMENTS. 

Learner's Sounders $3.50 

Learner's Sounders, with rubber covered coils 4.00 

Learner's Keys, fine finish 3.00 

THE NO. 5 TELEGRAPH KEY. 

SEE CUT ON PAGE 342. 

Price, finely finished. Straight Lever i $3.25 

" " " Curved Lever 3.50 

These keys are made of the same metal, and are as well constructed and finished 
as the No. 1 instruments, the only difference being in the size. 

MECHANICAL TELEGRAPH INSTRUMENT. 

SEE CUT ON PAGE 313. 

Patented May 31, 1870. 

For Students, Colleges, etc No Battery required. 

Price $7.00. Silver Plated, Extra Finish, $10. 

EXCELSIOR LIGHTNING ARRESTER, CUT-OUT AND GROUND SWITCH 

COMBINED. 

SEE CUT ON PAGE 324. 

This is an excellent and complete combination at a very low price, answering all 
the above purposes in connection with amateur telegraphy. Price, $1,50. 

TILLOTSON'S PREMIUM REGISTER. 

SEE CUT ON PAGE 32C. 

With weight or spring ; a perfect sounder with the paper in or out. The most 
complete Morse Register ever constructed. 

No. 1, with Spring, Premium pattern, complete . $47.50 

" 1, Tillotson's Premium 45.00 

All the instruments and material referred to in this work can be procured at the most reasonable 
prices of Messrs. L. G. Tillotson k Co., Manufacturees of and dealers in Teleokaph In- 
struments AND Material OF EVERY Description, No. 8Dey Street, New York, or we will obtain 
them and forward if desired. All persons writing us for information in regard to telegraph matter will 
please enclose a three cent postage stamp, otherwise we will not pay any attention to their communi- 
cation . 

Orders by mail and telegraph for any Instrnments. Batteries, or Telegraph material herein described, 
in large or small quantities, will have as prompt attention as though ordered in person. Give your ad- 
dress in fuU, including County and State. To prevent loss. Remittances should be sent by Postal 
Money Order, Draft, Registered Letter, or by Express. Orders for goods to be sent C. O. D. to points 
far distant from New York, should be accompanied by remittance am'- .nting ti one-third of the bill or- 
dered. 




ARTIFICIAL FLOWERS, FRUIT, &C. 

How Wax, Feather and other Flowers, Leaf Impressions 
AND Fruit are Made and Preserved. 

"Wax Flowers ajjd Fruit. — The modelling of flowers and fruit in wax 
is an easily acquired art, and one which is encouraging in its results. The 
materials for commencing the process will cost but little ; tliey may be ob- 
tained at most fancy repositories, and specimens of the latest improve- 
ments and novelties may be seen at tlie same time at these places. The 
petals, leaves, etc., of flowers are made of sheets of colored wax, which m.ay 
be purchased in packets of assorted shades. Tlie stems are made of wire 
of suitable thickness, covered with silk, and overlaid witli wax ; and the 
leaves are frequently made by pressing tiiiu sheets of wax on leaves of em- 
bossed calico. Leaves of various descriptions are to be obtained of the 
persons who sell the materials for wax-flower making. The flowers, leaves, 
and buds of artificial flowers will serve as the base of their wax models. 
Tlie best guide to the construction of a flower is to take, say a tulip, a rose, 
or a camellia (procuring, if possible, two flowers nearly alike), and carefully 
picking one of them to pieces, lay the petals down in the order in which 
tlioy are taken from tlie flower, tliat you may know tlieir relative positions. 
Tlie natural flower will be a guide in getting the wax petals togetiier, and 
will enable the operator to give not onl}' to eacli jietal, but to the contour 
of the flower, the characteristics whicli are natural to it. In most cases, 
they iire merely pressed together, and lield in their places by the adhesive- 
ness of the wax. From the i)aper patterns, the wax petnls or other por- 
tions of the flowers, may be cut. They sliould be cut singly by scissors, 
rather loose at the points, and the scissors should be frequently dipped into 
water, to prevent the wax from adhering to the blades. The scraps of wax 
wliich fall from the cutting will be found useful for making seed vessels 
and other parts of flowers. Very few and very simple instruments are re- 
quired, ami tliese may be purchased at the places where the other materials 
are obtained. Where the manufactured formations of leaves cannot be ob- 
tained, patterns of them should be cut in paper, and the venous appearance 
may be imparted to the wax by pressing the leaf upon it. In the construc- 
tion of sprigs, it is most important to be guided by sprigs of tlie natural 
plant, as various kinds of plants have manj' different characteristics in the 
grouping of their flowers, leaves, and branches. For the tints, stripes, and 
spots of variegated flowers, colors will be supplied from amongst the 
other materials, and the application of them is precisely upon the principle 
of water-oolor painting. 

355 



356 ARTIFICIAL FLOWERS, FRUIT, &C. 

For the making of waxen fruit, the following instructions are to observed: — 
The materials of whicii moukls are composed should be of the best plaster 
of Paris, wliicli can be bought from tlie Italian figure makers. If this can 
not be procured, the cheaper plaster may be substituted, if it can be pro- 
cured quite fresh. Tlie mould must be made by au impression from the 
object to be imitated, made upon the plaster before it sets; and, for early 
experiments, an egg, boiled hard, will be found efficient. Having filled a 
small basin about three-quarters full of fine damp sand, lay the egg length- 
wise in the sand, so that it is lialf above and half below the level of the sand, 
which should be perfectly smooth around it. Then prepare the plaster in 
another basin, which should be half full of water ; sprinkle the plaster in 
quickly till it comes to tlie top of the water, and then, having stirred it for a 
moment with a spoon, pour the whole upon the egg in the other basin. 
While the half mould thus made is hardening thoroughly, carefully remove 
every particle of plaster from the basin in which it was mixed, and also 
from tlie spoon which has be«n used. This must be done by placing them 
both in water, and wiping them perfectly clean. This is highly important, 
since A small quantity of mortar which has set will destroy the quality of a 
second mixing. In about five minutes, the half mould will be fit to remove, 
which may be done by turning the basin up with the right hand (taking 
care not to lose the sand), so that the mould falls into the left hand; the 
egg should then be allowed to fall back gently on the sand out of the 
mould. The egg being removed and laid aside, the mould must be trim- 
med ; that is, the sand must be brushed from the flat surface of the mould 
with a nail brush, very slightly, without touching the extreme and sharp 
edges, where the hollow of the mould commences. Then upon the broad 
edge, from whicli the sand has been brushed, make four equidistant hollows, 
with the round end of a table knife ; these are to guide hereafter in the 
fixing of the second half of the mouUl. The egg should now be replaced 
in the mould, and the edge of the cast, with the holes, thoroughly moistened 
with sweet oil, laid on with a feather or camel-hair brush. Into the basin 
from which the sand has been emptied, place, with the egg uppermost, the 
lialf mould, which should fit closely at the edges to the side of the vessel, 
then prepare some more liquid plaster as before, and pour it upon the egg, 
and tlie mould, and, while it is hardening, smooth it round with a spoon, 
as with the first half. In due time, remove the whole from the basin ; the 
halves will be found readily separable, and the egg being removed, the 
mould is ready to cast in, after it has been set aside for an hour or two, so 
as to harden completely. For the first experiment, common yellow wax 
may be used,'or the ends of partially used wax or composite candles. Every 
large object to be imitated in wax should be cast hollow ; and therefore, 
althougii the transparent lightness required in the imitation of fruits is not 
requisite in an artificial egg, yet, in this instance, in order to render the in- 
structions conformalile with the principle, the egg will be cast as if it were 
fruit. The operator must now proceeil as follows : — Soak the two jtieces of 
plaster of Paris in liot water for ten minutes. In the mean time, melt the 
wax very slowly in a small tin sauce-pan with a spout to it, care being 
taken not to allow the wax to boil, or it will be discolored ; a lump of wax, 
the size of the object to be imitated, will be sufficient for casting twice at 
least. As soon as the wax is thoroughly melted, place the saucepan by the 
side of the fire, and, taking the j)arts of the mould from the hot water, re- 
move the moisture from their surfaces by pressing them gently with a 
liandkerchief or soft cloth. The mould must not be wiped, but only pressed. 
Having laid the two halves of the mould so that there can be no mistake 
in fitting the one in its exact ])lace quickly on the other, pour from the 
saucepan into one of the half moulds nearl}' as much wax as will fill the 
hollow made by the model, quickly fit the other half on the top of it, 
squeeze the two pieces tightly together in the hand, and, continuing to hold 
them thus, turn them over in ever}' possible position, so that the wax, which 
is slowly congealing in the internal hollow of the mould, may be of equal 



ARTIFICIAL FLOWERS, FRUIT, &C. 357 

tliickness in all parts. Having continued this process for at least two min- 
utes, the liands (still liolding and turning tiie mould) niaj- be immersed in 
cold water, to hasten the cooling process. The perfect congealment of tlie 
wax may be known, after a little experience, by the absence of the sound 
of fluid on shaking the mould. As soon as tiie mould is completely cooled 
the halves may be separated carefully, the upper lialf being lifted straight 
up from the under half, and if the operation has been properly conducted, 
a waxen egg will be t-urned out of the mould. The egg will only require 
trimming, that is, removing the ridge which marks the lines at wiiich the 
halves of the mould were joined, and polishing off the scratches or inequa- 
lities left by the knife with a piece of soft rag, moistened with spirits of 
turpentine or spirits of wine. It is always desirable, wlien the materials 
and moulds are prepared, to make several castings of the same object, as 
the moulds are apt to become chipped when laid by in a cupboard ; and for 
tiiis reason, as well as for the sake of practice, beginners are advised to 
make at least a dozen waxen eggs before any other object is proceeded 
with. If success attends these first efTorts, every difficulty in subsequent 
operations will be easily overcome To color wax, stir into it while it is by 
the side of the fire, a little flake white in powder, and continue to stir the 
mixture while it is being poured into the half mould. The fixing and shak- 
ing of the moulds must be performed quickly, or the coloring matter will 
settle on tlie side of the half into which the mixture is poured. To pro- 
duce a good imitation of the surface, in the first place, very slightly prick 
with a fine needle the surface of the object, and then, having smeared it 
with spirits of turpentine, rub the surface all over, so as nearly to obliterate 
the marks of the needle-point. The simple operation thus described con- 
stitutes the fundamental process of waxen fruit and flower making ; and in 
the same manner as the egg is treated, oi'anges, lemons, large gooseberries, 
small cucumbers, etc., etc., may be operated upon. 

Feather Flowers. — Procure the best white geese or swans' feathers, 
have them plucked off the bird carefully so as not to break the web, and 
free them from down, except a small quantity on the shaft of the featlier. 
Having procured two good specimens of the flowers you wish to imitate, 
carefully pull off the petals of one, and with a piece of tissue paper, cut out 
the shape of each size, taking care to leave the shaft of tiie feather at least 
half an inch longer than the petal of the flower. Carefully bend the feather 
with the thumb and finger to the proper shape, being cautious not to 
fracture the web. To make the stem and heart of ajiower, take a piece of wire 
six inches long ; across the top, lay a small piece of cotton wool, turn the 
wire over it, and wind it round, until it is the size of the centre of the flower 
which is being made. If a single flower, cover it witii paste or velvet of the 
proper color, and arrange the stamina round it ; these are made of fine 
Indian silk, or feathers may be used for this purpose. After the petals 
have been attached, dip the silk or feather into gum, and tiien into the 
farina. Place the petals around, one at a time, and wind them on with 
Moravian cotton. No. 4 ; arrange them as nearly-like the flower you have 
for a copy as posssible. Cut the stems of the feathers evenly, and then 
make the calyx of feathers, cut like the pattern or natural flower. For 
small flowers, the calyx is made with paste. Cover the stems with paper 
or silk the same color as the flowers ; the paper must be cut in narrow 
strips about a quarter of an inch wide. To make the paste of the calyx, heart, 
and buds of flowers, mix common white starch with gum-water until it is the 
consistence of treacle ; color it with the dyes used for the feathers, and 
keep it from the air. To make the farina, use comiuon ground rice, mixed 
into a stiff paste with any dye ; dry it before the fire and when quite liard, 
pound it to a fine powder. Tiie buds, leaves, and hearts of some double 
flowers are made with cotton wool wound around wire, moulded into shape 
with tlie thumb and finger. Smooth it over with gum-water, and when 
dry, cover the buds, leaves or calyx with aj)prtipriately colored pastes ; they 
will requii-e one or two coats, and may be shaded with a little paint, and 



353 ARTIFICIAL FLOWERS, FRUIT, &C. 

then gummed and left to dry. fiowers of two or more shades or colors are 
variegated with water colors, mixed with lemon-juice ; ultramarine and 
chrome, for blue and gold, may also be used in powder, mixed with lemon- 
juice and gum-water. Feather-flowers thus nuide prove an easy and in- 
expensive accomplishment, and yield pretty ornaments for tlie chimney- 
piece, chiffonier, &c. 

Flowers, Pbesekvation of. — Flowers may be preserved in a fresh 
state for a considerable time, by keeping them in a moist atmosphere. 
Another method, by which some flowers may be preserved for many 
months, is to carefully dip them, as soon as gathered, in perfectly limpid 
gum-water ; and after allowing tliera to drain for two or tiiree minutes, to 
set them upright, or arrange tliem in the usual manner in an empty vase. 
The ginn gradually forms a transparent coating on the surface of the petals 
and stems, and preserves their color and figure long after they have become 
dry and crisp. Faded Jlotcers maij be genendly more or less restored by im- 
mersing them half-way up their stems in very liot water, and allowing them 
to remain in it until it cools or they have recovered. The ccKldled portion of 
the stems must then be cut off, and the flowers placed in clean cold water. 
In this way a great number of faded flowers may be restored, but there are 
some of tlie more fugacious kinds, on which it proves useless. Flowers 
may be produced in winter by taking up the plants, trees, or shrubs, in the 
spring, at the time when they are about to bud, witli some of their own soil 
carefully preserved around the roots, and placing them upright in a cellar 
till Michaelmas ; when, with the addition of fresh earth, tliey are to be put 
into proper tubs or vessels, and placed in a stove or hot-house, when they 
must be treated in the usual manner. By this method in tlie month of 
February, fruits or roses will appear. Flowers sown in pots about Michael- 
mas, may thus be made to bloom at Christmas. 

Leaf Impressions. — To take perfect impressions of the leaves of plants, 
the following process should be adopted : Hold oiled paper in tlie 
smoke of a lamp, or of pitch, until it becomes coated with the smoke ; to 
this paper apply the leaf of which you wish the impression taken, having 
previously warmed it between your hands, to render it pliable. Place the 
lower surface of the leaf upon the blackened surface of the oiled paper, in 
order that the numerous veins which are so prominent on this side may 
receive from the paper a portion of the smoke. Lay a paper over the leaf, 
and then press it gently upon the smoked paper, either with the fingers, or, 
better still, with a small roller, covered with woollen cloth, or some soft 
material, so that every part of the leaf may come in contact with the smoke 
on the oiled paper : a coating of smoke will thus adhere to the leaf. Then 
remove the leaf carefully, and place the blackened surface on a sheet of clean 
white paper, covering the leaf with a clean slip of paper, and pressing upon 
it with the fingers or the roller as before. Thus maj' be obtained the im- 
pression of a leaf, showing its perfect outlines and veins, more accurately 
than in the most careful drawing. 




AETISTS AND PICTUEES. 



The Manner of taking Ferkotype, Tintype, and other 
Positive Pictures, Formula for Photographers, 
Painting in Oil Colors, Water Colors, &c. 

Process for Making Ferrotypes, or any other Positive Picture. — First, 
articles to be used cliemically. Nitrate of silver, 1 oz., Iodide of Potas- 
sium, 6 grs., pure soft water, 12 ozs. To combine tlie above for batli, use 
a clean bottle, dissolve in the 12 ozs. water 1 oz. Nitrate of silver, shake 
well and add the Potassium, let stand over night in the dark room, then 
by placing in the small end of a glass funnel, a little nice cotton wool, filter 
the solution into another clean bottle, repeating the operation the second 
time when it is ready to be used. For Developer. Saturated sol. Sulphate 
of Iron and water, 4 ozs.. Acetic Acid, 2 ozs., best Alcohol, 2 oz., soft 
water, 12 ozs. To combine the above, take 4 ozs., Saturated Solution of 
Iron, add 12 ozs. soft water, 2 ozs. Acetic Acid, No. 8, 2 ,ozs. best Alcohol. 
Shake well, and filter as you did the Silver, always having a funnel ex- 
pressly for this purpose. Fixing Solution. Take a piece of Cyanide Pota.s- 
sium, dissolve in water, so that tlie picture on trial clears up readily, a single 
trial will show you. Collodion, and how to make it. Take 5 ozs. Concen- 
trated Ether, 6 ozs. best Alcoliol. Dissolve and add 108 grs. Iodide Am- 
monium, 35 grs. Iodide Cadmium, 30 grs. Bromide Cadmium, shake well 
and add sufficient Gun Cotton, say 4f to 5 grs. to the oz. of solution. This 
you first coat }our well cleaned Plate with, when it is well set, so that it does 
not adhere to the finger on application, it is ready to be immersed into the 
Bath Holder whicli contains your well filtered solution — it is lowered into it 
by placing it on a dipper (either of glass or Gutta-Percha) by regular move- 
ment, as a stop or irregular motion may cause lines, etc.; allow it to remain 
3 or 4 minutes with the door of Dark room closed, than by the light from 
your yellow curtained window, place in the shield adapted to tlie size you 
are to use, already having put your subject in proper position. The time 
of Exposure depends on the light you are having and the time of day, the 
longer the exposure the lighter the figure will appear. After taking the 
exposed plate from the shield, first pour over it smoothly, the developer, 
keep the plate in motion so as to hold the solution on the plate, and also to 
give it an even developing ; when it is properly done pour off the liquid into 
the Dish ; you should develope over and immediately let the water on it 
from your Tank, always placed convenient for the purpose. After tlie oily 
appearance all disappears it is ready to be placed into the dish of the Fixing 
Solution ; then remove all of it, by thoroughly washing under your Tank 
Faucet. After this the Picture may be allowed to drj' by anj- heat, or may 
be dried by a Spirit Lamp, when it will be in order to finish by pouring 
over it (as you did the Collodion), a nice preparation of Crystal Varnish or 
any other approved Varnish made by responsible manufacturers. Having 

359 



360 AUTISTS. 

named and explained the different Solutions will now give in detail the 
the Articles used. As an Apparatus, 1st, Camera Tubes, Boxes to suit, 
Shields to suit. Dippers for Batli holder, Batlis for Solution, Developing 
Bottle and Dish, Fixing Bot-tle and Disli, Collodion Vials, Blenders and 
Little Brushes, Colors, Gilt, etc.. Camera Stand. The foregoing named ar- 
ticles must he good in every respect. Sliears, Hydrometer, Glass Funnels, 
Scales and Weights, Graduating Glass, Head Rests, Photo Chair, Key and 
Diamond, Plates of different sizes, Mats of different sizes, Show Mat and 
Frame, India Ink, Screw Eyes, Frames, Frame jioints. Picture Holders, 
Sticking Paper, Cyanide, lod. Ammonium, lod. Cadmium, Bro. Cadmium 
Gun Cotton, Ether, Pot of Varnish, Bottle of Collodion, Acetic Acid, Nitric 
Acid, Iron, Distilled Water, Faucet, Litmus paper, Hammer, Gimlet, Awls, 
and Tools. A skyligh.t should face the Northwest, always avoiding the Soutii 
and East if possible. The Background to be placed at the Southeast end 
of your Eoom. Th« Dark room to the rear of Camera, in the West corner 
if convenient ; your stairway, if j'ou occupy chambers in the East corner. 
With a 12 bj' 12 ft. light or ever, smaller, moderately low, with a good 
angle, — at mid-daj', and chemicals properly combined, 12 or 14 seconds 
should be exposure sufficient; morning liglit is always softer and better, and 
cloudy weather should not be objectionable. The interior of surroundings 
of wood work to the skylight ought to be blue, as also those parts of par- 
titions, frames of windows, etc., never shoidd be the same, it is so much 
milder for the eye. The Process in detail. A customer enters, finding the 
Artist engaged in close secrecy, his dark room clean, and his cliemi- 
cals all ready for operation. "Good morning, Mr. Artist; is this a 
favorable time for x)rocuring nice pictures'?" "Oh, certainly, verj' fine, 
take a seat ; I am read}' as soon as you adjust your hair, etc." " Wliat is 
your price, sir ■? " " Well, my prices vary according to the size and des- 
cription desired." " Allow me to look at your samples." " Oh, yes." "Very 
well, I think the card size will suit me, these you charge 50 cents for single, 
or 4 for $1, all right ; now don't make them too dark. Most all the pic- 
tures i have are vigly looking, but I wish to mail these to parties I never 
saw, and desire to have them look very nice, even if they resemble some- 
body else." "Certainly, you are perfectly correct, I imagine, however, 
you will make a very fine picture, sit right down, look natural as a fool, 
keep quiet, and when 'tis done you can get up." The artist goes to the 
Dark room and by the door, holds his plate in the left hand by the lower 
left hand corner, with a soft brush in the right, removes caietuljy any 
trace of dust from both sides of the plate, thereby keejiing the foreign sub- 
stances from the Silver Solution, replacing the dust brush, takes the Col- 
lodion Vial with an eas)' and firm hold, and pours on the upper centre of 
the plate sufficient Collodion to coat the top surface, by gradually turning 
the upper part of plate downward, the upper left corner is coated then to 
the right and down, pouring back into the bottle from the lower right hand 
corner, and set the bottle down replacing its cover, change the plate to 
right hand, with the left forefinger try the coating and wipe off the surplus 
on the right lower corner, then with care lower into the Batli of silver. 
Then place your sitter in an easy position, avoiding bringing the hands too 
far forward, or in sight at all if possible, arrange the Camera directly in 
front, at proper height, bringing the nose a little above the centre of 
ground, or passing glass, placed in the rear end of Camera. When all is ready 
draw tlie ground glass, get the plate in tlie sliieid, and place it where the 
ground glass came from, give directions for the eye to rest on some object, 
which will avoid its having a crossed appearance, and give warning that 
you are about to shoot, and uncover without jarring the Camera ; after the 
exposure cover carefully and adroitly the tube ; and remove with the shield 
to dark room, closing the door, but "first saying it is all riglit. Develope as 
previously explained, fix, dry, varnish, etc., and you will have a nice pic- 
ture if tlie instructions have been followed and your Instruments and 
Chemicals are just what they should be. 



ARTISTS. oGl 

Reliable Formula for Photographkrs. — No. 1. Silver Bath for 
Albumen Paper, for Summer tise. — Crystal nitrate of silver, 40 grains; nitrate 
of ammonia, 35 grains ; filtered rain water, 1 oz. ; saturated solution bicar- 
bonate of soda, about 8 or 10 dr()i)s, or enough to make the bath sli(/h(li/ 
alkaline. No. 2. For winter use. Nitrate of silver, 2^ ozs. ; nitrate of soda, 2 
ozs. ; glycerine, 3 ozs. ; pure water, 40 ozs. Make it a little alkaline with 
aqua ammoniac. No. 3. Another Silver Bath. Silver, from 40 to 45 grs. 
(according to temperature ;) nitrate of ammonia, 20 grs. ; distilled or ice 
water, 1 oz. Float 45 seconds to 1 minute. No. 4. Sal Soda Toning Bath. 
Distilled or melted ice water, 64 ozs.; acid solution chloride of gold, (4 grs. 
to the oz.) 1 oz. ; saturated solution of sal soda, i oz. Make it a full half 
hour before you wish to use it, and during the cold weather use the water 
slightly warm. No. 5. Chloride of Lime Bath. Water, 40 ozs. ; chloride of 
lime, 6 grains ; chloride of gold, 4 gr.s. No. 6. Bicarbonate oj" Soda Bath. 
Chloride of gold solution (1 gr. to theoz. of water) 1 oz. ; luke-warm water, 
16 ozs. ; bicarbonate of soda (saturated solution) 10 minims. Make up 
fresh every time you prepare to tone. Make half an hour before using. 
Precipitate the gold in the old solutions with pr()tosuli)hate of iron. No. 7. 
Fixing Bath. Hyposulphite of soda, 1 part to 8 of water, and if the paper 
blisters in the washing, soap the prints for 5 minutes in a solution of com- 
mon salt. No. 8. Bath for Salting the paper. Pure rain water, 60 ozs. ; 
chloride of ammonium, 360 grs. ; gelatine, 120 grs. 

Photograph Painting in Oil Colors. — Tints for the First Paint- 
ing. — Flesh. — White and Light Red. — White, Naples yellow, and vermilion. 
White, vermilion, and light red. Grei/, Pearly, and Half Tints. — White, 
vermilion, and black. White and terre verte. White, black, Indian red, 
and raw umber. Deep Shades. — Light red and raw umber. Indian red, 
lake and black. Carnations. — Wliite and Indian red (powerful color). White 
and rose madder. White and lake. Hair. — Light Hair. — White and yellow 
ochre. White and Roman ochre. White and Vandyke brown for the dark 
parts. White and raw umber for the dark parts. Dark Brown Hair. — Raw 
and burnt umber. White and raw umber. White and Vandyke brown. 
Tints for the Second and Third Painting. — High Lights. — White and 
Naples yellow. Carnations. — Rose gladder and white. Indian red, rose 
madder, and wliite. Green Tints. — White and ultramarine, with any of the 
yellows. White and terre verte, with the addition of a little raw umber. 
The above green tints may be converted into green grej's. Gray Tints. — 
Ultramarine, light red, and white. Indian red, lake, black and wliite. 
White, ultramarine, Indian red, and raw umber. Purple Ti)2ts. — Any of 
the lakes or red madders, with ultramarine and white. Powerful Shadow 
Tiiits. Indian red, purple lake, and black. Indian red, raw umber, and 
black. Strong Glazing Colors. — Light red and lake. Brown madder. Van- 
dyke brown, Indian red, and lake asphaltum. Draperies. — Back Ground 
Colors. — Pearly. — White, vermilion, and blue. White, vermilion, and 
black. Gray. — White, Venetian red and black. Yellow. — Yellow ochre and 
white. Olive. — Yellow ochre, terre verte, and umber. Stone. — Raw umber 
and yellow. Black, white, and raw umber. Sky. — French blue and white. 
French blue, vermilion, and white. Edges of Clouds. — Yellow ochre and 
white. Clouds. — Indian red, lake, and white. Brown madder, ITiench blue, 
and white. 

Photograph Water Colors. — Flesh Tints. — No. 1. Fair Complexion. 
Light red, a little carmine or vermilion, and Indian yellow. Be careful in 
using the latter, and, in the flesh tints of very fair children, allow the ver- 
milion to predominate ; carnations, rose madder, and, if the face be full of 
color, add a little vermilion to it. 2. Middling Complexion. — Mucli the same 
as No. 1, saving that the light red must be in excess over tlio other colors — • 
carnations, rose madder, and lake. 3. Dark Complexion. — Light red and In- 
dian yellow, or light red and Roman ochre, and, if the complexion be gen- 
erally ruddy, you may add a little Indian red, but it must be sparingly 
used, as it is a powerful color, and likely to impart a purple tone to the 

16 



362 ARTISTS. 

flesh. Onrnatioiis cliiefly luke, but if the complexion be warm, lake and a 
little yellow. The carnations for children's portraits are rose madder and 
vermilion, inclining more to the latter tint. Aged persons have rose madder, 
and a little cobalt to give a cold appearance to the color in their cheeks and 
lips. These tints, Nos. 1, 2, and 3, are indispensable as general washes, for 
the purpose of receiving the other colors, wliich are to be worked over them 
to bring up tlie complexion to the life. Uncolored photographic portraits 
vary so much in tone, that the beginner will, perliaps, find some difficulty 
in mixing up the tints for the washes. He must note that tiie warm-toned 
ones do not require so much Indian yellow as the cold ones do. 

To Clean Old Oil-Paintings. — Dissolve a small quantity of salt in 
stale urine ; dip a woollen cloth in the mixture, and rub the paintings over 
with it till they are (dean ; then wash them with a sponge and clean water ; 
dry them gradually, and rub them over with a clean cloth Should the dirt 
not be easily removed by the above preparation, add a small quantity of 
soft soap. Be verj' careful not to rub the paintings too hard. 

To Renew Old Oil-Paintings. — The blackened lights of old pictures 
may be instantly restored to their original hue by touching them witii 
deutoxide of hydrogen diluted with six or eight times its weight of water. 
The part must be afterwards washed with a clean sponge and water. 

To Transfer Pictures from Paper to Wood for Ee-Engraving. — 
Soak the print in a saturated solution of alcoiiol and white caustic potash to 
soften the ink, then transfer to the block under roller pressure. 

To Transfer Prints, &c. — Take of gum sandarac, 4 ozs. ; mastic, 1 oz.; 
Venice turpentine, 1 oz. ; alcohol, 15 ozs. Digest in a bottle, frequently 
shaking, and it is ready for use. Directions : use, if possible, good plate 
glass of the size of the picture to be transferred, go over it with the above 
varnish, beginning at one side, press down the picture firmly and evenly as 
you proceed, so that no air can possibly lodge between ; put aside, anddet 
dry perfectly, then moisten tiie paper cautiously with water, and remove it 
piecemeal by rubbing carefully with the fingers ; if managed nicely, a com- 
plete transfer of the picture to the glass will he effected. 

To Apply Decalcomanie Pictcres. — Varnish the pictures carefully 
with the prepared varnish (which can be obtained with the pictures), with 
an ornamenting pencil, being careful not to get the varnish on the white 
paper. In a few minutes the picture will be ready to lay on the panel, and 
the paper can be removed by wetting it, and when thoroughly dry, it should 
be varnished like an oil painting. Be particular to purchase only those 
transfer pictures which are covered with a gold leaf on the back, for they 
will show plainly on any colored surface, while the plain pictures are used 
only on white or light ground. 

To Print a Picture from the Print Itself. — The page or picture is 
soaked in a solution, first of potassa, and then of tartaric acid. This pro- 
duces a perfect diffusion of crystals of bitartrate of potassa through th« 
texture of the unprinted part of the paper. As this salt resists oil, the ink 
roller may now be passed over the surface, without transferring any part ol 
its contents except to the printed part 




INDOOR GAMES. 



Rules and Suggestions for Billiards, Dominoes, 

Cribbage, &c., &c. 

Billiards. — A game played upon a table with balls propelled by a 
long round stick, termed a cue, and occasionally assisted in long or difficult 
strokes by a jigger or rest. In learning tliis game the first thing to be at- 
tended to is the Bridge, or support upon which the cue is to act. This is 
formed by the left hand of the player being placed firmly upon the table, at 
a distance of from six to nine inches from the ball tliat is to be struck, and 
drawn up until the hand rests only on tiie wrist and the point of tlie fingers ; 
the latter being bent up to such an angle as to leave the palm considerably 
hollowed, at the same time that the timmb is elevated above the level of tiie 
knuckles, so as to form a furrow between it and the forefinger for the cue 
to slide in. The next matter of importance is to handle and adapt the cue 
in such a manner as to render it perfectly free and easy in its motion. This 
consists in grasping it about four or five inches from the broad extremity 
with the right hand, with sufficient force to en.able the striker to use an 
adequate strength in his stroke, and yet free enough to allow of a consid- 
erable extent of motion. Tiie bridge being made and the cue adapted, the 
next point to be attained is how to strike the opposing ball in a full, fair, and 
even manner. To accomplish this, the point of the cue (which should be 
rubbed over with a little chalk) ought, in the first place, to be made accu- 
rately to approach the centre of the ball. The cue should then be drawn 
four or more inches backwards, according to the strength required, slightly 
depressed towards tlie cloth, then gradually elevated till perfectly hori- 
zontal, and lastly forced against the ball, so as to drive it onwards, with 
more or less velocity, as occasion may require. The stroke should be made 
freely from the shoulder, and not in a cramped manner from tlie elbow, and 
the arm should be parallel to the side, not at an angle. Before making 
the stroke the learner should not only know where the balls will strike, but 
he should endeavor to calculate where they will be left. In order to ac- 
complish certain strokes the position of the cue must be regulated accord- 
ingly, see page 663. 

Attention to various circumstances is necessary, in order to play the 
game of billiards with delicacy and correctness ; namely, the particular 
modification of the action of the instrument, with which the impulse is given 
to the ball, the proper regulation of the eye of the striker, the position he 
assumes in striking, and the mode in which he accommodates the instru- 
ment to his hand; the precise point of the distance or object ball, or of the 
cushion wliich is made to receive the stroke ; and lastly, the degree of 
strength necessary to be em])l()yed in t)rder to ol)tain the desired end. Tiie 
accuracy of every stroke will very materially depend upon tiie proper regu- 

36a 




ciGI INDOOR GAMES. 

lation of the eye of the striker ; and this requires a great degree of nicety 
There are two objects to be attentively regarded nearly in the same instant ; 
namely, the cue ball, or that to be struck with the instrument, and the ob- 
ject ball, or that to be struck at, in order to effect tlie desired hazard or 
carom. The position of the object ball should first be attentively marked, 
the cue is then to be adapted to tlie bridge formed by the hand, as before 
directed, and upon this the eye should be suffered to rest until the moment 
of striking ; previous to the act of which it should be again carried to the 
object ball, and remain intently fixed on it until the stroke is completed. 
The position in which the striker stands, while in the act of playing, is also of 
essential importance ; he should stand firmly on the right leg with the left 
slightly in advance and a little bent, the body nearly erect, or not moro 

inclined forward than may be necessary 
for the left hand to rest with ease upon 
tlie table. This position should be 
steadily preserved until the stroke has 
been completed, and the arm be the 
only part moved during the act of 
striking. Particular attention should be paid by the novice to what are 
termed the angles of the table, or, in other words, the course which the 
balls describe by reverberation from the elastic cushion. A little prac- 
tice with a single ball will soon bring the student into acquaintance with 
these principles. A very good plan to proceed upon is to make a chalk spot 
on the side or top cushion, and strike at it repeatedly with various degrees 
of strength, first from one and then from the other side of the angle. In 
this way the truth of the stroke will be proved, and it will soon be discover- 
ed how the different strengths and sides given to the ball affect the angles 
produced. Two or three hours' practice in this way will be sufficient to 
acquire the requisite knowledge. Then take two other balls, the white 
and red, and, placing them in the line of the angles observed, endeavor 
to i)roduce the various caroms that lie within those angles. As soon 
as you have acquired a little intimacy, with the more conniion caroms, 
you can increase or decrease the distance between the balls, and so 
vary the practice in an infinity of ways. After the learner has mas- 
tered the angles of the table, his next preparatory step should be to 
make liimself master of the several common winning and losing hazards. 
For tliis purpose he will find it expedient to begin with the winning, which 
may be considered as a key to billiards, generall}' speaking, for whoever can 
make a good winning hazard will find little difficulty in effecting every 
other which the table may present to him. The full or (straight) wiiuiing 
hazard should first be practised ; beginning by placing the two balls near to 
each other, precisely in a line, and in the direction of a pocket, and upon 
that precise point directing the stroke of the ball. After a little practice 
has enabled him to strike this with ease at a short distance, he is to remove 
the balls farther asunder, and in the end make tlie extent of his stroke the 
whole length of the table. The learner should then proceed to practice tlie 
other winning hazards, namely, the three-quarter ball, half bail, third ball, 
quarter ball, and eighth ball. Losing hazards must occur more or less fre- 
quently in every game ; and after the different degrees of strength and 
fulness requisite for each stroke have been once acquired, they are, of all 
other hazards, the most easily played, requiring only a little practice and 
attention. 

The American, or four-ball game, is played with two colored balls and 
two white balls. The scores are made by winning hazards and caroms. The 
carom from a white to a colored ball counts two ; from one to another 
colored ball, three points : three points are taken for each colored ball 
pocketed, and two for the white ball. At the commencement of the game 
one colored ball is placed on the winning spot, and the other on the centre 
spot on the banlk line. The non-player places his b.all on the spot, and the 
striker at starting either hits it or gives a miss. The baulk is considered to 



INDOOR GAMES. 365 

be nil tlie space within tiie line, not tlie semicircle merely. The game is 
usually played 100 up ; but may be plaj'ed for any number of points. 

Of late years the pocket table has gone out of use to a great extent ex- 
cept for playing pool, and as a general theory on carom tables each carom 
counts three whether made on the white or on the red ball. 

EULES FOR THE GAME OF BILLIARDS. 

American, or Four-ball Game. — 1. The game commences by stringing 
for the lead, and the player, who, after striking his ball to the bottom cush- 
ion, brings it nearest to the cushion at the upper end of the table, wins the 
choice of lead and balls. 

2. If, after the first player has strung for lead, his opponent should 
make his ball touch any other ball, or if he should pocket his own, he loses 
thereby his choice. 

3. If the striker play with the wrong ball during the game, it is deemed 
a foul stroke, and consequently he cannot count ; provided, the mistake be 
discovered before the second stroke is made. But, if more than one stroke 
be made with the wrong ball, without discovery, the player is entitled to 
all the points which he may have counted up to the time of discovery, and 
may continue liis play. 

4. If the balls of botli the players should happen to be in hand at the 
same time, and he, whose play it is, should, through mistake, obtain his 
o{)ponent's ball, and |)lay with it under the impression that he was using 
his own, he is entitled to all the points he may make, and no penalty at- 
taclies to him for this mistake. 

5. If a ball is discovered to have been changed during the game, and it 
cannot be ascertained by whicli player, the game must be played to the end, 
with the balls as they are. 

6. If the striker is about to play with the wrong ball, no person in the 
room — not even the marker — has a right to disclose his error ; and in a 
double match, his partner only is justified in doing so. 

7. If the player, while in the act of striking his ball, touch it twice with 
his instrument, the stroke is considered foul. 

8. In playing with tlie butt of the cue, the striker must withdraw it from 
his ball, before such ball comes in contact with the object ball. 

9. The player has a right to use the bridge, or any other instrument 
pertaining to the game, at any stage of the play, unless it is otherwise stip- 
ulated in the commencement. 

10. If the striker, by accident, should make his ball touch the other, 
while the balls are very near each other, it is considered a stroke, though 
not intended as such. But if a player, in the act of striking, is baffled or 
impeded by his opponent, or a spectator, he has a right to replace the balls, 
and re-commence the stroke ; and any points made after the ball has been 
so replaced, are good, and must be counted. 

11. If any {)erson play at a ball while it or any other ball is rolling, the 
stroke is considered foul, and he is not entitled to any count he may have 
effected by such play. 

12. If tlie striker, after having made a hazard or carom, interruiits the 
course of his or any other ball, the stroke is foul, and he cannot score the 
points he may have made. 

13. After a red ball has been pocketed, or forced off the table, the 
striker is bound to see the ball placed on the proper spot again — provided, 
such spot be vacant before he strikes, for otherwise he can win no points 
while tlie ball is out of its place. 

M. If the striker plaj's with the wrong ball, and at the same time makes 
a miss, or pockets it, he cannot score such count, but on the contrary, the 
same penalty attaches to him as if he had played with his own ball. 

15. When a red ball cannot be placed on its proper spot, it must remain 
off the table until that spot becomes vacant, and the balls cease rolling. 



366 INDOOR GAMES 

IG. If the striker's ball, standing at the edge of a pocket, should fall 
into tliat pocket, before tiie striker has delivered his ball from the instru- 
ment, so as to leave him no ciiance for a stroke, the ball must be replaced in 
its original position, and the player is entitled to repeat his stroke. 

17. If the object ball falls into a pocket, before the player's ball, after 
being delivered from tiie instrument, can reach it, the rule is the same as 
above ; both balls must be replaced as nearly as possible in their original 
position, and the stroke repeated. 

18. Should your own ball, when it is your pla)', be in contact with another 
ball, you cannot count, but it is imperative on j'ou to make sucli play as will 
separate the balls ; and in this case, you lose no point, unless you pocket your 
ball, or cause it to jump off the table, and you then lose as in ordinary cases. 

19. Once the player has separated the balls to the extent of one inch, 
it is not imperative on him to separate them a second time, though it is 
quite possil)le that they may " roll " together, and come in contact after the 
stroke is made. 

20. If, during the game, a ball should hai)pen to jump off the bed of the 
table, and lodge on tlie cushion, it is to be considered off the table ; and if 
a red ball, it must be placed on its appropriate spot ; but if it should be the 
player's ball, he forfeits as many points as if he had pocketed it. 

21. When the striker'^ball is in hand, he can play from any point within 
the string, but it is itnperative on him to play his ball outside the string, and 
lie can gain no i)oints, unless it is played out, or passes beyond the string. 

22. If the striker's ball be in hand, and the other balls within the string, 
and should he — either by accident or design — strike any of them, without first 
playing out of the string, it is optional with his opponent to let the balls re- 
main as they are; to have them replaced in their original positions, or to 
compel the striker to play the stroke again. 

23. If the striker's ball be in hand, and he play at the cushion within the 
string, for tlie purpose of striking any ball, he is not entitled 'to any count 
which he may effect by such play, and the opponent has the same option as 
in rule 22. 

2-1. If a ball sjjrings off the table, and strikes one of the players or by- 
standers, and is thereby caused to fall back on the table it is considered as 
much off the table as if it had fallen to the floor, and any count it may 
have effected cannot be scored by the player. 

25. If the marker or any by-stander touch either of the balls — whether 
it is rolling or stationary — it must be placed as near as possible to the posi- 
tion it would apparently have occupied, if it had not been interfered with. 

26. No person has a right to take up or remove a ball without the per- 
mission of his opponent. 

27. No person has a right to disclose whether a stroke be fair or foul, 
until solicited ; and in playing a double match, none but the opponents of 
the player have a right to inquire. 

28. The striker can lose only two points by pocketing his own ball, or 
causing it to jump off the table — provided his own come in contact with a 
white ball in such stroke, before it entered the pocket, regardless of the 
points he would have made, if he had completed his play. 

Note. — This rule is observed more particularly in New York and its vi- 
cinity ; but in many parts of the United States, the player forfeits the num- 
ber of points made on such stroke previous to pocketing his own ball. 

29. A carom on all the balls counts five, irrespective of the particular 
balls which are struck first or last. 

30. The opponent always is bound to see if the striker plays fair, which, 
if he neglects to do, the striker wins all the points he may have made by 
that particular stroke, and the marker is obliged to score them. 

31. Each party must take care of his own game, and his opponent has 
no right to answer an}' questions — such as, " Is the ball in, or out? " — "Do 
the balls touch 1 " — and such like. These, and other similar circumstances, 
the player sliould discover himself. 



INDOOR GAMES. 367 

32. No person lias any right to disclose to the player, by hint or inuendo, 
the manner in which he should play his ball to the greatest advantage. 

33. Neither after a stroke has been played, has any one a right to dis- 
close or comment upon any error the player may have committed ; as a 
stroke of the same kind may occur again in tJie same game. 

34. The striker has a right to demand, that his opponent shall not stand 
facing him, or near him, so as to annoy or molest liim in his stroke ; and if 
his opponent persist in so doing, after being remonstrated with, the aggriev- 
ed party is justified in throwing up the game, and such game shall be con- 
sidered drawn. 

35. He who leaves the game before it is finished, and refuses to play it 
out, loses that game, althougii he may have made but one stroke ; unless he 
does so for causes mentioned in rule 34. 

36. Tlie striker is not entitled to any point, unless one foot, at least, is 
on the floor while the strike is being made. 

37. In playing a four-iianded match, whenever the striker makes a 
hazard, he puts out his opponent — consequentl3', the opponent's partner 
takes his place. 

38. In playing a four-handed match, if the striker pocket his ov/n ball, or 
make two misses in succession, liis hand is out, and his partner takes his place. 

39. In a tliree-handed game, the players commence by stringing for the 
lead, and he, who brings his ball nearest to the upper cushion, wins the 
choice of lead and balls ; and he, who brings his ball the next nearest to 
the cushion, is the player witli him ; the third player must wait until the 
first hazard is made, or two misses in succession. 

40. In a three-handed game, he who makes sixty-six points first, is out; 
the other two players continue until the hundred is played out. 

41. If the striker should cause his opponents to become sixty-six points 
each, by a forfeiture, neither of the parties can claim game on the strength 
of this forfeiture, and can onl^' win it by their next count. 

42. Tiie first person who makes sixty-six points ceases all play, and he, 
v/hose hand is out, pla3s on with that player's ball, as that ball is entitled 
to have its run out. 

43. If the player should pocket his own ball, or make a miss, it counts 
for both his opponents. 

44. If a player makes two misses in succession, or pockets his own ball, 
or causes it to jump off the table — his hand is out. 

46. Should a dispute arise between the players, concerning the fairness 
of the stroke, the marker alone is authorized to decide the question ; but if 
he be incomjietent to make the required decision, he should inquire the 
particulars of the case from the disinterested company present, and, upon 
demanding silence, should go round the table to each person, separately, 
and ask, if he understands the game, and tiie nature of the dispute in 
question ; and the majority of the disinterested company then present, and 
so interrogated, is to decide the dispute. 

46. Should a decision be given contrary to the spirit and intent of these 
rules, the aggrieved party can notify his opponent of his intention to appeal 
from it; (this notification, however, must precede the next stroke, other- 
wise the original decision iiolds good ;) and if, at the conclusion of the game, 
the party against whom the decision was given, be the loser, and can prove 
it to have been wrong — he can claim a drawn game, and all stakes de[)en(l- 
ing on such game must be drawn also. 

47. Every person should be very attentive, and listen for the stroke 
before he enters the door of a Billiard Room. 

48. The duties of a game-keeper are, to spot the balls when pocketed — 
to call each count distinctly, and loud enough for the players to hear him 
— to mark up the numbers made by each player immediately after he gets 
through his run, and before the next player can commence his stroke — and 
to see that all but the players stand away from the table, and give them 
room to pass freely round. 



iJG8 INDOOR GAMES. 

Vocabulary of Terms and Phrases, generally used in the Game 
OF Billiards. — A Hazard — Is causing a ball to go into a pocket, or, as it is 
generally cnlied, "lioling" a ball. Carom — Is striking two or more balls 
with your own ball. Kiss — When two balls come in contact more than 
once, or, when the balls, not played witii, come in contact. Sa-atch — When 
a stroke or count is effected by accident — success without design. Force — 
Causing your own ball to recoil after striking another ball. Own Ball — The 
ball with which you play. Object Bull — The ball at which you play. Fol- 
loic — Causing yom- own ball to advance in its onward course, after striking 
another ball. Dead Fidl — Denotes the contact or concussion of two balls 
in a straight line, without any divergence from the direct course. Cut, or 
Fine Ball — Denotes that the object ball is hit fine, or barely touched by the 
circumference of your own. MIscue — When the cue slips off the ball— a 
faux pas. 3Iiss — When the player's ball misses all the other balls. Bunk — 
Causing your ball to strike a cushion, before striking another ball. Doublet, 
or Cross — Making a hazard by first making the ball to be holed rebound 
from the cushion. Jump — Causing your ball to ricochet, or bound on the 
tal.le. Jdu- — Where a ball strikes the jaw of a pocket. Hutj — Where a 
ball runs clo.«e to a cushion, and inclines towards it. Break — Position of the 
brdls after a stroke is played. Foul Shot or Stroke — When the striker has 
violated any of the stipulated rules applicable to the game. Love Game — 
Signifies, that one party makes game, before the other part}' effects a count. 

Pool. — A number of small balls, each numbered from one upwards, 
according to the number of players, are placed in a pocket, and drawn from 
thence by the marker, and distributed to the players. No. 1 leads the red 
ball — No. 2])lays at No. 1 — No. 3 at No. 2, — the striker always to play with 
the ball last j»layed at, except when a hazard is made ; tlien the next 
player leads with the red ball, and he, whose turn is next in order, plays 
from the string. 

1. In Pool, the red ball must first be played, and in leading it, rule 2 
must be strictly enjoined, with this exception — if the first lead is not liked 
by the plajer, he ma}' always have the privilege of spotting his ball. 

2. If the leader follows his ball with either mace or cue, beyond the 
middle pocket, it is no lead ; and if his adversary, or the person next to 
play, chooses, he may make him lead again, or cause the ball to be placed 
upon the pool spot, at his option. 

3. If a player, in the act of striking, is baffled or impeded in his stroke 
by his opponent or a spectator, he has a right to re-commence his stroke. 

4. If the striker, while in the act of playing, should accidentally touch 
or move his own ball, without intending at the time to make a stroke, he 
loses no point ; bfut the opponent may put the ball back in the place where 
it stood ; and if he hole the ball, after it has been replaced, it is good, and 
the ball so holed shall be marked. 

5. Whoever stops or touches a ball when running, either with the ins- 
trument with which he plays, or otherwise, it is deemed a foul shot, and the 
person so touching the balls, before they have done running, loses a mark. 
This rule must always be enforced. • 

6. If a ball is made to go extremely near the brink of a pocket, and after 
sensibly standing still for a longer or shorter time, should fall into it, the 
striker wins nothing, and the ball must be put on the same brink where it 
stood, before the adversary makes his next stroke ; and if it should fall 
into the pocket at the instant the striker hath played upon his ball, so as 
to prevent the success of his stroke, the balls nmst be replaced in the 
same position, or as near as possible, and the striker must play again. 

7. If any person calls upon another to play out of his turn, the person so 
calling shall take tlie mark, and not he who played, and the next in turn 
must lead. 

8. If any person plays out of his turn, unless called upon, he must be 
niaiked, unless he holes the ball played at, in which case the ball so holed 
shall be marked, and the next in turn to the nerson, who ought to have play- 
ed, must lead. 



INDOOR GAMES. 369 

9. Any person, whose ball is alive, may take a hazard, and if he misses 
holing the ball, he must be marked. 

10. The person, wliose turn it is to play, has the first right to take a 
hazard, and he must be marked if he does not hole the ball — provided, any 
person in the pool previously offers to take such liazard. 

11. Tliere can be but one privilege, and that must be taken by the first 
person killed, unless by consent of all the players, that it may remain open ; 
and tlie person first killed must decide at once whether he will take it, and 
play in turn. 

12. No person can take a ball, if in the room when the balls are drawn, 
and he neglects to do so in turn, unless said person obtains the consent of 
all who are pla3'ing ; and no person in any case can take a ball after the 
privilege is gone. 

18. No person in the pool can have an interest in any other ball than the 
one which number he draws ; nor can that person buy any other ball, or 
own an interest in any other, so long as his original ball is alive ; but when 
liis original number is dead, he may buy that of any other, who may choose 
to sell, but cannot permit any other person to play it, who may have an 
interest with him, but he must play it out, unless he sells his whole interest 
— in which case the person buying, if originally in the pool, shall finish 
playing out the number. No person, not originally in the pool, can buy in. 

14. If a person sells his ball upon the lead, the purchaser must abide by 
the lead, or may spot the same, as he pleases. 

15. If a person makes a lead, he cannot change the same, even if the 
person next to play sells his ball to a third person after the lead has been 
made, but lie may have the liberty of spotting it. 

16. No person can strike twice in succession ; and if two are left in the 
pool, and A strike at the ball and hole himself, B must lead ; but should A 
hole B's ball, then A must lead. 

17. When there are but two left in the pool, and one of them wishes to 
divide or sell, the adversary shall always have the privilege of buying, and 
if he refuses to give as much as another offers, then his adversary has full 
right to sell to any one who has been in the pool. 

18. If a person playing upon the lead, places his ball out of the string, and 
is challenged by the previous player, while in the act of striking, the balls 
must be placed as before, and the stroke made over. 

Pin Pool. — As Played in New York. — This game is played by two or 
more persons in the following manner: There are five small wooden pins 
set up in the centre of the table, diamond-like, — the one at the apex next 
the head of the table is No. 1 — the one to the right is No. 2 — the one to the 
left is No. 3, and the one next the foot of the tables is No. 4, and the one in 
the centre is No. 5 — and they are placed about two and a half inches apart 
from one another. 

The usual way of designating them is, by marking the numbers on the 
cloth next to the spots, which each pin occupies, and the rotation of the 
players is determined by the small numbered balls, as in Two-ball Pool. 

After this is determined, each player has another small ball, with a num- 
ber on it, dealt to him by the game-keeper, and this is termed his private ball 

The red ball is then placed on its appropriate spot, about five inches from 
the lower cushion, midway between the two corner pockets; and he, who 
has ball No. 1, plays from the string ; No. 2 then plays from the string with 
the other white ball ; No. 3 succeeds No. 2, and can play with, or at, any 
ball on the table. 

There are only three balls used in this game — one red, and two white 
balls. The object of the players is to knock down as many pins as will 
count thirty-one, by adding the pins so knocked down, and the number on 
the private ball, together, and he, who first makes thirty-one wins the pooh 

For example : If the number on the private ball be ten, it will then be 
necessary for the player to make the number count twenty-one, by the pins. 

In Philadelphia, and many other parts of the United States, four balls 

16* 



370 INDOOR GAMES. 

are used, and the game varies in many other respects from the New York 
game. 

Tlie number on the private ball is kept secret from the other play- 
ers, although a skilful player maj- form a pretty correct idea of the num- 
ber of the player's private ball, by the strokes and angles played by the 
striker. 

1. Rules for Pin Pool. — He, who draws No. 1, must play with one of 
the white balls at the red ball, or place it on tlie spot used as the deep red 
spot in the game of Billiards. He, wlio draws No. 2, must then play with 
the other white ball, or, if he so choose, can place it on the spot used as the 
liglit red spot. 

2 No. 1 and No. 2 have the privilege of playing from any part of the 
string ; No. 2 can play on any ball outside the string ; and should all the 
balls ha])pen to be within the string, he may have the red ball placed on its 
appropriate spot for the purpose of playing on it. 

3. Tiie player must first strike a ball with his own ball, before he knocks 
down the pins, or otherwise it is no count. 

4. If a player should first touch a pin with his own ball, and then strike 
another ball, and that, or his own ball should get pins thereby, he is not 
entitled to count. 

5. After the second stroke is made in the game, the striker has a right 
to play with or at any ball on the table. 

6. Missing or pocketing one's own ball, or another, or jumping one's 
own, or another ball, off the table, goes for nought — knocking the pins down 
alone counts. 

7. Should a ball be holed, or off the table, it must be placed on the spot 
used for spotting the red ball at the first stroke, and if that spot be occupied, 
it is then placed on the deep red spot ; and if that also be occupied, it is 
then to be placed on the light red spot. If the player should make a miss, 
his ball is to be spotted in the same manner. 

8. If the striker should knock down the four outside pins, and leave the 
centre one (No. 5,) stiuuling, he wins the pool. 

9. Sufficient time must be allowed, after the stroke is made, to give the 
player an opportunity of adding his game up, and to proclaim pool, if he 
makes it, before the next play, and if he neglects to claim it before such 
play, he must wait until his own turn to play comes again. And if another 
makes pool in the mean time, that other is entitled to it, and not he, who 
first made it. 

10. Should a ball rest so as to occupy any of the spots intended for the 
pins, such pins are to remain off the table, until those spots so occupied 
become vacant. ' 

11. Should a ball roll against a pin, and cause it to lean over, or knock 
if off the spot, without such pin falling, the striker cannot claim such pins, 
as nothing counts but knocking the pins down. But when the pins are 
knocked two inches from the spots, they are considered down, whether they 
be up or down. 

12. Should a player play out of his turn, he cannot avail himself of any 
count he may have made by such stroke, and if he gets pins enough to 
burst him it is his own loss — provided, he was not called on to play ; in 
such case, he cannot suffer bj' it, and any count effected by such stroke goes 
for nought. He, whose turn it was to play, when the other was called, or 
played out of his turn, plays next in order. 

13. If the striker knock down more pins than would, by adding such pins 
to tlie number on his private ball, count more than thirty-one, he is burst, i. 
c, dead ; and if he then wish to take a privilege, he must decide before the 
next stroke be made, otherwise he cannot take it without consent of all the 
players. 

14. In taking a privilege, the player has a right to draw a new private 
ball, and of then choosing between that and his original ball ; but he must 
deciile quickly, which ball he will keep, before the next stroke be made. 



INDOOR GAMES. 371 

15. New privileges can be taken by players tliat are burst, as often as 
tliere are bursts in tlie game. 

16. Each privilege follows the last number in rotation. For instance : if 
there are six playing, and one be burst, he succeeds No. 6, and becomes 
No. 7 ; if another becomes burst, he succeeds as No. 8 ; and if it be the 
highest number that is burst, he plays on immediately after choosing his 
private ball. 

17. If the balls touch, or be in contact with one another, the striker has 
a right to play with either of the balls, so touching, straight at tiie pins, 
without striking another ball, and anj' pins he may knock down, count 
good, except in sucli cases as do not conflict with rule 19. 

18. Any pin knocked down 1)3' jarring tiie table, blowing upon the ball, 
or altering or intercepting its course in running, does not count, nor is tiie 
player entitled to any pin or pins that may be made by any other ball, 
though not interfered with during the same play. 

19. Sliould a ball junip off the table, and come in contact with a player, 
or an3- other person, and fall back on the table and knock down pins, such 
pin or pins so knocked down, shall not count, and the bail must be spotted ; 
but if another ball gets pins by the same stroke, the pins so made by that 
otlier ball are good. 

20. If a player makes pool, and he should at that time have more than 
one private ball in his possession, he is not entitled to the pool, but is con- 
sidered burst. 

21. The player, in this game, as in Billiards, has the sole right of look- 
ing after his own interests, and neither the game-keej>er or any of the by- 
standers have any right to dictate to, or advise him, unless by consent of 
all the plajers. 

22. The game-keeper is not responsible to the winner of a pool for 
more than the actual amount of stakes received from the players in such 
pool. 

23. It is tlie duty of the game-keeper to collect the stakes, and make up 
the pool — to deal out the small balls to the players — to see that the balls 
and pins are properlj' spotted — that there are no more private balls out than 
there are players in the pool, — and if any such balls are missing, to proclaim 
its number to the players, as the pool cannot be won by such ball, — to call 
out each number, in its turn, to players — to proclaim, long enough for them 
to hear it, the number they may already count from pins knocked down, — 
and to have all pins properly knocked down, placed to the credit of the res- 
pective players, who maj' have made the stroke. 

Bagatelle. " Vive la Bagatelle]" — There is little to say about this 
game except that, in place of Billiards, in a small room it is very amusing. 
The balls must be played into the holes with much less strength than is 
used at Billiards. As to the rules of the game they are very simple, and 
are sufficiently well known to need no recapitulation. 

Several games are played on the Bagatelle board — two or more players 
engaging in them. The most common is called pai- excellence Bagatelle, and 
is played with nine balls, which are struck with the cue into numbered 
holes, and the player who makes the greatest score in three " goes up " is 
the winner. 

The French game is generally played a hundred up. The players take 
it in turn to strike, and count all they make till the striker fails to make a 
hole. Missing the red ball is a forfeit of one point to the opponent. In 
some rooms two colored balls are used, each one counting double when 
lodged in a hole. 

In either game, when a ball lies over a hole, but does not drop immedi- 
ately into it, the opponent may " challenge " tlie ball, when if, by shaking 
the board or from any other cause, it drops into the hole, it must be re- 
placed. 

The Canon game, the Irish game, and Salle Egal, are varieties of Baga 
telle well known to most frequenters of Bagatelle rooms. 



372 INDOOR GAMES, 

In plaj'ing at these games it is necessary to deliver tlie ball with a 
gentle but firm stroke. Hold the cue lightly between the fingers and 
tliumb, and strike the ball in the centre. A modification of tlie side-stroke 
ma}^ be well introduced, but the division of the object-ball is most com- 
monly employed in order to make the necessary angles. If you play too 
liard a ball, you will fail to make tlie liole you ahn at; but at tlie same 
time you must be careful to strike with sufficient power to carry the ball 
beyond the hole in case 3'ou miss the stroke. 

The prettiest and most scientific strokes at Bagatelle are those made 
from the cushion to the hole. What Draughts is to Chess, Bagatelle is to 
Billiards — a simple introduction, though a pleasant and amusing one. For 
home use a good-sized Bagatelle board is perhaps better than a small Bil- 
liard-table. I am told that some players are so well versed in the handling 
of the cue at this game that they can fill every liole with the nine balls in 
one trial. I never saw the feat accomplished but once, and then the red 
ball was lodged in the 8, and the yellow in the 7; these counted double, so 
that the whole score amounted to sixty ; the largest number capable of be- 
nig got being sixty-four, when one colored ball must be in the centre (9) 
and the other in the 8 hole. 

Tliere is little room at Bagatelle for many of the strokes common at 
Billiards; but the high, the low, and the " following stroke" will all be 
found useful occasionally. 

Dominoes. — This game is played by two or four persons, with twenty- 
eight pieces of oblong ivory, plain at the back, but on the face divided by 
a black line in the middle, and indented with spots, from one to a double 
six, which pieces are a double-blank, ace-blank, double-ace, deuoe-blank, 
deuce-ace, double-deuce, trois-blank, trois-ace, trois-deuce, double-trois, 
four-blank, four-ace, four-deuce, four-trois, double-four, five-blank, five-ace, 
five-deuce, five-trois, five-four, double-five, six-blank, six-ace, six-deuce, 
six-trois, six-four, six-five, and double-six. Sometimes a double set is 
played with, of which double twelve is the highest. At the commencement 
of the game, the dominoes are well mixed, with their faces downwards. 
Each person draws one, and if four play, tliose who choose the two highest 
are partners, against those wlio draw the two lowest ; drawing the latter 
also serves to determine who is to lay down the first piece, which is reck- 
oned a great advantage. Afterwards each player takes seven pieces at 
random. The eldest hand having laid down one, the next must pair him 
at either end of the piece he may choose, according to tlie number of pips 
or the blank in the compartment of the piece ; but whenever any party 
cannot match the part, either of the domino last put down, or of that un- 
paired at the other end of the row, tlien he says "go," and the next is at 
liberty to play. Thus they play alternately, either until one party has 
played all his pieces, and thereby won the game, or till the game be blocked; 
that is, when neither party can play by matching the pieces when unpaired 
at either end, then that party wins who possesses the smallest number of 
pips on the pieces remaining. In playing this game it is to the advantage 
of the player to dispossess himself as early as possible of the heavy pieces, 
such as a double-six, five, four, etc. Sometimes when two persons play, 
they take each only seven pieces, and agree to play or drmv, that is when 
one cannot come in or pair the pieces on the board at the end unmatcli- 
ed, he then is to draw from the fourteen pieces in stock till he find one to 
suit. 

Quoits. — An excellent game affording healthy exercise to the players. 
To play at quoits, an iron pin, called a hob, is driven into the ground to 
within a few inches of the top, and at the distance of eighteen or twenty 
yards, as may be agreed upon ; a second pin of iron is also fixed. The 
players are generally divided into parties, and each one pitches a quoit, a 
round iron ring, from hob to hob ; those who pitch the nearest reckoning 
towards the game. But the determination is discriminately marked ; for 
instance, if a quoit belonging to A lies nearest to the hob, and a quoit be 



INDOOR GAMES. o7S 

longing to B lies second, A can claim but one towards the game, tliougli all 
Ills other quoits lie nearer to the mark than all the other quoits of B, be- 
cause one quoit of B being tlie second nearest to the hob "cuts out," as it 
is called, all behind it; if no such quoit had interfered, then A would have 
reckoned all his as one each. Having cast all their quoits, the players 
walk to the opposite end, and determine the state of the play ; then, taking 
their stand there, throw their quoits back again, and continue to do so al- 
ternately as long as the game remains undecided. A quoit that falls with 
its flat side upwards does not count. The quoit should be delivered from 
the hand by an upward and forward pitch witli a steady' aim at the pin, 
near which it should sink witli its sharp edge in the turf. The dress in 
quoits sliould be loose and easy, with no restraint from braces. 

Cribbage. — A game with cards which is not only amusing, hut also 
reckoned useful to young people, in advancing the science of calculation. 
It is played with the whole pack of cards, generally by two persons, and 
sometimes by four. The number of cards forming a hand for this game 
varies, but is usually either five or six. 

Method of Flaying. — The progress of the game is marked by a board 
having sixty-one holes, he wlio can first succeed in counting these being 
the victor. Tlie cards are cut for deal, the lowest dealing. Five cards are 
dealt to each player, out of which two are to be thrown by each player, to 
form the " crib," which alwa3's belongs to the dealer; next, the adversary 
is to cut the remainder of the pack, and tiie dealer to turn up and lay upon 
the crib the uppermost card, for wliich, if a knave, he is to mark two 
points. The eldest hand then plays a card, which the other should en- 
deavor to pair, or find one, the pips of which reckoned with the first will 
make fifteen ■ then the non-dealer must play another card and try to make 
a pair or fifteen, provided the cards already plaj'ed have not exceeded that 
number ; and if so he should then endeavor to make ihirty-one, or the near- 
est possible number under that. When the party, wliose turn it may be to 
play, cannot produce a card that will make tiiirty-one, or come under that 
number, he is then to say "go " to his antagonist, who, thereupon will be 
entitled to score one, or to play any card or cards he may have in his hand 
that will make thirty-one or under ; if he can make thirty -one he scores 
two points, but if any number under, only one point. Such cards as re- 
main after this are not to be played, but each party, having during the 
play scored his points gained, they must proceed to count their hands, the 
non-dealer first, and the dealer afterwards, who also reckons the crib, and 
both parties include the turned-up card. The points are counted as fol- 
lows : — 

For every fifteen .... 2 points. 

Pair, or two of a sort ... 2 " 

Fair-royal or three of a sort 6 " 
Double pair-royal or four 

of a sort 12 " 

Knave of the turned-up 

suit 1 " 

Flush the same number of points as there are cards. 

Rule 1. — The opposing parties cut the cards, to determine who shall be 
the dealer ; the lowest card secures it. The ace is the lowest. 2. In deal- 
ing, the dealer may discover his own cards, but not those of his adversary 
— who may mark two, and call a fresh deal. 3. Should too many cards be 
dealt to either, the non-dealer may score two, and demand another deal, if 
the error be detected previously to taking up the cards. If he do not wish 
a new deal, the extra cards must be drawn away. When any player has 
more than the proper number of cards in his hand, the opponent may score 
four, and call a new deal. 4. If any player meddle with the pack after 



374 INDOOR GAMES. 

dealing, at the period of cutting it for the turn-up card, then liis opponent 
may score two points. 5. If an}' player take more than he is entitled to, 
the other party sliould not only put him back as man}' points as are over- 
scored but likewise take the same extra number for his own game. 6. If 
any player neglect to count what he is entitled to, the adversarj' mny take 
the points so omitted. 7. The non-dealer in five-card cribbage, scores 
three points as an equivalent. 8. Flushes and sequences reckon according 
to the number of cards forming them. 

Maxims for laying out the crib-cards. — In laying out cards for the crib, it 
is requisite that every player should consider not only his own game, but 
also tliat of his adversary, and he sliould therefore throw out such cards as 
will leave him a good iiaud, and embarrass his opponent. When any player 
possesses a pair-royal, such as three twos, three threes, etc., it is generally 
advisable to lay out the other cards for crib, unless it belongs to the ad- 
versary. A player should generally lay out close cards for his own crib, 
with the hope of making a sequence, i.e., cards that follow eacli other con- 
secutively, as one, two, three, four, five, etc. He ma}' also throw out two 
of a suit, in expectation of a flush ; or any that of themselves amount to 
fifteen, or such as combined with others will make that immber, except 
when the antagonist be nearly home, when it is expedient to keep such 
cards as will prevent him from gaining at play. A metiiod directly op- 
posed to this, should be pursueil in respect to the adversary's crib, which 
each player should endeavor to baulk, by laying out those cards that are 
likely to prove to advantage, unless such a stage of the game has arrived, 
when it is of more consequence to keep in hand cards likely to tell in play, 
or when the non-dealer would be either out by his hand, or his reason for 
judging the crib of little moment. A king is the best card to baulk a crib, as 
none can form a sequence beyond it. Low cards are generally the most 
likely to gain at play ; the flushes and sequences, particularly if the latter 
be flushes as well, are generally eligible hands, as thereby the player will 
often be enabled either to assist his own crib or to baulk his opponents. 

Terms used in cribbage. — Crib: The cards thrown out by each player, 
which belong to the dealer. Pairs : Two similar cards, as two aces, or two 
kings. Pairs-royal: Three similar cards, as three tens, or three knaves. 
Double pairs-royal : Four similar cards, as four fives or four sixes. Fifteens 
are reckoned in a variety of ways and form any number of cards ; thus 
nine and six ; four, three, and eigiit ; one, five, seven, and two, or any other 
combination by which fifteen can possibly be made. Two for his heels : Is 
when the knave of any suit is turned up by the dealer, who thereupon 
scores two poilits. One for his nob: Is when a hand possesses a knave of 
the same suit as the turned-up card, and for which one point is scored by 
the person who holds it. 




Mechanical Apparatus for learning to Swim. 

ATHLETIC EXERCISES. 



Swimming, Gymnastics, Rowing, &c. 

Places and Times for Bathing and Swimming. — It ivS presumed 
that most young lads who go to bathe will take tlie opportunity of 
learning to swim. In crowded cities there are but few places in which 
the youngster can learn the art ; but in the country there are many 
rivers, ponds, canals, or lakes, where both bathing and swimming may 
be indulged in without annoyance. The best kind of place for bath- 
ing is on a shelving gravelly shore, on which the water graduall}' deepens, 
and where no awkward sweep of current may take the bather off his legs. 
The spot should also be free from holes, weeds, and hard stones ; and a 
muddy bottom is to be avoided by all means. Should the banks of such a 
spot be shaded by a few trees, and should there be close by an open space 
for a run on the grass after the bathe, so much the better ; and the young 
learner will then have the chief inducement to venture the sudden dip or 
headlong plunge. 

The best time of the day for bathing or swimming is eitlier before break- 
fast, between the hours of six and eight in the summer time, or between 
eleven and twelve o'clock in the forenoon. Delicate persons should not 
batlie early in the morning; and it would be always well to munch a biscuit 
before early bathing at all times. No one should ever think of entering 
the water on a full stomach, or immediately after dinner, and never when 
overheated and exhausted by fatigue. lie should also avoid entering it 
when cold, or with a headache. Before bathing, it is best to take a moderate 
walk of about a mile, and, while the system is in a glow, to undress quick- 
ly and plunge in. It is bad to walk till you get hot, then to sit down and 
cool, and afterwards to enter the water ; many have lost their lives by this. 
It is also very wrong to enter the water during rain, as the clothes are of- 
ten wetted or damp, which gives the bather cold. 

Entering the Water. — Having stripped the body, the bather should se- 
lect the best place on the bank for going down to the stream ; and then, pro- 
ceeding cautiously but quickly, wade up to his breasts, turn his head to the 
shore, and dip. He then technically, as the boys say, gets his pincli over. 
Should he not be man enough to proceed in this way, he should, as soon as 
begets his feet wet, splash some water over his head, and go into the water 
more gradually, and try the rajud rush and dip when he gets bolder. He 
must not attempt to swim or strike out till he can master tlie feat of going 

37.5 



376 ATHLETIC EXERCISES. 

into the water up to his armpits, and till he feels himself confident and void 
of timidity. 

Aids to Swimming. — Many aids liave heen iised for the benefit of yoimg 
swimmers : corks and bladders fastened under the arms are the common ones; 
but they offer dangerous temptations for bathers to go out of tlieir deptli, and 
tlien should cramp, cold, or any other accident occur, the event may be fatal. 
Besides, these aids often slip about from one place to the other. We remember 
an instance, in our younger days, of the " corks" slipping to the hips, and of 
seeing a young friend, now an old man, suspended in the water with his head 
downwards ; while collapsing of bladders and of air-jackets is by no means 
uncommon. The best aid to a young swimmer is a judicious friend, himself 
a good swimmer, who will hold up his head, when lie strikes off, by the 
"tip of the finger to the tip of the chin," and who at the same time will 
show him how to strike off, and how to manage his hands and feet. It is 
not a bad plan to put out a si)ar from a boat, to which a rope is attached, 
which the young learner may make use of by affixing it to a belt round his 
bod}' under his arms, which will afford him support while he learns to 
strike his legs in the water. The rope may also be held in the hand of a 
friend, by tiie side of the boat, and the learner may strike off hands and 
feet as the boat proceeds. The plank is a dangerous aid, from its tendency 
to slip about, and to take the swimmer out of his depth, and, although it 
has many advantages, is very unsafe. The safest plan of all is, as we have 
before stated, for the learner to advance gradually up to his armpits in the 
water, and then, turning about, to strike slowly out towards the shore, tak- 
ing care to keep his legs well up from the bottom. Rigid perseverance in 
this course will in a very short time enable the youngster to feel himself 
afloat, and moving at " all fours " — a delight equal to that e.xperienced by 
the child who first feels that he can walk from chair to chair. 

Striking Off and Swimming. — In striking off, the learner, having 
turned himself to the shore, as before recommended, should fall towards 
the water gently, keeping liis head and neck perfectly upright, his breast 
advancing forward, his chest inflated ; then withdrawing the legs from 
the bottom, and stretching them out, strike the arms forward in unison 
with the legs. The back can scarcely be too much hollowed, or the head 
too much thrown back, as those who do otherwise will swim with 
tlielr feet too near the surface, instead of allowing them to be about 
a foot-and-a-half deep in the water. The hands should be placed 
just in front of the breast, the fingers pointing forward and kept close 
together with the thumbs to the edge of the forefingers ; the hands 
must be made Tather concave on the inside, though not so much as to dim- 
inish the size. In the stroke of the hands, they should be carried forward 
to tlie utmost extent, taking care that they do not touch the surface of the 
water; they should next be swept to the side, at a distance from, but as 
low as, the hips ; and should then be drawn up again, by bringing the arms 
towards the side, bending the elbows upwards and the wrists downwards, 
so as to let the hands hang down while the arms are raising them to the 
first attitude. 

How TO Manage the Legs. — The legs, which should be moved alter- 
nately with the hands, must be drawn up with the knees inwards, and 
the soles of the feet inclined outwards ; and they should then be thrown 
backwards, as widely apart from each other as possible. These motions 
of the hands and legs may be practiced out of the water; and whilst exer- 
cising the legs, which can only be done one at a time, the learner may rest 
one hand on the back of a chair to steady himself, while he moves the oppo- 
site leg. When in the water, the learner must take care to draw his breath 
at the instant that his liands, descending to his hips, cause his head to rise 
above the surface of the water ; and he should exhale his breatli at the 
moment his body is propelled forward through the action of tlielegs. If 
lie does not attend precisely to these rules, he must invariably have a 
downward motion, and, as the boys say, swim furthest where it is deepest. 



ATHLETIC EXERCISES. 377 

Plunging and Diving. — There are two kinds of plunging : that belong- 
ing to shallow, and tliat belonging to deep water. In shallow-water plunging, 
tJie learner should fling himself as far forward as possible into the stream at a 
very oblique angle ; and wlien he touches the water, he should raise his head, 
keep his back hollow, and stretch his hands forward. In the deep-water 
plunge, his body is to descend at a greater angle ; his arms are to be stretched 
out, his hands closed and pointed, and his body bent, so that his nose almost 
touches his toes. 

Diving is one of the greatest amusements connected with swimming. 
There are many kinds; the two most common and easiest and necessary 
modes of going below the surface, are — 

1. Tlie feet-foremost jump. 

2. The head-foremost jump. 

In the first, the legs, arms and head are to be kept perfectly rigid and 
stiff. The pupil must not allow fear, or the strange sensation felt in the 
bowels in leaping from considerable heights, to induce him to spread the 
arms or legs, or to bend liis body. 

In tlie second mode, or liead-foremost plunge — which is the safest mode 
for persons who are heavily built about the chest and siioulders, if they have 
to enter the water from heights — the head is drawn down upon the chest, 
the arms stretched forward, and hands closed to a point ; and as soon as the 
swimmer feels that he has left the bank, his knees, which till then were 
bent, are to be stiffened. The diver must avoid striking on the belly — the 
general consequence of fear ; and turning over so as to come down on his 
back or side — the consequence of pushing with the feet. When he has 
gone as deep as he wishes, the arms are to be raised and pressed down- 
wards. 

Swimming under Water. — When under the Avater, the swimmer may 
either move in the usual way, or keep his hands stretched before 
him, which will enable him to cut tlie water more easily, and greatly 
relieve his chest. If he observes that he approaches too near the sur- 
face of the water, he must press the palms of his hands upwards. If he 
wishes to dive to the bottom, he must turn the palms of his hands up- 
wards, striking with them repeatedly and rapidly whilst the feet are 
reposing; and when he has obtained a perpendicular position, he should 
stretch out his hands like feelers, and make the usual movement with 
liis feet, then he will descend witli great rapidity to the bottom. It is 
well to accustom the eyes to open themselves under the water, at least in 
those beds of water that admit the light, as it will enable the swimmer 
to ascertain the depth of wsiter he is in. 

Swimming on the Side. — In this the body is turned either on the left or 
right side, while the feet perform their usual motions. The arm from under 
the shoulder stretches itself out quickly, at the same time that tlie feet are 
striking. The other arm strikes at the same time with the impelling of tlie 
feet. The hand of the latter arm begins its stroke on a level with the head. 
While the hand is again brought forward in a flat position and the feet are 
contracted, the stretciied-out hand is, while working, 
drawn back towards the breast, but not so much impel- 
ing as sustaining. As swimming on the side presents to 
the water a smaller surface than on the waist, when ra- 
pidity is required the former is often preferable to the latter. 

Swimming on the Back without Employing the Feet. — This is two- 
fold: 1, In the direction of the feet. The body is placed in a horizontal posi- 
tion, the feet are stretched out stifily, and the heels and toes are kept in 
contact ; then the body is to be somewhat curved at the seat, the liands are 
to be stretched flatly forward over the body, and, slowly striking in small 
circles, tlie loins are somewhat drawn up at each stroke. 2. In the direction 
of the head. The body is placed horizontally, but somewhat curved in the 
seat, the head in its natural position, the arms are kept close to the body, 
with the elbows inclined inwards, and the hands describe small circles from 




378 



ATHLKTIC EXERCISES. 




the back to tlie front, 
at about a foot-aud- 
lialf from tlie liij)S. 
These moiles serve to 
exercise and strengtlj- 
en the arms in an ex- 
traordinary degree 
without in the least 
fatiijuing the breast. 

Floating. — The 
body is laid horizon- 
tally on the back, the 
liead is bent back- 
wards as much as pos- 
sible, the arms are stretclied out over the head in the direction of the body, 
the feet are left to their natural position; if they sink, the loins must be 
kept as low as possible. In this position, the person, who is specifically 
lighter than water, remains, and may float at pleasure. The lungs should 
be kept inflated, that the breast may be distended and the circumference of 
the body augmented. In order not to sink while in the act of taking breath, 
which the greater specific weiglit of the body would effect, the breath must 
be quickly expelled, and as quickly drawn in again, and then retained as 
long as possible ; for, as the back is in a flat position, the sinking, on ac- 
count of the resistance of the water, does not take place so rapidly, but the 
quick respiration will restore the equilibrium before the water reaches the nose. 
Treading Watek. — This is a perpendicular position of the swimmer, 
and is of great use to enable him to save a person from drowning. It is in 
general thought to be extremely difficult, but it is very easy. There are two 
ways of performing the action : In the first, the hands are compressed 
against the hips, and the feet describe their usual circle; the other mode 
consists in not contracting both legs at the same time, but one after the 
other, so that while the one remains contracted the other describes a circle. 
In this mode, however, the legs must not be stretched out, but the thighs 
are placed in a distended position, and curved as if in a half-sitting posture. 
The Fling. — Tlie swimmer lays himself flat upon his waist, draws his 
feet as close as possible under the body, stretciies his hands forwards, and 
with both feet and hands, beating the water violently at the same time, 
raises himself out of the water. In this manner one ma}' succeed in throw- 
ing oneself out of the water as high as the hips. This exercise is very use- 
ful, for saving oneself by catching a rope or any other object that hangs 

from above the surface 
of the water, or from 
any perpendicular 

height. 

Swimming on thk 
Back. — In this the 
swimmer turns upon 
his back in the water 
by the combined mo- 
tion of the arm and 
leg, and extending his 
body his head being in 
a line with it, so that 
tlie back and upper 
part of the head may be immersed, while the face and breast are out of the 
water. The hands should he placed on the thighs straight down, and the 
legs moved as in forward swimming, taking care that the knees do not rise 
above the surface in striking them out. Sometimes the hands are used after 
the motion of a wing or fan, l)y which a slight progression is also made 
at the same time that the surface of the body is well lifted out of the water 




ATHLETIC EXERCISES. 



379 



Thrusting. — In the thrust, the swimmer lies horizontally upon his 
waist, and makes the common motions in swimming. He then simply 
stretches one arm forward as in swimming on the side, but remains lying 
upon the waist, and, in a widely described circle, he carries the other hand, 
which is working under the breast, towards the hip. As soon as the arm 
has completed tliis motion, it is lifted from the water in a stretched position, 
and thrown forward in the greatest horizontal level, and is then sunk with 
the hand flat into the water ; while the swimmer thus stretches forth the 
arm, he, with the other hand stretched as wide as possible, describes a small 
circle in order to sustain the body ; after this he brings his hand in a largely 
described circle rapidly to the hip, lifts the arm out of the water, and thrusts 
it forward. During the describing of the larger circle the feet make their 
movements. To niake the thrust beautifully, a considerable degree of prac- 
tice is required. This mode of swimming is useful where a great degree of 
rapidity is required for a short distance. 

The Double Thrust. — In the performance of this the arm is thrust for- 
ward, backwards, and again forwards without dipping into the water ; in the 
meantime the stretched-forth arm describes two circles before it begins the 
larger one. 

To Swim Like a Dog. — In this motion each hand and foot is used alter- 
nately as a dog uses 
them when swimming, 
as the term implies. 
The hands are alter- 
nately drawn towards 
the chin in a compres- 
sed form, and then ex- i 
panded and slightly 
hollowed, with lingers 
closed, and as they 
strike the water the 
feet are likewise drawn 
towards the belly, and 
struck backwards with a kind of kick. This mode of swinnning is of use to 
relieve the swimmer from time to time when going a distance. 

The Mill. — Tiie swimmer lays himself on his back and contracts him- 
self so that the knees are brought almost to the chin, and while one of the 
hands keeps the equilibrium by describing circles, the other continues work- 
ing. Thus the body is kept turning round more or less rapidly. 

The Wheel Backwards and Forwards. — In the forward ivlieel the 
hands are put as far backwards as possible, and so pressed against the 
water that the head is impelled under tlie surface, and the feet, by a pres- 
sure of the hands in a contrary direction, are rapidly flung above the head, 
which in this manner is rapidly brouglit again to tlie surface. 

In the backivard wheel the swimmer lies upon liis back, he contracts him- 
self, the hands, stretched forward as far as possible, describe rapidly small 
circles, the feet rise, and as the point of equilibrium has been brought as 
near as possible to the feet, the head sinks and the feet are thrown over. 

To Swim with One Hand. — The learner to do this swims on one side, 
keeps his feet somewhat deeply sunk, while the arm which in the meantime 
ought to work is kept quiet — and might be even taken out of the water. It 
is a good practice of strength to carry, first under and then over the water, 
a weight of four or eight pounds. 

Hand Over Hand Swimming. — In this process, the right hand is lifted 
out of the water from behind, swung forwards through the air with a kind 
of circular sweep to the extent of its reach forward, then dropped into the 
water edgeways, and immediately turned, with the palm a little hollowed, 
downwards, the body being at the same time thrown a little on one side, 
and the right leg struck out backwards, to its full extent. The hand de- 
scends towards the thigh, and then passes upwards through the water in a 




880 



ATHLKTIC EXERCISES. 




kind of curve towards tlie surface'. Tlie left hand and leg perform a simi- 
lar movement alternately with tlie right, and the measure of progression at- 
tained hy tliese com- 
bined similar move- 
ments is very consider- 
able. 

Balancing. — When 
tlie swimmer has ob- 
tained ease and confid- 
ence in the water, he 
will find man}' things 
easy wliich before he 
deemed impossible. 
Balancing is one of 
tiiese. To perform it 
he has only, when out 
of his depth, to fall gently back witli his chin elevated to a line passing ex- 
actly tlirough the centre of his body from the cliin to the toes, tlien folding 
Ills arms, and remaining perfectly motionless, he may suspend liimself per- 
pen licularly ; but if he should extend Jiis 
arms backwards, and pass them gradually be- 
yond his head, his toes, tips of his knees, ab- 
domen, and part of his chest, with the whole of 
his face will appear, and he will be balanced 
and float horizontally without tiie slightest 
motion. 

The Cramp. — The cramp generally pro- 
ceeds from acidity of the bowels, arising from a 
bad state of the stomach, or from tlie effects of 
the cold water on the muscular system. Some 
persons are very subject to it on slight occa- 
sions, and such persons will do well never to 
go out of their depth. But siiouUl a tolerable 
swimmer be seized with tlie cramp, he should 
not be frightened, but the moment tlie cramp 
is felt in tiie foot or leg, strike out that foot or 
leg with the heel elongated, and the toes drawn 
upwards towards the shin-bone, never minding 
any little pain it may occasion, as he need not 
fear breaking a bone, muscle, or tendon. 
Should tliis not succeed, he should throw him- 
self on his back, and float quietly, and paddle 
himself gently to the shore. He may also 
swim with his hand like a dog, and practise 
any of the motion of the upper part of the body for keeping his head above 
water till assistance arrives. 





ATHLKTIC EXERC13ES. 381 

. Gymnastics.— A species of exercise tending to devolope the frame, and 
strengthen tlie muscles, and especiall}' adapted for the human body before 
it has become "' set." The best age to commence tlie practice of tliis exer- 
cise is about eight years. Tlie practice sliould be gentle at first, and gradu- 
ally increase in proportion to age and strengtli. Gymnastics are better i)rac- 
tised before meals than after them, the early part of the day being perhajis 
the best time of any. Care should be taken not to lie on the damp ground, 
nor stand in a drauglit, nor drink cold water immediately after the exercises 
have been gone tlirough ; these exercises <!onsisting of every variety of ac- 
tive employment of the body, including walking, running, jumping, leaping, 
&c. Of all the corporeal exercises, y^wyxH^r is one of the most useful; to 
jump with ease ami confidence, one should always fall on the toes, taking 
especial care to bend the knees and the hips ; the upper part of the body 
should be inclined forwards, and the arms extended towards the ground. In 
jimiping we should hold the breath and never alight on the heels. In leaping, 
the object is to pass over an ol)stacle ; in this case, also, the breath should be 
held, while the liands should be clenched, and the arms pendant. To facili- 
tate this exercise a leaping-stand may be formed. The high leap should be 
practised, first standing, and then with a short run ; in the standing leap the 
feet must be kept close together ; and in the leap with a run, the leaper 
should take about twelve paces, and go fairly over the cord, witliout veering 
to either side, and descend on the ball of the foot. Vanltiiuj is performed by 
springing over some stationary object, such as agate or bar by the aid of the 
hands which bear upon it. To perform it, the vaulter may approach tiie 
object with a slight run, and placing jiis hands upon it, heave himself up 
and throw his legs obliquely over it. The legs should be kept close togeth- 
er ; while the body is in suspension over the bar, the rigiit hand supports 
and guides it, leaving the left hand free. Climbing tlie rope. To do this, 
cross the feet and hold the rope firmly between them ; move the hands one 
above the other alternately, and draw the feet up between each movement 
of the hands. In the sailor's manner of climbing, the rope from the hands 
passes between the thighs, and twists round one leg, just below the knee 
and over the instep ; the other foot then presses upon the rope, and thus an 
extremely firm support is obtained. In climbing trees both the hands and 
feet are to be used, but the climber should never forget that it is to the hands 
that he has to trust. He should carefully look upwards, and select the 
branches for his hands, and the knobs and other excrescences for his feet ; 
he should also mark the best openings for the advance of his body ; he 
should also be particularly cautious in laying hold of withered branches, or 
those that have suffered decay at their junction with the trunk. In descend- 
ing, he should be even more cautious than in ascending, and hold fast by 
his hands. In climbing the wooden ladder, the learner should seize each side 
of the ladder, and by moving his hands alternately, ascend as far as his 
strength will permit. He should next trj' to climb tlie ladder by the rundles, 
by bringing the elbow of his lower arm firmly down to the ribs previous 
to pulling himself up to the other. In performing this exercise the legs must 
be kept close, and as straight and steady as possible. Climbing the inclined 
board. For this purpose, the board should be about two feet wide, and rest- 
ing at an angle of thirty degrees. The climber must seize both sides of the 
board with his hands, and placing his feet flat in the middle, ascend by mov- 
ing his hands and feet alternatel}'. "When the gynmast has, through prac- 
tice, acquired power and precision to his movements, the plank may be 
raised until it is almost perpendicular. Climbing the pole. The pole should 
be about four inches in diameter, and firmly fixed in the ground in a perpen- 
dicular position. In mounting, the pole is to be grasped firmly with both 
hands, the right above the left. The legs should alternately grasp the pole 
in the ascent by means of the great toe, which is turned towards the pole. 
In descending, the friction is thrown on the inner part of the thighs, and tlio 
hands are left comparatively free. 

Parallel Bars are two pieces of wood, from six to eight feet in length, 



382 ATHLETIC EXERCISES. 

and about four inches square, the edges rounded. For lads they are fixpd 
at about eighteen inches apart, and supported by two round standards, fairly 
fixed in tlie ground, from 3 to 4 feet higli, according to the stature of tiie 
boys. By the aid of tiiese bars several feats may be performed, among 
which are tlie following: Balancing. Being placed between the bars and in 
the centre, put your liands right and left on the bars at the same time. After 
a little jump upwards, preserve your equilibrium on both wrists, tlie legs 
close ; this is called the first position. Then communicate to your body a 
gentle movement of balancing from behind, forwards, and continue this 
several times, the body moving as it were on a pivot. This should be prac- 
tised until the body swings freely backwards aiul forwards. To rise and sink. 
Being in equilibrium in the middle of the bars, place the legs backwards, the 
heels close to the upper part of the thigh. From this position, come gently 
down, till the elbows nearly meet behind the back, then rise up gently witli- 
out any impulse or touching the ground with your feet. To kiss the bar be- 
hind the hands. In the same position as before, bring the body gently down 
between the bars without touching the ground with your knees ; kiss the 
bar behind each liand alternately, and then rise up in the first position. 

The Horizontal Bar. — In the exercises on the horizontal bar, the first 
position is assumed by taking hold, with both hands, of the side of the bar 
towards you, and raising yourself until you can look over it. Wiien you 
can perform this easily, place the hands on tlie farther side of the bar, and 
raise yourself as before. In the ne.xt exercise, place your hands on each side 
of the bar, then raise the body off the ground and endeavor to pass from one 
end of the bar to the other, by making a succession of small springs with the 
hands, and afterwards by passing the hands alternately ; the legs being, in 
the meantime, kept close and as straight as possible. Kicking the bar. To per- 
form this, hang by the haiwls and draw up the feet very slowly until the in- 
step touches the pole. This is difficult at first, but is soon learned ; do not 
kick or jerk violently, or you may injure yourself. Next practise hanging 
by the right arm and right leg, while the left hangs down ; then by the 
right arm aiul left leg, and left arm and right leg. When perfect in these 
exercises, take hold of the bar firmly by the right hand, throw the right leg 
over the bar, hold on steadily by the joint of the knee, and next raise the 
body and get the left armpit over the bar ; then by a little exertion you will 
be able to assume a riding position on it. Circling the bar. In doing this, 
liang by the hands, and curl the body gently over the bar. If too difficult 
at first, stop for a minute or two and try something else, and after an inter- 
val try it again ; it will soon be learned. 

The Balancing Bar. — Foremost among the preliminary exercises of 
balancing are the following: Standing on one leg, holding one foot high in 
the hand, kissing the toe, and sitting down. The first two explain them- 
selves sufficiently ; to kiss the toe, lift one foot witli both hands and raise it 
towards the chin, which should be slightly lowered to meet it ; in sitting 
down, both arms and one leg should be thrust forward, and the other leg 
bent until the feat is performed ; after which he should carefully rise up, 
keeping his arms and legs outstretched, and steadily preserving his balance 
all the time. In dry weather, the soles of the shoes should be damped, as 
then the upper bar is smooth and slippery. Mount tlie bar either from the 
ground, or from a riding position on the bar itself ; in the latter case, place 
the right foot on the bar, keeping the heel close to the upper part of the 
thigh, and allow the left foot onlj'^ to hang perpendicularly down, with the 
toes pointing to the ground ; then stretch both arms forward, and gradually 
rise on the foot, keeping your balance 'for a minute or two before you begin 
to walk. First, try to walk with assistance, then alone, balancing by extend- 
ing the arms, and afterwards with the arms folded behind. When you can 
walk steadily and easily, endeavor to turn round on the bar, first trying at 
the broad and then at the narrow end, and lastly walk backward. When 
two persons in walking the bar, wish to pass each other, they should join 
arms, place their right feet forward, and turn quite round, by each stepping 



ATHLETIC EXERCISES. 38S 

with the left foot round tlie riglit of the other. Other exercises are per- 
formed through the medium of the horse, the chair, &c. ; and an exercise 
termed giant strides, consists of a pole setup with four ropes, one of which 
each pupil grasps, and vaults or steps out in a circle, increasing the velocity 
by degrees, until at lengtli a complete circle is made in the air without 
touching the ground with the feet. 

Rowing. — In practising this art, it may be laid down, as a general rule, 
that in calm weather, a light and sharp boat is preferable; and, in rough 
weather, a heavier and broader one. The learner, however, should not at 
first begin in too light a boat, nor sliould he practise in rough weather, un- 
til he gets acquainted with its management. To leave the shore, the rower 
should with the boat hook, push the boat off, head upon tide, or opposite to 
the current. To leave the stairs, the rower must either pusli the boat off 
with the boat-hook, or place the blur of the scull forward and nurse the 
boat out from the shore. Tliis being done, the rower sits down to his sculls. 
These he puts in the rowlocks, and turns the concave front of the 
scull towards the stern of the boat. Tiie rower must sit amidships on 
thwart or seat of the boat, otherwise she will reel to the side on whicli he is 
sitting, and mucli of his labor will be lost. He should sit with ease to him- 
self, having his feet on the middle of tlie stretcher, and liis legs not quite 
extended ; but his knees, as he rows, should be brought down, and his legs 
stretched. In grasping the oar for the pull, hold the hand square and firm, 
but with sufficient freedom to let tlie muscles of the arm have play. The 
body is now to be inclined forward from the hips till the head comes nearly 
over the knees, and the arms extend till the knuckles come over tiie joints 
of the instep. Tiie edge of the oar being now turned parallel with the 
water, so as to feel no resistance from the wind, the dip is made, and at the 
moment of doing this the ojir is dexterously turned so tliat its edge cuts the 
water in descending, and being completely immersed and no more, the broail 
part of the blade is pressed strongly and firmly against the water by the 
pull. When the pull is fairly and evenly given, and in such a way as that 
the whole power shall be brought to bear upon the water without any jerk- 
ing or trembling of the oar, the time is come for lifting it out of the water, 
and in doing this, the hand or hands are brought close to the side, a little 
below the chest, the oar is slightly turned or feathered as it rises to the sur- 
face, then lifted, and the stroke repeated. In river-rowing, when the 
tide or current is with the rower, .a learner should in general take the middle 
of the stream. When the tide or current is against the rower, he should 
take the sides ; preferring that side on which, owing to the course of the 
river, the current is least. In backing water the oars are suddenly turned, 
the concave parts facing the sculler or rower, who pushes from him. Tliis 
forces the boat backwards. In turning a boat it is usual to back-water with 
one oar, or to hold water, at the same time that you pull with the other. If 
you wish to turn your boat's head to your left side, you pull with the right 
oar and back with your left, or pull with your left oar and back with your 
right. In meeting any other craft, the boat which comes with the tide must 
get out of the way. In this case, both boats, if close, lay the blades of 
tiieir sculls flat on the water, lift them out of the rowlocks, and let them drift 
alongside. Each replaces them when the other has passed. In passing a 
boat, the rower who passes must take the outside, unless there is ample 
room within ; and must also keep clear of the other's sculls or oars. If one 
boat is crossing the water, and another coming with the tide, the one coming 
with the tide must keep astern of the other, and iiavea good lookout ahead. 
In landing, bring your boat in a slanting direction to the landing-place, 
whether going against or with the current, by which method her stern will 
slue round, and she will be partly broadside on, with her stern towards the 
direction of the tide. When you step out of the boat, either use your oar or 
boat-hook to assist you, unship the sculls, as before directed, lay them in the 
boat, jump ashore with one end of the painter (or rope by wliich the boat is 
made fast) in your hand, and fasten it to the post or ring. Sea rowing is 



384 " ATHLETIC EXERCISES. 

much more difBcult than river rowing, and requires more strength and man- 
agement. One of tlie most diffieult things is launching a boat ; in doing tliia 
from the sea-beach, wlien tlie weatlier is rough and there is a lieavy surf, 
tlie two bowmen must get into the boat with tlieir oars run out; and tlie 
otlier rowers follow the boat quickly in tlie descent ; but they should not 
jump in till she is quite afloat, lest their weight might fix her on the beach, 
and she might ship a sea. In rowing, each man has in general a single oar, 
and sits on the opposite side of the galley from the rowlock through which 
his oar passes. The oar must consequently cross the boat, and be held on its 
opposite side, so as to clear the back of the man before. The stroke must 
be longer in sea than in river rowing. The oar must be thrown out with a 
heave, caused by the simultaneous extension of the bod}' and the arms. It 
is still more essential to feather in sea than in river rowing. The oar must 
be drawn back with great power, caused by the simultaneous contraction of 
the body and the arms ; time with the rowers being accurately kept and dis- 
tinctly marked. When the oars are delivered from the water, the time, un- 
til they go into it again, may be counted — one two, three — when they pass 
through the water. The time is kept by the sternmost man of the rowers. 
In landing on a seii-beach, the rowers should alwa^'s look aliead for a proper 
place, for there are great inequalities in apparently the smoothest beach, 
and landing in one place may be ver}' good, while in another place, not 
twenty yards off, it maj' be dangerous. When a proper place is discovered, 
the rowers may give " good way" on shore. The bowman should be in the 
bows, with his boat-hook in one hand and the end of the painter in the other, 
and immediately the boat grounds, should jump out and haul In. The other 
portion of the crew should now jump out as quickly as possible, and assist 
him in pulling the boat up. Then everything should be stowed away safe 
and secure, and the boat left beyond the reach of the tide at high water. It 
will always be well to observe the following hints and cautions in rowing : — 
If you are rowing with others, always keep the stroke. If you are rowing a 
pair of oars or sculls by yourself, always put both oars into the water at the 
same time. Keep a good look-out ahead, that you may not fall foul 
of other craft. Do not put your oar too deep in the water, and mind 
that the blade of the oar is thoroughly covered. Look well to your 
thowls, and see that they are not rotten before you place them in the 
holes. Let your boat-hook lie clear of your oars, and all clear of 
the painter. See that your foot-boards are properly hitched to 
the parts of the boat made to receive them. In pushing off a boat from a 
ship or other craft, be careful not to stand on the seats of the boat, and not 
to overbalanc'e yourself. Keep yotjr boat neat, trim, and clean, and see 
that she is well baled out before entering her. Should you be rowing in a 
boat in which there is a steersman, always be sure to obey orders. If you 
steer, alwaj's bear well forward with each stroke, as it assists the rowers. 
Keep the rudder ropes as tight as bars, and move the rudder as little as pos 
Bible. 




CAGE BIRDS, TAXIDERMY, &c. 



The Canary, Parrot, Goldfinch, Thrush, &c. General 
Characteristics, Proper Time of Pairing, how to Dis- 
tinguish THE Male Canary from the Female, Diseases 
OF Birds and their Remedies, Taxidermy or Preserv 
iNG Dead Birds. 

Canary. — This well-known cage-bird is never found in this country 
except ifl a state of confinement, and it breeds readily in a cage. The best 
canaries are of a bright yellow with a few jet-black spots. Being origin- 
ally from a warm climate, they are tender, and must be kept in rooms of 
an agreeable temperature ; if exposed to cold either in rooms or the open 
air, they pine and die. In dry weather in summer, their cage should be 
hung in the open air, or at least in the sunshine. If the apartment is kept 
too hot they will moult at an improper season, and this must be avoided. 
Only one male should be allowed in a cage. • Females for breeding are the 
better for having a large cage, as it affords them space for exercise. As 
cleanliness is the most effectual preventive of many diseases to winch 
this bird is subject, the bottom of the cage should be constructed to draw 
out, and should be cleaned and strewed with sand, at least once a week. 
The water in the cage must be changed once or even twice a day. The best 
food for the canary is German ])aste. Crushed hempseed may be given 
occasionally, but not too often. When the paste is given to them it should 
be made fresh every other da3^ When this is not convenient, a substitute 
may be found by taking the crumbs of stale white bread, and after drying 
it in an oven, pounding it in a mortar. The powder formed in this manner 
will keep good for several months, and a teaspoonful may be given every day 
to each bird, witli as much cold or lukewarm milk as will form it into a 
stiff paste. In sunniier, green food may be given occasionally, siutli as 
lettuce-leaves, turnip-tops, groundsel, and watercress. Cake and other 
mappropriate delicacies winch persons are in the iiabit of giving to ('aii- 
aries, are very injurious ; a bird in fiUl song may be at once rendered mute 
by partaking of improper food of tiiis sort». The breeding of canaries 
requires additional accommodation. For this purpose a large cage must lie 
provided, and tlie pair of birds put into it about the middle of April. Tiie 
female ordinarily lays six eggs, one every day. Eacli egg sliouhl be taken 
away as laid, and an ivor^^ one substituted; and when tlie laying is finislied, 
all tlie six original eggs may be replaced. The period of incubation is tliir- 
teen days. When the young are hatched, finely minced egg and bread 
should be placed near the feeding trough, to enable the parents to carry 

17 385 



386 CAGE EIUDS, TAXIDKKMY, &,C. 

suitable food to tlicir younn;- Canaries will mate with siskins, linnets, 
several of tlie finches, and otlier allied birds, producing, in many instances, 
highly-esteemed mules. Tlie diseases to which canaries are mo!<t liable are 
the surfeit and the yellow scab. Wlien the bird has ilie surfeit, if tlie 
feathers of tlie lower part of the body are blown aside, the body will be 
found to be swollen, and covered with little red veins. The best remedy is 
to mix oatmeal with tlie food for two or three days, and put a little saffron 
in the water. If the feathers on the head fail off, and any watery erup- 
tions should appear, the head should be washed every day with spring- 
water, in which a little salt has been dissolved, wiping the head afterwards 
quite dry, and anointing the skin with jialm oil. Tlie bird should be kept 
warm, and a little ground rice may be given to it, boiled in milk witli stick- 
liquorice. The yell oiv scab which attacks tlie head and eyes of the canary, 
may be cured by anointing the part with fresh butter or lard. Canaries 
often sicken a great deal when they are moulting ; at that season they 
should be kept warm, the cage being set in the sun when it shines power- 
fully, and the cage being shielded from cold winds. The food should be 
nourishing, such as Naples biscuits, bread, and the yolks of hard-boiled 
eggs chopped small. Canaries mny be tauglit to sit upon the hand or the 
shoulder, aiul to fly about the room. Tlie mode of teaching requires great 
],atience : At first'the cage door is left open when tliere is no one in the 
room, and a little hemp seed scattered on the table, the water being left in 
tl'e cage. The bird will hop out and take the hemp seed, and then return 
to the cage to drink. The next day tlie same process is repeated with the 
owner of the bird in the room. Tlie day following the master or mistress 
of the bird may be seated at the table; and, finally, the hemp seed may be 
laid upon the lap, and if the person is kept perfectly motionless, the bird 
will, in all probability, venture thus far. The same operation repeated for 
a few days will render tlie bird less timid, until at length he will perch upon 
aay part of the body even when in motion. Canaries may be also brought 
to fetch and carry, and to whistle tunes ; the latter is taught by playing 
tlie tunes over repeatedly on a bird-organ or flute. Tliey will also imitate 
the singing of the nightingale and otlier birds, if kept in the same room. 
Canaries may also be taught to sing at night by keeping the cages covered 
all day, but in this case the advantage gained is scarcely warranted by the 
punishment inflicted. ; 

How TO Distinguish The Male from the Female. — The male may 
be distinguished from the female by a streak of bright yellow over the 
eyes and under the throat ; his head is wider and longer, and has richer 
colors, and larger feet. He also begins to warble first, which is often at a 
month old. 

A Breeding Cage maybe made of a double or single form, with the 
usual conveniences for food and cleaning, and the doors placed where 
deemed most convenient. The size of the perches should be proportioned 
to the size of the cage, and they should lie placed at intervals most fitting 
for tlie birds. In a single cage the top, front, and sides should be of wire, 
and the back of wood ; but if it be a double cage, then both ends of wood. 
A shelf within a few inches of the top, should be made to project from the 
back, and a partition run up from the edge of the shelf to the upper wires. 
On this shelf two square open boxes, about two inches deep, are to be 
placed for the birds to build in, the entrance into which is from two holes 
made in the partition. A net-bag, filled with moss, hair, down and feath- 
ers, suspended from the roof near the perches, completes the fitting of this 
habitation. 

Within the last few years a great improvement has taken place in the 
design and construction of fancy bird cages, and a new material is largely 
employed, consisting principally of zinc, coated with enamel, which ex- 
cludes all vermin 

The liealth and happiness of birds depend greatly on cleanliness: to pro- 
mote this, every week, or fortnight at the farthest, tlie floor and perches of 



CAGE BIRDS, TAXIDERMY, &C. 387 

tlie aviary or cage sliould be thoroughly cleansed, and fresh sand strewn on 
the floor. If tliis be neglected, not only do the birds suffer in health and 
spirits generally, but they contract a disease in tlieir feet, frequently result- 
ing in lameness, or the loss of one or more of tlieir claws. A difficulty is 
sometimes experienced in taming birds to a sufficient degree to set tlieni at 
liberty from the cage, and allow them to fly abcnit tlie room. The follow- 
ineg is the most approved method for accomplishing this ; — Cut from the 
inner plume of the pen-featliers a larger or smaller portion, according to 
the wijdness of the bird ; then touch the nostrils of tlie bird with bergamot, 
or any other odorous oil, by which it is rendered so stupified for a time as 
to percli quietly on the finger, or to hop from one finger to another. As 
soon as it sits quietly on one finger, another finger must be jjlaced in such 
a position as to cause tlie bird to step upon it; and so soon as it is accus- 
tomed to hop quietly from one finger to anotiier the chief difficulty is 
overcome ; for the bird, gradually arriving to a sense of consciousness, and 
perceiving that it is not treated roughly, is brought to pay obedience to its 
master's commands. They'oo(^ of birds should be as near a resemblance of 
their natural diet as possible. Canaries, bullfinches, goldtinclies, linnets, 
&c., eat seed only. Larks, yellow-hammers, and the various kinds, of tits, 
eat both seeds and insects. Nightingales, redbreasts, tlirushes, blackcaps, 
&c., eat insects and berries. Wagtails, field-larks, white-tails, &c., eat 
insects only. To meet this difficulty, all the dead flies found on window- 
sills and in corners should be collected, and these, added witli a few meal- 
worms, will supply the want specified. Canaries prefer a mixture of can- 
ary, summer-rape, and cruslied hempseed ; goldfinches, pojipysee^l, now 
and then mixed with a little crushed hemjjsced ; Linnets and bullfinches, 
rapeseed alone. Larks prefer barleymeal, mixed with cabbage and water- 
cress, cut small; chaffinches, rapeseed occasionally mixed witli a little 
hempseed. The various kinds of tits prefer hempseed, oats, and meal. 
Tiie following are two receipts for a paste suitable for birds generall3^ 
Thoroughly soak in cold water the crumb part of a stale loaf, press the 
water out, pour milk over the bread, and mix it with two-thirds of its own 
weight of barley-meal. Or, grate a carrot, which has been kept in a cool 
place for a whole year, tlien thoroughly soak a penny roll in water, strain 
the water off, and mix tlie bread and carrot with two handfuls of barley- 
meal. These pastes, must however, be made every day, as after that time 
they become sour. All birds need a fresh snpp/i/ of water every evening to 
quench their thirst, as well as to bathe with ; and if a considerable number 
of birds inhabit the same room, the water should be placed in an eartlien 
vessel, 8 inches long by 2 wide, divided into several compartments. Cage 
birds are subject to a variety of diseases, foremost amongst which is tlie 
pip. This disorder is a cold, in which the nostrils are stopped up, and the 
external skin of the tongue hardened bj' inflammation. A pill of butter, 
garlic, and pepper, with occ^asionally sipping of infusion of speedwell, will 
soon effect a cure ; and, to assist the remedy, a fine feather should be 
drawn gently through the nostrils. The symptoms of this disorder are a 
yellowness at the root of the beak, dryness of the tongue, roughness on the 
feathers of the head, and a frequent gasping as if for breath. AJuultini/ 
may be considered a disease. It is of annual recurrence, and its cure 
mainly depends on time and attention. During this time the food of the 
bird should be wholesome and varied ; all draughts and cold should be ex- 
cluded, and the most scrupulous cleanliness observed. Tijinpany is a dis- 
ease in wliicli the skin of a part, or the whole of the body, is puffed uji and 
tightened b3' an accumulation of air beneath. The simple remedy is to prick 
the skin with a needle, and let out the confined air. Pairing fever generally 
attacks cage birds in the month of JNIay. The birds affected cease to sing, 
allow their feathers to become and continue rough, and waste away. One 
of the best remedies for this is to hang the cage before a window, by which 
means the bird becomes clieered and enlivened, and resumes his wonted 
blithesomeness. Epilejisy. — This disease is brought on by a plethoric habit 



.388 CAGE BIRDS, TAXIDERMY, «fcC. 

of body , ami results from an excess of food, and a deficiency of exercise. 
A few drops of olive oil are frequently benefic^ial, but if tliis prove ineffica- 
cious, dip the bird once or twice in ice-cold water, and cut the claws so 
closely tliat they let blood. Giddiness is rather the result of bad habit tlian 
a disease. It sometimes happens that birds acquire the habit of looking 
upwards to such an extent, as frequently to turn round backwards on the 
perch ; — the best means of preventing this, is to cover the top of the cage 
with a cloth, by wliich the upward look is effectively checked. Decline. — 
The symptoms which betray the presence of this disease are general rough- 
ness of the feathers, and an inordinate appetite, coupled with a gradual 
wasting of the flesh. The most effectual remedy is to force the bird to 
swallow a spider, and to put a rusty nail into its water, which imparts 
vigor and strength to the stomach. Green food should be chiefly given 
during the prevalence of this disease, and more particularly watercress. 
Costiveness may be cured by the ailministering of a worm bruised with saf- 
ron and linseed oil ; and cold should be treated with a pectoral elixir in an 
infusion of speedwell. 

Pakrots. — The following general directions for the treatment, in confine- 
ment, of the various species of this gorgeously attired family of birds will 
be found very useful as the rules on this head which would apply to 
most other feathered pets are scarcely applicable to them, they being, 
as it were, a class sui generis, with a nature and habits peculiar to them- 
elves. 

First, then, let it be observed that they are, with scarcely any exceptions, 
natives of tropical countries, wliere vegetation is abundant and the heat 
intense. God made them witii a nature fitted for such climates : they must 
have fruit, both pulpy, like cherries, grapes, and pears ; and hard, like nuts, 
and the kernels of our native plums, peaches, &c. They must have water 
to drink and bathe in ; as much sunshine as can be given them ; and, above 
all, they must be kept ivarm. The room wliich they ihhabit should always 
have a fire if the weather is at all chilly ; and it is best, at all events in 
winter, to cover their cages at night with a cap of green baize or flannel. 
Encourage them to take as much exercise as the limits of their prison will 
allow : if chained to a perch, which is the best mode of keeping the larger 
kinds, let their chain be of a good length, and as liglit as a due regard to 
strength will allow : it must be of metal, or they will soon sever it with 
their powerful mandibles. If you can give them an aviary well stocked 
with orange and myrtle trees, and other plants wliich are indigenous to 
warm climates, and supplied in the winter with flues and other contrivances 
for increasing the temperature, so much the better, as this is the nearest 
approach to a state of liberty which can be made. 

Let all that you do to these birds be done with gentleness and kindness ; 
on no account threaten or attempt to cliastise them ; gain their confidence, 
win their affection, and you may do anything with them; frighten them, or 
arouse their anger, and all your efforts to teach or train them vyiU be una- 
vailing ; they will be either shy and timid, or sullen and spiteful ; your 
caresses they will recijjrocate, and if you please them will endeavor to 
please you ; and they will also return in kind, as far as they are able, any 
ill usage to which you may subject them. In this respect bird nature is 
pretty much hke human nature ; but there is this difference in the cases ; 
the unfeathered biped, if punished, may be made to understand the reason- 
ableness of it, and be reconciled to the infliction, because salutary, though 
bitter : the feathered biped cannot. We have dwelt longer upon this part 
of our subject than may to some seem necessary, but we have done so 
from a conviction that mucli suffering has resulted to domesticated birds, 
and parrots especially, and much annoyance and disappointment to those 
who have kept them, from want of a due regard to the feelings and predi- 
lections of these beautiful and often wayward creatures. Children are fre- 
quently suffered to teaze and annoy them, servants to scare and frighten 
them : tempting morsels are offered to them and withdrawn, to see what 



CAGE BIRDS, TAXIDERMY, &C. 389 

pretty rages they get into, dogs are set to yelp and jump at them, and all 
sorts of positive cruelties perpetrated, to say notliing of tlie negative ones 
of neglecting to minister to their wants and comforts regularly and effec- 
tually. . 

Notliing, perhaps, conduces to the health and vivacity of a parrot more 
than cleanliness, and yet how often is this grievously neglected to save a 
little trouble. Not only should this be strictly attended to in tlie dwelling, 
but also in the person of tlie bird. Tlie feet should be carefully washed 
from impurities, and tiie plumage occasionally syringed witli warm water, 
if the bathing is neglected, or fails to remove any defilements contracted. 
All parrot cages should have a grating at tlie bottom, and a drawer supplied 
vvitii sifted gravel or very coarse sand, which should be put in fresh every 
otlier day. This grating and the perches should be occasionally scraped, 
and the cage itself thoroughly cleansed about once a month, taking care 
that it is quite dry before the bird is put into it. Tiie water should be fresh 
every day, and also the food of a moist nature. And witli regard to food, 
we would fain offer a few reniarks supplemental to those included in our 
accounts of the several species. 

Bread and milk is generally the staple prison diet of birds of this kind, 
and it sliould be thus prepared : first, cut tiie bread in slices, and pour over 
it warm water; let it soak a siiort time, and then squeeze it as dry as pos- 
sible ; then allow it to absorb as mucli fresh boiled milk as it will witliout 
being too moist : this kind of soft food should not be exclusively used ; an 
occasional change is necessary, and this may consist, for the larger kinds, 
of biscuits broken small, fiVrinaceous grain, nuts of any kind, except bitter 
almonds, and fruit, both hard and soft ; Indian corn is good, but tiiis should 
be boiled first, drained dry, and suffered to cool. For tiie smaller kinds, 
also, a little fruit, with henipseed, canary seed, and millet, &c. 

Zinc and pewter food vessels are sometimes used, but these are liable to 
be acted on b^- the moist food, especially if at all acidulous, and render 
tliat which should be nutritious highly pernicious. Glass and earth- 
enware are the best materials, for obvious reasons. We will now devote 
a little space to the consideration of the Diseases to wiiich parrots are 
especially liable : — Irritability, and a desire to pluck out the feathers, 
is occasioned, as we iiave already stated, by giving these birds animal 
food, whicli should always be carefully avoided; it is altogether unna- 
tural to them, tliey being, with two or three exceptions purely frugi- 
vorous and granivorous birds. When this mistake is made, and its bad 
effects follow, apply to the body of the sufferer a lotion made of com- 
nion salt dissolved in spring water, once a day, and give it nothing Init bread 
and milk to eat for a time. Several internal diseases may be prevented b) 
giving about once a month a few of tlie pepper pods called chilies, cut into 
pieces ; these the birds will eagerly swallow, as if they knew they were 
designed for salutary effect. 

Asthma is a disease with which parrots are, perhaps, more frequently 
attacked than any other bird ; its causes are, a cold caught through being 
allowed to remain in a draught of air, or an undue proportion of hempseed 
in the food, this being of too heating a nature to be given constantly ; its 
symptoms are, siiortness of the breath, and a frequent expansion of the beak 
when the bird is in any way excited ; its remedies — extra warmth, change 
of food, if that previously given has been chiefly dry, now let it be moist 
and warm : in severe attacks, give a paste made by boiling a piece of white 
' bread about the size of a walnut, in four tablespoonfuls of milk, stirring 
with a wooden spoon until it becomes an even pulp ; mix with it a few 
grains of cayenne pepper, and keep the bird entirely on it for two or three 
days ; it must be prejiared fresh as wanted, as if at all sour, it will prove 
injurious ; as an aperient, give also about twice a week a small portion of 
lettuce or water-cress. 

Atkopiiy or Wasting, generally caused by the administration of impro- 
per food. Spiiptoms : body becomes emaciated ; feathers rough, and disar- 



390 CAGE BIRDS, TAXIDERMT, &C. 

ranged , disgorging of tlie food : treatment similar to that above recom- 
ded, witli tlie addition of a rusty nail put into the water. 

Consumption or Decline. — No assignable cause : loss of appetite, swel- 
ling of the lower jiarts, and falling away at the breast, are among the 
si/mptvms : a broad and milk diet, witli seed about twicie a week ; no water 
on the seed days; juice of wliite turnip to drink, and a cluli or black pep- 
per-corn occasionally, are tlie best remedies ; if taken in good time, tliis 
disease can generally be cured, and when not, tiie patient will often live 
many years witli proper care and attention. 

Convulsions, or Fits. — Tiie lories are most subject to these : take the 
bird np immediately ; open the beak, and put into it a few drops of cold 
water ; if this does not restore it to consciousness, plunge it suddenly into a 
cold bath ; this failing, draw out one of the tail-feathers, and lay the patient 
on some cold substance, such as stone or iron : you have then done all you 
can for it. If recovery takes place, wrap the bird in flannel, and put it in 
a warm place until tiioroughly dry ; afterwards feed it for some time as 
directed for asthma ; and give it a few drops of spirits of nitre occasionally 
in its water. 

CosTivENESs may be detected by frequent and useless efforts of the 
bird to void its excrements. Remedips : a bread and milk diet, with a few 
shreds of saffron boiled in the milk ; if this is not effective, give about four 
drops of castor oil, and introduce into the vent the head of a large pin dip- 
j)ed in linseed oil. 

DiARRHCEA, or Scouring. — The cause of this disease is generally some 
sudden change of diet, or stale or improper food, such as unripe fruit, &c.; 
the symptoms are frequent evacuations of fluid chalky matter, which adheres 
to the vent and lower part of the body, and ciuses great irritation in the 
parts. Remedies : keep the bird unusually warm, feed it with soaked bread 
and Indian corn boiled in a decoction of lettuce seed ; anoint the irritated 
parts with palm oil, and give water impregnated with iron to drink, mixed 
with a small proportion of milk; chilies are also good in this complaint, and 
the yolk of hard boiled egg. 

Diseased Feet often result from want of attention to cleanliness, and 
sometimes from what we should be inclined to call gout, or rheumatism, 
occasioned by cold settling in the extremities. In tiiis state the bird Is 
unable to grasp the jjerch properly, and becomes restless and uneas}' ; it 
should be at once taken out of the cage and put into a smaller one, where 
there is no space for climbing ; a tin vessel should be placed at the bottom 
supplied with luke-warm water for the patient to stand in for about a 
quarter of an hour, care being taken to keep up the temperature ; when the 
time has expired, substitute a diy board, and place the cage in a warm 
situation for the feet to get thoroughly dry ; if any sores are observable, 
tliey should be sjjrinkled over with a little powdered loaf sugar ; the bath 
should be repeated daily. 

Diseased Eyes may proceed from a cold and various causes; when 
looking sore and inflamed, they should be washed with a warm infusion, 
made by pouring boiling water over the bruised root of white hellebore; 
take care that the bird does not drink any of this, as it is strongly poiso- 
nous. When thus affected, a little juice of red beet-root given as a drink 
is serviceable. 

Inflammation. — A sudden change of temperature will not unfrequently 
cause this disease, which too often results from want of proper care in cover- 
ing the birds at night ; the symptoms are dullness and inactivitj'^, with a' 
disposition to sleep early in the day, and an appearance of swelling and 
redness of the veins in the belly. Remedies, bread and milk and oatmeal 
grits well boiled, yolk of egg boiled hard, Indian corn boiled in an infusion 
of rape-seed about twice a week, especially if the bowels are relaxed; 
remove all the food at night, and place in its stead a little magnesia mixed 
with water; put it in a shallow vessel, as the magnesia sinks to the bot- 
tom, and leaves the water clear ; remove this in the morning after the pa* 



CAGE BIRDS, TAXIDERMY, &C. 391 

tientlias taken a dose, wliicli lie will generally do early, and give the food 
as above directed. 

Moulting with parrots, as witli other birds, occurs once a year; the tail 
and wing feathers are sometimes slied oftener ; the moult usually lasts from 
two to three months, and is often attended with great pain and ditliculty. 
At this time warmtli and extra nourishment is indispensable. The fol- 
lowing alternation of diet is reconunended by one who has had much 
experience in these matters : — Hempseed, Indian corn, canary-seed, given 
separately, each twice a week : bread and milk, with a few chilies cut 
small, and mixed once; on tlie seed days a little saffron steeped in the 
water : should the difficulty of shedding the feathers be very great, give 
captains' biscuit, soaked and made hot with cayenne, about three times a 
week, and put some stick liquorice in the water. If the moult goes on quite 
favorably, and the bird appears cheerful, but little alteration from the 
common diet need he made; warmth is the grand requisite. 

Surfeit. — This is usually tiie effect of stale food, or impure water, want 
of gravel, or sand, or some neglect of cleanliness ; it shows itself in erup- 
tions about the head, whicli discharge an acrid humor, which, if not 
washed off, will make the parts over which it flows quite bare of featliers. 
A solution of common salt in spring water is the best application, wiping 
tlie parts perfectly dry after it, and anointing them witli palm oil. The 
diet should be seakled bread and ground rice mixed with milk, in which 
has been boiled a little stick liquorice. In this case, also, warmth is the 
one thing needful. 

Tumors. — Fleshy excrescences so-called sometimes appear without any 
assignable cause ; they may be removed when they have attained a conside- 
rable size, by passing a piece of strong silk round them close down to their 
juncttion with the part to which they are attached; tie the silk so that you 
can gradually tighten it ; this do, and the tumor will eventually wither up, 
and drop off, witiiout giving much pain to the bird. 

Vermin. — The best remedy is the white precipitate lotion, recom- 
mended for canaries, used with all due caution, on account of its poisonous 
nature. 

Goldfinch. — Tliis bird is attractive from the beauty of its plumage, the 
sweetness of its song, its great docility, and the readiness with wiiich it 
breeds with other birds. It may either be kept in the cage or allowed to 
run about the room. In the former case, an ordinary small sized chaffinch 
cage is preferable to a bell-shaped one, as the goldfinch is not fond of hop- 
ping about the higher perches, and is apt to become dizzy. In the latter 
case, a place separated from the rest of the room by a grating, or a small 
tree or bush, should be provided for its sleeping-place. The food of tne 
goldfinch should be chiefly confined to hemp and poppy seed, especially the 
latter. A little green food should be occasionally given, as lettuce or cab- 
bage-leaves, groundsel, water-cress, &c. The female goldfinch lays once a 
3'ear five or six pale green eggs, spotted with light red, and often surround- 
ed at the thick end with a circle of small blackish stripes. The males, 
may at a very early period be distinguished by a narrow white ring rou .'i 
the beak. When taken from the nest, they may be reared on poppy se J, 
and bread soaked in milk and water. The disease to which the goldfinch 
is most liable, is epilepsy. Sore and swollen eyes, to which they are also 
subject, may be cured by an application of unsalted butter. Stupor and 
giddiness are occasionally produced by the immoderate use of hemp seed, 
and may be cured by the substitution of soaked lettuce and thistledown. 
In general, it will conduce to their health, if they be allowed now and then 
to pull the seeds from a thistle head. 

Thrush. — Of this family of birds, the song-thrush is the smallest and 
most attractive. It is found all over Europe, frequenting woods near streams 
and meadows, and is naturally somewhat shy and timid. In confinement 
it may be lodged and treated like the blackbird, though less luxuriously. 
When wild, it lives on insects and berries ; and in the cage, the two com- 



392 CAGE BIRDS, TAXIDERMY, &C. 

iiion pastes, oattneal moistened with milk or water, or even bran moistened 
^vitll water, have been found to answer. It requires a great deal of water 
for batiiing and drinking. It is an excellent songster, but does not take 
kindly to the cage, and is not easily taught any artificial note. The male 
thrusli may be distinguished from the female by a darker back, and a 
glossier appearance of tlie feathers. Tlie belly, also, is white. Young 
liirds are hatched al>out the middle of April, and should be kept very warm. 
Tiiey should be fed with raw meat, cut small, or bread mixed in milk with 
liempseed well bruised : when they are able to feed tliemselves give tliem 
lean meat, cut small, and mixed with bread or German paste. Keep them 
in a warm, dry, and sunny situation. 

Bullfinch. — When first taken, the bullfinch may be allowed to range 
the room with other birds, except some particular reason exist why it should 
be kept in confinement. The shape and size of the cage are of little conse- 
quence, as the bullfinch is a quiet bird and thrives under all circumstances. 
It is, however, usual to put those which have been tauglit, into a hand- 
some cage of brass wire, and in a room by themselves, as their artificial 
song miglit spoil that of other birds, if within hearing. The food for those 
that are allowed to run about, may consist of German paste, and a little 
rape seed by way of variety. Those which are kept in a cage, however, 
must liave rape and hemp seed, with occasionally a little plain biscuit. 
Ivape seed soaked in water, witiiout any hemp seed, increases their longe- 
vity, as the latter is too heating and often ends in causing blindness or 
inducing decline. They occasionally require a little green food also, such 
as water-cress or lettuce. The bullfinch is an exceedingly affectionate 
bird; very averse, both when wild and confined, to being separated from 
his mate, and when with her, continually caressing and calling to her. 
They breed three or four times aj'ear. The female lays from two to six 
eggs of a bluisii white, with a circle of violet and brown spots at the large 
end. The young birds are hatched in a fortnight. If they are to be taught 
to whistle, they must be taken out of the nest when half fledged, kept very 
warm, and fed every two hours with rape seed soaked for several hours in 
cold water, afterwards scalded, strained, bruised, mixed with bread, and 
softened with milk, of this, two or three mouthfuls must be given at a 
time. The male bullfinch may be distinguished from the female by a slight 
red tinge upon the breast They do not begin to whistle till they are able 
to feed themselves, but must nevertheless be whistled to immediately they 
are taken, as in this case the lesson is more deeply and readily impressed 
u])oii the memory. Tlie bullfinch is one of the few birds that can be 
induced to leann a tune which may be reduced to the form of musical no- 
tation. A great number of them are brought from Germany, where they 
are instructed to the utmost degree of refinement. To accomplish this, 
however, tlie course of instruction must last at least nine months, for, if of 
less duration, they will either confuse their different airs, learn false notes, 
transpose passages, or, perhaps, altogether forget their lesson at the first 
moulting. Even wlien they have been taught it is as well to keep them 
apart from otlier birds, for their aptness at learning renders them liable to 
catch up any novelty. It is also necessary to help them when they hesi- 
tate, and to repeat their song to them especially at moulting time, else 
there is danger of having an imperfect performer. They are generally 
cai able of retaining in their memory three distinct tunes, and in these they 
are best instructed by means of a bird-organ or a flute. The utmost per- 
fection, however, is attained by teaching them one air only, together with 
the usual short flourish or prelude. Bullfinches may be tamed by the fol- 
lowing method : — A fresh caught bird is allowed to feed himself in his cage 
for one day. A band is then prepared, such as fowlers put round the wings 
of a decoy bird, with which, and a thread one foot in length, the bullfinch is 
so fastened that he can neither fall down nor beat himself to death. His 
food is then put into a little bag, to which is attached a small bell, and his 
drink poured into a vessel similarly furnished ; at first when these are offered 



CAGE BIRDS, TAXIDERMY, &C. 393 

him, the cliained hird will neither eat nor drink; it is then as well to leave 
the vessels with him for a dny or two and allow him to lielp himself, yet 
approaching wlienever he is seen to eat. On the third day he will readily 
take his food whenever offered, and tlie bell must be rung as long as he is 
eating; when he has finished he must be carried about on the hand; upon 
wliich, as he finds he cannot get loose, he will at last begin to cat quietlv. 
On the third or fourth day he will probably of his own accord fi.y to the 
hand in which the seed bag is, lie must then be liberated, and will be found 
to follow the hand however far it is withdrawn. Siiould he take tiie oppor- 
tunity of Hying away, he must again be bound and left without food for 
several hours. In this manner the bullfinch may be tamed in the course of 
a few days, and be taught to fly to the hand whenever he hears the bell. 
The diseases by which bullfinches are attacked, are costiveness, diarrhcea, 
epilepsy, and the moulting disease. On these occasions a change and regu- 
lation of food will generally work a cure. 

Taxidermy — The art of bird-stufBng, which, in the hands of the na- 
turalist, becomes a very interesting pursuit, and may be readily performed 
by adhering to the following instructions. In the first place, the manipula- 
tor must buy a medical student's dissecting-case, that will contain half-a- 
dozen knives of the kind he wants, two pairs of sharp pointed scissors, a 
pair of forceps, and most likelj' some chain-hooks and a blow-pipe. These 
last two items he may lay aside ; but all the rest are just the things he 
wants, antl buying them second-hand they will cost him no more than a 
couple of knives and one pair of scissors would if purchased new. He will 
also require a pair of round and a pair of flat pliers for his wire ; a pair of 
cutting pliers, which, as they are to be used both for wire and for bones, 
should be pointed ones ; a three-cornered file, wire of various sizes, plain 
and colored glass eyes, some soft thread, some fine twine, tow, cotton- 
wool, preservation powder, arsenical soap, with brush for laying on the 
same, and some camphor. For the arsenical soap take — powdered arsenic, 
2 ounces ; camphor, 5 ounces ; white soap, 2 ounces ; salt of tartar, 6 
drachms ; powdered lime, 2 drachms. The soap is to be cut in very thin 
slices, and put in a crucible with a small quantity of water, over a gentle 
fire, and frequently stirred with a piece of wood. When properly melted, 
tlie lime and salts of tartar must be added ; the arsenic is then to be stirred 
in, and lastly the camphor (reduced to powder with a little spirits of wine) 
is to be mixed in, off the fire. For the preservative powder take — powder- 
ed arsenic, 4 ounces ; burnt alum, 4 ounces; tanner's bark, 8 ounces ; mix, 
reduce to powder, and pass through a fine sieve : then add camphor (redu- 
ced to powder with spirits of wine), 2 ounces ; musk, 30 grains. Botli 
these preparations must be kept in well-closed jars. The soap, when ready 
for use, should be about the consistence of Devonshire cream. Tlie bird- 
stuffer should then get the tools and preparations ready, and shoot an old 
starling (by far the best bird for a beginner). Take a stick of the required 
size and make two holes with an awl the natural distance apart for the 
bird's legs ; pass the leg-wires through the holes, and twist them firmly 
round the stick ; now fasten the end of the stick firm, either in a vice or 
nailed to a block ; press the legs a little backwards, making the feet the 
pivot; tlien put one finger just below the knee-joints on the front of the 
legs and press the body forwards, making the knees the pivots, until you 
have the body in a natural position as regards the legs. Now take hold of 
the body with one hand, and with the other press back the neck-Avire to 
rather more than at right angles with the body ; then take the middle of 
the neck-wire between your fingers, and with the other hand press the free 
extremity that projects beyond the head, and bend down the head until 
3'ou have the natural form. To place the wings, supposing the bird to be 
at rest: cut two pieces of wire two or three inclies long or more, according 
to the size of the bird, and point one end ; take the wing in your hand, and 
pass the pointed end of the wire through the last joint, or rather on the free 
side of tlie last joint; now lift the wing with one hand, and, with one finger 

17* 



394 CAGE BIRDS, TAXIDERMY, &C. 

of tlie other, push the first bone, part of which you cut off in skinning the 
bird, well up under the skin of tlie back ; then bring the wing down to tlie 
side, and pusii tiie wire firmly into the body. Open the mouth, and take 
out the wool with which the eye sockets are filled ; then stuff the neck, 
through the mouth, until tjie proper size ; place a little wool in the eye- 
socket, on the further, upper, and under side. Take with tlie forceps one 
of tlie glass eyes by the little piece of wire which projects from one side, 
and insert carefully into the socket, making it project rather too much 
tlirough the lids. Place a little more wool beliind the glass eye, and fill up 
the opening into the eye-sockets and the mouth with it, and tie the beak 
together. If the eyes now project too much, press them gently back with 
tlie finger. Take two little thin strips of wood, drive a strong pin through 
the centre of one piece nearly to the head ; place this under the tall 
near its base, and pass the point of the pin between the two centre quills; 
place the centre of the other strip of wood on the point of the pin, and press 
it down until the tail is held firmly between the two pieces of wood, when 
you can spread it to the required extent. With a smooth-pointed wire 
(a knitting-needle will do), arrange every feather in its place, and then wind 
soft cotton over the whole body to keep the feathers in place, and put the 
bird in a freely ventilated room to dry. In ducks, hens, &c., the neck is so 
long and narrow that the skin cannot be drawn over the head with these 
birds, therefore, skin the neck as high as you can and cut it off; make a 
cut through the skin from the angle of the jaw to the bottom of the piece 
of neck still attached to the head, and remove the neck, brain, tongue, &c., 
through tlie opening. Most bird-stuffers, and every beginner makes the 
opening in the neck on the side next the back of the case the bird is to be 
placed in ; but, after very little practice, you may do this so neatly that it 
is not of muck consequence on which side you do it. 




BEES. 



Their Habits, Management and Treatment. 

This adjunct to a farm or cottage is greatly to be recommended, not 
only on account of tlie interest attached to it, but also for tlie profitable 
produce wliich it affords from a comparatively trifling outlay, and with 
little care or trouble. 

Tlie person who intends keeping bees should purchase a proper number 
of hives eltlier at the early or latter part of tlie year. The hives should be 
full of combs and well stored with bees. Tlie purchaser should examine 
the combs, in order to know the age of the hives. The coml)s of the current 
season are wliite, those of the former year are of a darkisli yellow; the 
latter should be rejected, because old hives are most liable to vermin and 
other accidents. The summer is an improper time for buying bees, because 
the heat of the weather softens the wax, and thereby renders tiie combs 
liable to break, if they are not very well secured. The hone}^ too, being 
then tliinner tlian at other times, is more apt to run out of the cells ; which 
IS attended witli the double disadvantage of the loss of the honey and the 
daubing of the bees, whereby many of them may be destroyed. 

The aspect of a hive should be towards the south, and during the winter 
months the entrance of a hive should never face the sun, as the bees are by 
that means tempted forth in the morning, and are probably overtaken by 
the cold and dark, and perish before they can return. 

The situation of the hive should be in a sheltered part of the garden, 
protected hy a wall or hedge from the cold and biting winds. 

The position of the hive should be about two feet from the ground, so as 
to keep out the humidity arising from the earth, and also to guard it against 
the entrance of toads, mice, and other enemies to the bees. The board ^n 
which the hive stands sliould be nailed firmlj- to tlie pedestal in a somewhat 
slanting direction, to admit of the rain running off. 

The arrangement cf the hives should be in a right line, but if their num- 
'bers be too great to admit of this it is more advisable to place them one 
above another than in double rows. As bees use much water, tlie hives 
should be situated in the neighborhood of a stream ; but where this is not 
practicable shallow pans of water should be placed within their reach.. Tae 
entrance to the hive should be clear, and unobstructed by shrubs or plants, 
so that the bees upon their return home weary and laden may reach the 
hive without difficulty. 

Cleanliness in bee-keeping is of the utmost importance ; the stand upon 
wliich the hive is placed should be cleansed about four times a year, the 

395 



3'JG BEES. 

first cleansing taking place at tlie commencement of spring. During the 
winter the snow tliat has accumulated on the hives should be assiduously 
brushed away to prevent dampness, which is very injurious to bees. And 
the entrance of the hive should also be frequently examined in order to re- 
move any damp masses which may have ft)rmed to the exclusion of the air. 

The constntction of hives admits of great variety, the most common form 
is that of a thimble or flower pot in an inverted position The P(jlisli liive, 
which has many advantages, is made of wood, standing from three feet and 
a-lialf to five feet high, and of a conical shape. The size of the hives should 
be in proportion to the swarm, so that the labors of the bee and the capa- 
city of the combs may correspond. One of the best constructed hives is 
that known as Payne's Imjjroved Cottage hive. 

In the spring, when a hive is well peopled with many thousands of 
young bees, a particular period arrives when they look out for another 
asylum than that of their mother. A swarm, therefore, is a colony of bees 
which forsake their native home to establish themselves in another. 

The swarms generally appear in the months of May and June, by which 
time the new hives should be placed to receive them ; or where this may 
have been neglected, a pail, box, or large garden-pot will sometimes act as 
a substitute in retaining the swarm. 

It seldom happens that the first flight of a swarm is to any great distan- 
ce, but it generally alights on a neighboring bush, and every exertion 
should be then made to hive it. The best method is to watch the swarm in 
silence, and when it has collected, an empty hive should be held immedia- 
tely beneath the bush or branch upon which the bees hang suspended, and 
which being tapped, with a quick firm stroke, will cause the bees to fall 
into the new hive. Sometimes the swarm will settle upon the stump of a 
tree, or other situation sijiiilarly inconvenient. In these cases a hive pre- 
pared with sugar and beer should be held over the crown of the swarm, and 
gradually and gently lowered until the swarm is secured. 

It sometimes happens that a swarm divides itself into different clusters ; 
this is a certain sign that there are several queens, each cluster having one. 
These clusters should not be molested, but quietly watched until they 
incorporate, which they will presently do. 

When swarms from different hives form a junction, as they sometimes 
will, it will be prejudicial to tiie apiarian, and to separate them the follow- 
ing process may be pursued. The swarm being collected into one hive, a 
sheet must be spread on the ground, the hive must be held over it, and 
giving it a smart knock the bees will all fall upon it; no fear need be en- 
tertained of their flying away, and the queen should be immediately sought. 

Having detected a queen in the midst of a group, cover- it with a 
small bell glass, and then proceed to divide the bees as nearly as possible 
into two equal portions. For this purpose two hives must be in readiness, 
and having allotted a proper number to the queen, who is at large, the hive 
should be placed in a remote part of the garden, and as far as possible from the 
jiarent hive. The imprisoned queen is then set at liberty and conducted to 
her hive with that proportion of bees wliich has been assigned to her. The 
whole being placed in the hive, it is placed as far as limits will admit in a 
contrary direction to the former hive. No further fear need be entertained 
of tlieir adapting themselves to their several homes. 

If, on the days immediately succeeding the hiving, the weather be rainy, 
a little food consisting of a mixture of honey, sugar, and water should be 
administered to them each night. 

When persons are engaged in the operation of swarming, the head and 
face should be covered, as a safeguard against the stings of the bees ; and 
the clothes should be neither black, brown, blue or any other dark color. 

The intention of swarming is betrayed by the bees, for two or three 
days previously by an extraordinary number of bees hanging in clusters 
about the entrance of the hive, in an unusual state of commotion, and by 
an apparent iilleness reigning in the hive. 



BEES. 397 

Wlien the swarm is hived, and the bees appear restless and confused, it 
is a certain sign that the queen is not among them, and the bees will soon 
return to the parent liive : in this case a queen bee should be taken from 
the parent hive and introduced among the swarm. The presence of a queen 
bee may be ascertained by a group of bees being formed around her. After 
swarming, the liive should not be moved for some hours, in order that 
stragglers may have time to return to their new home. 

The Polish method of makhig a swarm pass from one hive to anotlier 
is as follows : — Take both hives in the evening (wiien all the bees are at 
home), the full and the empty one, which must be smeared with honey ; 
put tlie opened bottoms of botli liives together in such a manner as to pre- 
vent any single bee escaping, smoke the full hive at the top with smoke 
produced from dry rags, and the bees will speedily remove to the new hive. 
After that allow the swarm time to settle, and remove them to tlie stand 
prepared for them. 

The best time for taking the honey from the hives is the month of Jul}', 
and this is done in two ways, partially and wholly. Wlien a part of the 
honey only is to be taken, tlie full hive should be inverted and an empty 
one placed over it, and the two fastened togetlier hy a large sheet or table- 
cloth. The hives being thus arranged, beat the sides gently with a stick, 
being particular not to strike those parts where the combs are attached. 
After a few minutes the bees will have ascended into the new hive, and it 
may then be placed on the pedestal formerly occupied by the old hive. 
Having extracted the requisite quantity of comb, the hive may be returned 
to its former position, reversing the hive which contains tlie bees ; and 
placing the deprivated hive over it, the}' may be left in that position for 
four and twenty hours, by whicli time tlie bees will be once more in pos- 
session of their old liabitation. When the honey is to be wholly taken, the 
bees are suffocated by tlie introduction of smoke into the hive. The first- 
mentioned method, however, is not only more humane, but also more in 
keeping with apiarian economy. 

In the early spring and autumn, when there is a scarcity of flowers, bees 
require feeding. The most appropriate food is a syrup composed of sugar, 
ale, and salt, the proportions being one quart of ale, one pound of sugar, 
and half an ounce of salt, the whole to be boiled for a quarter of an hour 
and carefully skimmed. A well-stocked hive will require about one pound 
of syrup in a fortnight. A plant called the golden rod should be cultivated 
in the vicinity of tlie paper, as this begins to blow when other flowers fade, 
and continues in bloom until the middle of November. 

To extract the honey from the comb, three things are necessary, heat, 
celerity, and cleanliness. Two or three earthen pans with wire frames 
should be placed in readiness. The hives should then be brought into a 
warm room, and the combs loosened from the hive with a long thin knife ; 
those parts of the combs that arc empty sliould be cut off first, and tliose 
that are black and drossy should be drained by themselves. The pure 
combs should be cut into small pieces, sliced twice in a horizontal direction 
and laid on the wire frames to drain ; in two or three hours they may be 
turned ; the honey must then be run through horsehair sieves into jars. 
When the jars are filled they should be fastened down and stored in a dry 
place. 

It is highly important that the apiarian should be made acquainted with 
the habits and characteristics of the bee tribe, and able to distinguish them 
by tiieir forms. Bees are divided into three classes — the male bee, or drone; 
the neuter bee, or worker ; and the female bee, or queen. The drone (Fig. 1) 
is easy to be distinguislied from the other bees in the hive by the bulkiness 
of his body, its obtuse termination, and a thick covering of short pale brown 
iris about the throat ; he is also known by the loud humming noise that he 
makes in his flight. 

The neuter bee, or worker (Fig. 2), is of a nearly black color, and 
neitlier so large as the drone or queen. The abdomen is of a conical shape, 



398 BEES. 

and composed of six distinct divisions. The queen bee (Fig. 3) is wholly 
different in form from the former two, her body is longer and more taper 
tlian tliat of tlie drone and bee, and slie is also distinguished by the extreme 
shortness of her wings. Tlie breast of the queen is of a golden color, and 
the upper part of her body is of a brighter hue than tliat of the common 
bee. 

1 2 3 






The management of bees, according to the exigencies of the season, may 
be gleaned from tlie following Montldy Manual. October. — Examine and 
weigh tlie hives; and after cleaning tlie stools, fasten them down for the 
winter. See that the coverings are clean and weather-tight ; and finally 
remove what combs can be spared. November. — Inspect the hives and clean 
the stools, contract the entrance, and see that the coverings are clean, and 
the hives so secured as not to be blown off by the wind. December. — In 
very cold and snowy weather close the moutlis of tlie hives as much as 
possible, and clear away any snow that falls upon tlie table. .lanuary. — 
Towards the latter end give the bees more air. February. — Enlarge the 
entrance of the hive, and in mild weather inspect the hive and clean the 
stools. This is a good month for purchasing hives. March. — Remove all 
incumbrances from the mouth of the hive, and make every part thoroughly 
clean. Supply the bees with fresh water. Make an addition to such hives 
as are strong and heavy, and extract such combs as are old and discolor- 
ed. Feed weak hives. April. — Destro}' moths and butterflies. Watch for 
the signs of swarming; and towards the latter end make artificial swarms, 
where desirable. Destroy wasps, especially the queens. May. — Frequently 
inspect the hives, and clean away everytiiing offensive. Make preparations 
for hiving swarms, and keep a good look-out in fine weather. Jmie. — Feed 
new swarms in rainy weather, and enlarge such liives as are numerous and 
active. July. — Remove part of the produce of the bees. Destroy wasjis' 
nests and inspect the hives for vermin. August. — Examine and weigh the 
hives, and take combs from such as exceed 301bs. September. — Transport 
hives to more abundant pastures. Assist in killing drones. Furnish new 
coverings when necessary. Inspect tlie hives, clean the stools, and destroy 
vermin. 

Bee-Flowers. — Conspicuous among all the plants loved by bees (for 
the best of reasons that they get the most honey or other substances from 
them), are clover, wild-thyme, heath, and broom, borage, French buck- 
wheat, and Melilotus leucantha. This last may be usefully grown for the 
bees' especial gratifiation. It is easily cultivated, blooms from June to 
November, and is ornamental, in addition to its other good qualities. But 
the most important qualification of bee-pasturage is, that there shall be 
always something for the bees, from the very earliest spring to the very 
latest autumn. It will be useful, therefore, to append a 

List of Bee-Flowkrs. 

Spring. 

Erica Carnea* Almond Turnip* 

Winter aconite* Wallflower* (single) Cabbage, &c. 

Rosemary* Borage* Strawberry 



BEES. 



899 



Lniirustinus 

Hazel* 

Snow-drop 

Crocus* 

Willow* 

Osier* 

Primrose 

Hepaf.ca 

Violet 

Syriiiga 
Hellanthemum 
Annual poppy* 
Sea-kale 
French willow 
Sweet-briar 
Bean 
Yellow lupin 



Onion 

Gooseberry 

Apricot 

Peach 

Apple 

Gooseberry* 

Currant* 

Laurel 

Summer. 

Mignionette* 

Blackberry 

Chestnut 

Mallow 

Lime* 

Hyssop 

Teazle 

Nasturtium 

Autumn, 
French buckwheat* 

sowed at midsum- 
mer 
Spanisli broom* 
Hollyhock* 



Tulip 

Hawthorn 

Gorse or furze 

Columbine 

Laburnum 

Barberry* 

Ribes Sanguineum 

Dutch clover* 



Yellow vetch 

Sainbois 

Broom 

Wheat 

Viper's bugloss* 

Raspberry* 

Sj'mphora 

Racemosa 



Heath* 
Sunflower 
Lemon thyme* 
St. John's wort 
Melilotus Icucanflia* 



Michaelmas daisj 
Winter savory 
Purple houseleek 
Ivy 
Honeysuckle 

Those marked with an asterisk are understood to be the flowers 
especially favored by the bees. What a choice little garden for himself, as 
well as for his bees, the apiarian ma}' make from the above list, if be does 
not choose to leave the bees dependent upon the stores of the neighborhood 
at large. 

Honey. — The sweet substance elaborated by the bee from the juices of 
the nectaries of flowers, and deposited in the cells of wax, forming the 
honeycomb. The nature of honey is very much influenced bj' the species 
of flowers from which it is obtained, and the vegetation which supplies the 
bees with food. The honey afforded by bees that have access to wild- 
thyme, lavender, rosemary, and some other flo>vers, abounding in aromatic 
and essential oils, is of the first quality ; while it is said to be very bad 
when the bees are located near to fields of buckwlieat. The common 
honey being chiefly derived from agricultural crops or wild plants of the 
leguminous kind sucli as clover, beans, gorse, and broom, is, when pure, of 
excellent quality. New honey appears a uniform transparent syrup, vary- 
ing considerably in color from nearly white to a yellowish brown, in- 
tensely sweet to the taste, but alwaj's having more or less of a peculiar 
flavor and an aromatic odor; and, besides its sweetness, it has a sharp 
acidulous taste, which becomes sliarper with age, at the same time that the 
color grows deeper. Virgin honey is that which is made in a new clean 
hive by bees that have never swarmed. In taking honey from the hive, 
pressure is generally employed, by which a larger quantity of honey is 
obtained, but at tlie same time particles of wax, and the intrusion of the bee 
maggot detoriate its quality and flavor. As an article of food, honey is 
found to be wholesome, if moderately employed ; but when indulged in 
freely, it proves to be laxative, and in some habits produces colic. Tlie 
custom of giving an excess of lioney to children is to be particularly dis- 
countenanced, as a most injurious practice. As a medicine, honey is 
employed in the preparati(m of oxymels and gargles ; it is also employed 
as a vehicle for administering nauseous and unsightly medicines. In the 
affections of the throat and lungs, it is frequently found to be remarkably 
efficacious. If fermentation sliould take place in honey, it is no longer 
calculated for ordinary use, and is only fit to be converted into mead or 
vinegar. 



400 



MUSICAL. 




SQUARE PIANO-FORTE. 




GRAND PIANO-FORTE. 



MUSICAL. 



40] 




HAEMONY, THOEOUGH BASE, TUNING, &c. 



The Chords used in Music, their Progressions and Res- 
OT-TiTioNS ; Playing Sacred Music (or Music Written 
ON Four Staves) from a Figured Base ; Instructions 
in Tuning the Piano-Forte, Organ, Melodeon ; How 
to Detect Defects in Instruments ; Selecting Piano- 
Fortes, &c., &c. 



Nearly every house throughout the length and breadth of the land con- 
tains either an Organ, Melodeon, Serapliine, or Pianoforte, and nearly' 
every person capable of performing on either of tlie above instruments, 
has more or less desire to learn to play church or sacred music. An ordi- 
nary player can readily play sacred music when written on two staves 
onlj', as the different parts are compactly arranged ; but tlie majority of 
such music is written on four staves, and it is then quite a difficult matter 
to perform successfully and correctly, unless one has some knowledge of 
harmony and thorough base. 

Harmony is the law or laws of chord progression; the result of the 
union of two or more according musical sounds, or an agreeable combina- 
tion of sounds heard at tlie same instant. 

Thorough Base is the art of constructing musical chords from inter- 
vals of the chromatic and diatonic scales, or the art of indicating by figures 
the other notes of a chord, the base note being given. 

Music written on two staves is styled " Dispersed Harmony," and when 
written on four staves, " Close Harmony." 

By referring to a book of sacred music — as commonly used in choirs — 
it will be observed tliat where the music is written on two staves there are 
no figures under the base, and the eye can easily take the four parts. 

It is our purpose to give a concise but comprehensive view of all the princi- 
pal chords used in music, and with a moderate degree of attention and practice 
the student will be enabled to play from four staves as easily as from two. 

The student is supposed to know the scales. 



402 



MUSICAL. 



The Common Chord of C and its three forms, 
let Form. 2d Fonn. 3d Form 




1st 2d 3d 1st 2d 3d 1st 2d 3d 

Position. Position. Position. 



m 



ii 



3^ 



Play the above in the twelve different major keys. 
The Common Chord and its three forms in the relative minor mode. 
1st Form. 2d Form. 3d Form. 

-l 



■m m U—^ ^ ^ — LL_^ ^ 



1st 2d 3d 

Position. 



1st 2d 3d 
Position. 



1st 2d 3d 
Position. 



Play in all the relative minor keys. 

The common chord consists of the first, third and fifth ; the eighth is 
generally added to it. For instance, the common chord of C consists of C 
(the root or fundamental note), E (the third), G (the fifth), and C (the 
eighth). The common chord of F consists of F (the root), A (the third), 
C (the fifth), E (the eighth), &c., &c., &c. 

It will be observed that each letter of the common chord has three 
positions, the first position being when the base and treble are written on 
the same note ; the second when the treble is a third above the base ; 
the third when it is a fifth above the base. The first position is not usu- 
ally figured. (.We have figured as above merely to show the student how it 
would appear if figured). It is sometimes figured to counteract the effect of 
a sharp, flat or natural previously introduced. 

Tlie treble is always the highest and the base the lowest note. 

When the figures 6 or | appear, they indicate the common chord in its 
second form, and in this case the base and treble should be played as 
written, and the common chord of the letter a third below the base note. 
For instance, if in the key of C : the base note should be E, the student 
should play the chord of C, taking E as the base. 

Example of Accidentals as used with the Figures. 



5=J3E 




>st=ia"' ig~ ^8^ 



m 



b3 

5 



or 



Jf6 5 ^6 #6 137 

»3 4 i 



MUSICAL. 



403 



Accidentals (naturals, sharps or flats), when placed ur. ler the base, or 
under the figures, refer to the tliird in all cases. Wlien placed before a 
figure tliey refer to tlie note or interval indicated by tlie figures. For in- 
stance, in the above example tlie \} before the figure 3 refers to the third 
of the chord, vviiich is E. The next example has the same effect as the 
first. The third example ; The J before the figure 6 signifies that the sixth 
interval from the base (wliich is C) is affected, &c., &c. 

Wlien the figures | appear, they indicate the common chord in its third 
form. In this case the base and treble should be played as written, and 
the common chord of tlie letter ajifth below the base note. For instance, if 
in the key of C the base note should be G, the student should play the 
chord of C, taking G as the base. 

The figure 6 implies that the root of tlie chord is found a sixtii above 
the written base;- | implies that the root is found a fourth above the base, 
and that tlie third is found a sixtli above the base. 

The chord of the seventh consists of the common chord, with the 
seventh added to it in place of the eighth. C, E, G, B form the chord of 
the seventh in the key of C. F, A, C, E form the chord of the seventh in 
the key of F, &c., &c. 

The figures 7, or |, or | are usually applied to it. 

This chord iias four forms, the first form being figured as above, the 
second form |, the third |, the fourth |. When this chord is figured |, piny 
the treble and base as written, adding the other notes pertaining to tlie 
chord. Follow the same directions in the chords figured | and |. 

It must always be borne in mind in playing from a figured base that 
the figures under the base indicate intervals from the base note, not from 
the root of tiie chord. 

The Chord of the Dominant Seventh. 

The fifth of any scale is its dominant. As, for instance, G is the 
dominant (or root) therefore, of this chord in the key of C. The chord of 
the dominant seventh is founded on its fifth, and has four forms, as fol- 
lows: 



1st Form. 



2d Form, 





=1- 



1st Po8. or 1st or Ist 2d 



^^z=^iiES^ 



3d 



2d or 2d or 2d 



3d Form. 



A 



4th Form. 



^^^=^ 



S^fli 



^=t 



3d 



4th 



2d 



3d 4th 



-1 u 



4 

1st 



2d 



3d 



Every chord has its own resolution, or resolutions. A musical compo- 
sition foimded upon correct resolutions is a progression of harmony ; id est, 
one chord resolves on to its successor, etc., etc. 



404 MUSICAL. 

Example of some of the resolutions of the Dominant Seventh. 



i:?^; 




:^: 



P 



m:^ 



^EE^ 



m 



m 



or 



*3 



•D.S. tRes. D.S. Re8. D.S. Res. D.S.Res. D.S. Res. D.S. Res. D.S. Res. D.S. Res. D.S. Res. 




•Dominant Seventh. -fResolution. 



The following is the Circle of the Dominant Seventli. Each Dominant 
Seventh resolves to its Tonic Chord leading through all the Major keys in 
the following order : C, F, B\), E[j, A\f, D^, G^, B, E, A, D, G. 

*MODULATION. 

CIRCLK OF THE DOMINANT SEVENTH. 

N. B. Each Bass note is the root of tlie chord given. 




T.C. 



D.C. T.C. 



D.C 



T.C. 



D.C. 



T.C. 



EE 



i 



^=*-- 



^ 



e^ 



:i±l= 



t^^^^ ^ ^^^^^ m 



D.C. T.C. 



D.C. T.C. 



D.C. T.C. 



I^^M^- 



ESEEE?^ 



:E^= 



-^- 



fe^fesi 



=5-r 



i^^ 



^: 



M 



=Ul-^c 



sa 



5^ 



D.C. T.C. 



D.C. T.C. 



D.C. T.C. 



ml 



mm 



s? 



'^- 



-m 



3^E 



7 7 7 

•Modulation is the act of passing from one key into anotlxer. See page 406. 



MUSICAL. 



405 



J^ 



^zzf 






B.C. T.C. 



B.C. T.C. 



D.C. T.C. 



w&=-r- 



Wi 



3^EE 



The following is the Circle of the Dominant Seventh, introducing 
all the forms of the Tonic Chord and Dominant Seventli Chord, to wit : 
Tonic Chord, I 6 f . Dominant Seventh Chord, 7 | 3 and |. 

CIKCLB OF the DOBIINANT SEVENTH. 

(With all the Forms of the T. C. and D. C.) 



=^ 






S: 



's=S: 



T.C. 



D.C. T.C 



D.C. T.C. 



D.C. T.C. 



m^ 



»=i^=^J!=: -r — *> 



SEE 



i 




^^^3^V.^^iffli^l 



D.C. T.C. D.C. T.C. D.C. T.C. 



^^ 



s 






^E^3E& 



^W 



a 



ES: 



1^03 




400 



MUSICAL. 




The Discordants are eight m number; as follows : 



^5^: 



«: 




# Chord of the Major 
Seventh. 



1st 2d 3d 4th 
Position. 



Chord of the Chord of the Chord of the Ninth ^,^'5?'''^ "L 

Ninth. Eleventh. and Eleventh. *"'^i'S'.^"i" 

and Ninth. 

1st 2d 3d 1st 2d 3d let 2d 3d 1st 

Position. Position. Position. Position. 



m 



tNzrdziii: 



::1: 




Chord of the Seventh ^^°J^ °^."l? ^^T." Chord of 

and Eleventh. «"'^. Ninth and Superfluous 

let 2d 3d EJeventh. j^j 2d 



the 
Fifth. 
3d 



:=1=1: 



-^ — ^- 



N. B. Tlie figures are not always given in books. With a little experi- 
ence the student can supply them. Tlie chords are given only in tlie key 
of C. They should be learned in all the keys. D. C stands for Dominant 
Seventh Chord. T. C. stands for Tonic Chord, which in each case is the 
Kesolution of the Dominant Seventh Cliord. 

Modulation. — We have given ample instructions on pages 404, 405 and 
406 in this most important branch of the science of music. By playing over 
the examples given, one can, to a certain extent, appreciate the beauties of 
MODULATION, aiid perccive how smoothly and almost imperceptibly the 
change can be made from one key to another. Hours that otherwise might 
be tedious can be passed pleasantly in studying modulation. It is a subject 
that one cannot become tired of. 

In studying Thorough Base we would recommend that the student pro- 
vide liimself with a work on sacred music (a note book), such as is generally 
used in church choirs, select tunes from it that are written on four staves, 
and practise them over and over, refering to the base, treble, and Ji(/H?-es only. 
Select the plainest and easiest ones at first, 3'ou will be surprised at the 
advancement you will make with study and practise, and how soon you 
will be able to play from four staves which seems almost an impossibility. 

• This chord has four forms, the same as the Dominant Seventh, only one form, 7, 
ifi given. 6 4^4 jjj^ student will construct. 




MUSICAL. 407 

How To Purchase a Piano-Forte.— Sound 
seems to be a primitive like golil, silver or 
any iinalloyefl metal. Tiie i)liilnsoj)lier divides 
sound into two brandies, naming one noise, 
the other music, A noisy sound dies on tlie 
spot where it is created. A musical sound 
sets the air vibrating, and travels upon the vi- 
brations, or waves. 

Stand in a thickly crowded and 710i.11/ 
street : one can scarcely hear words spoken 
because of the noise. Yet the sound produced by the noise of tiie street 
does not travel; but the musical sounds of Trinity Church cliimes, 
produced amidst tiie noise of Broadway, New York, are lieard, when 
the atmospliere is favorable, from three to six miles away therefrom. 

The strings of a Cremona violin, wiien played in the Orchestra, to an 
ear within three feet of the player seem to be greased and to give forth no 
sound wliatever, while the violin next to it sounds loud and full. Go back 
thirty feet from the players and the only instrument the listener will care 
to hear is the Cremona — clear, liquid, pure, beautiful. He will, as it were 
see the tones like flaslies from a diamond on a heap of common paving stones. 

The best bird among a hundred canaries is the one whose bill is con- 
stantly at work, but whom, when close by, one cannot hear. At the far 
side of the room the clear, liquid, silvery notes will reach the ear, while 
tliose birds that fairly deafen one when close to them are now not heard at 
all. 

El-go. Buy the piano-forte the notes of which, struck softly, travel the 
farthest on the waves of the atmosphere. Noisy piano-fortes are just fit for 
kindling wood and should be sold by the cord. 

Great care should be used to deal only with well-known and Responsible 
parties ; parties who will be likely to prove solvent during the Jive years for 
which one takes their written guarantee as to durability, workmanship, 
material, etc., etc. 

A light touch is not the best in the end. It is too much the habit of un- 
skilful players, because they can execute easily on such a key board, to 
condemn a piano merely for its heavier touch. 

Performers accustomed to a light touch, at times are called upon to 
assist at concerts, festivals, etc., where a Grand Piano-Forte has been pro- 
rided specially for the occasion. To such, in such a dilemma, failure is 
inevitable with its vexation and disgrace. To avoid this, try the Grands of 
the different first-class makers. Notice the strength required to play them 
and buv a square with a similar touch. 

Of course all purchasers are likely to desire a good looking instrument. 
This is a mere matter of money. A lady looks well on the maxim that 
" fine feathers make fine birds." " Beauty unadorned is adorned the most " 
will not give one a handsome piano-forte. Styles No. 3 or 4 of most 
makers, have gew-gaws enough. Nor is it well to purchase a plainer in- 
strument. 

Front round corners, serpentine moulding on the plinth, carved Louis 
XlVth legs, bevelled top. Ivory keys. Pearl are a nuisance. 

Wlien purchasing a piano, the object should not be to select the cheap- 
est, but the best ; sometimes they may be met with at a comparatively 
low price in sales by auction. To judge of the power and tone of the in- 
strument requires some practical acquaintance with it; and where this is 
wanting, the intending purchaser should avail himself of the judgment of a 
more experienced person than himself. It is common to suppose that any 
kind of piano, liowever fault}', will do for learners — the truth being that 
where the instrument is imperfect the ear of the learner is liable to be de- 
ceived and abused ; whilst the ditficulties of practice are rendered more 
difficult still, and embarrass the novice instead of lending aid. The pre- 
servation of the piano demands that it should be placed in a position where 



408 MUSICAL. 

it will not be subject to the action of either too great heat or cold, either 
of these acting prejudicially on tlie instrument. Pianos should be kept 
shut, to exclude dust and other particles, and should also be locked, to pre- 
vent their being injured by servants or cliildren. Striking the keys with 
immoderate force is, as a matter of course, apt to break them, and besides 
more noise is thereby produced than harmony. Wlien a piano is to be 
left untouched for any length of time, it should be enveloped in a cloth or 
calico covering, to prevent it receiving injuries, either external or internal. 
Pianos may be hired at so much per month, quarter, or year, either from 
the dealers or from music warehouses. 

To Recover Hammers in Pianos. — Get felt of graduated thickness, ' 
cut it in strips the exact width, toucli only the two ends with glue, not tlie 
part striking the strings. Hold in place with springs of narrow hoop iron. 

To Construct an ^olian Harp. — Make a box with the top, bottom, 
and sides of thin wood, and the ends IJ incli beech, form it the same 
length as the width of tlie window in wliicli it is to be placed. The box 
should be 3 or 4 inches deep, and 6 or 7 inclies wide. In the top of the 
box, which acts as a sounding-board, make 3 circular holes about 2 inches 
in diameter, and an equal distance apart. Glue across the sounding board, 
about 2^ inches from each end, 2 pieces of hard wood i inch thick, and 4 
inch high, to serve as bridges. You must now procure from any musical 
instrument maker twelve steel pegs similar to those of a pianoforte, and 12 
small brass pins. Insert them in the following manner into the beech : 
first commence with a brass pin, then insert a steel peg, and so on, placing 
them alternately ^ in. apart to the number of twelve. Now for the other 
end, which you must commence with a steel peg, exactly opposite the 
brass pin at the other end, then a brass pin, and so on, alternately, to the 
number of 12 ; by this arrangement you have a steel peg and a brass pin 
alwaj's oj^osite each other, which is done so that the pressure of the 
strings on the instrument shall be uniform. Now string the instrument 
with 12 first violin strings, making a loop at one end of each string, which 
put over the brass pins, and wind the other ends round the opposite steel 
pegs. Tune them in unison, but do not draw them tight. To increase the 
current of air, a thin board may be placed about 2 inches above the 
strings, supported at each end by 2 pieces of wood. Place the instrument 
in a partly opened window, and, to increase the draft, open the opposite 
door. 

To Construct a Metronome. — Take a cheap clock movement and 
substitute for the pendulum a wire with a sliding weight, marking the 
wire with a file at the different points of graduation. Used to indicate the 
proper time in music. 

Voice, Management and Preservation of. — The follounntj hints to 
vocalists will be found beneficial : — VViien about to sing, let the body be in a 
simple unconstrained posture. Practise twG or tliree times a day, but at 
first not longer than ten minutes at a time, one of which should be before 
breakfast. Exercise the extremities of the voice, but do not dwell upon 
those notes you reach with ditficulty. Open the mouth widely at all times, 
in the higher notes especially ; open it to the ears, as if smiling. Never 
dwell upon consonants. When you are about to sing, read the words, and 
master their meaning, so as to give them the proper expression. Let every 
word be heard distinctly : disregard of this rule is a common fault among 
singers of every kind and degree. Children should never be allowed to 
sing much, or to strain their voices; the age of fifteen or sixteen is soon 
enough to begin to practise constantly and steadily the two extremities of 
the voice. Tlie voice is said to have gained its greatest power at the age 
of twenty-eight, and to begin to decline soon after forty. Never force the 
voice in damp weather, or when in the least degree indisposed ; persons 
often sing out of tune at such times, when tliey do not at others. Take 
nothing to clear the voice but a glass of cold water, and always avoid 
pastry, rich cream, coffee, cake, nuts, etc., when you intend to sing. 



MUSICAL. 



40& 



INSTRUCTIONS FOR TUNING THE PIANO-FORTE, MELODEON, 
SERAPHINE, AND REED ORGAN. 



H 
P5 
O 

6 

t— I 

l> 

H 
O 

o 



ft. 












?#;> 



I 



U H 



•J! 

n 



18 



410 MLSICAL. 

The Art of Tuning. — Tlie fallowing practical introduction to the art 
of tuning tlie piano-forte will be found of great utility to persons desirous 
of tuning tlieir own instruments, or wlio reside in tlie country far away from 
the residence of a regular tuner. 

Tiie great difference between the sound of a piano-forte when perfectly 
in tune, as compared with tliat of the same instrument when out of tune, is 
well known to every plaj'er ; indeed, at times tliis difference is so great that 
one is ahnost induced to doubt the identity of the instrument. 

Every professor, and indeed every piano-forte player, particular!}' in the 
country, where regular tuners are not always to be had, ought to be capable 
of tuning their own piano ; and the time and trouble necessary to acquire 
the power of so doing do not bear any comparison with the convenience and 
advantages whicli result. 

The present work is intended to convey, in the simplest and most in- 
telligible manner, the knowledge, both theoretical and practical, necessary 
to enable anj'one to tune his own instrument. He is merely supposed to 
known enough of the nature of intervals to understand the meaning of the 
terms unison, octave, perfect fifth, major third, &c. 

The system, explained and reduced to practice, is that of Equal Tempera- 
ment, which is now universally adopted. 

The intervals chiefly made use of in tuning are the unison, the octave, 
tlie fifth, and the major and minor third. Unisons and octaves are always 
tuned per/erf, as the ear will not tolerate any modification whatever in these 
intervals. The fifth, and still more the major and minor thirds, admit of 
some slight degree of modification in regard to pitch, without losing their 
consonant nature and becoming offensive to the ear. 

The Unison. — Square and cabinet, or boudoir, piano-fortes have two 
strings to each note or key ; grand pianos, whether horizontal or upright, 
have three. The pitch of one of these strings is ahvaj's determined by its 
being timed in the relation of an octave or fifth to some previous note; the 
remaining string or strings belonging to the same note are tuned in unison 
to this first string. Hence the unison, or identical sound, is the interval, 
if it may be so called, which most frequently occurs in tuning. It is also 
the easiest interval for the student to begin with. 

Supposing the instrument to be in tune, let the student place his tuning 
hammer upon one of the pegs, or pins, round which the strings are coiled— 
say, upon one of the strings belonging to the note 



and turn the hammer a little towards the left, so as to relax the string, and 
thereby depress or flatten its pitch. If we now strike the note C, the 
collision of the two dissimilar sounds will produce that harsh and jarring 
effect which we are sensible of when we touch a note thatis much out of tune. 
Let him then turn the hammer to the right, gently and by almost impercepti- 
ble degrees ; and if he listen attentivel}', he will observe that, as the pitch 
of the two strings approaches more and more nearly towards coincidence, 
he will at first hear a number of strong and rapid pulsations or beats, which, 
as the coincidence becomes greater, will succeed each other more and more 
slowly, till they degenerate into mere gentle undulations or waves; and 
these, as we proceed, will at length disappear, and give place to one steady, 
pure, and continuous sound, when the two strings will be perfectly in unison to 
each other. This progression from a mere confused and jarring sound to 
strong beats, first quicker and then slower, and from these again to smooth 
and gentle wavings, and, ultimately, to one pure and uninterrupted sound, 



MtTSICALr 



411 



must be thoroughly impressed upon the ear and mind of the student ; as 
these gradations are the mechanical means upon which tlie art of tuning de- 
pends, and, witliout a distinct perception of them through their various 
degrees, it is morally impossible, even with the finest musical ear, to tune a 
piano-forte tolerably. 

The Octave. — When the student is able to tune a perfect unison, he 
may proceed to the octave. Here the sounds, though no longer identical, 
have so strong a resemblance to each otlier, that, when struck together and 
perfectly in tune, they seem to form but one simple sound — the lower one, as 
it were, swallowing up the higher. He will observe the same succession and 
gradation of beats, waves, and ultimate coincidence, as in tuning the unison. 

When he has tuned an octave by striking the notes together, let him 
also try them in quick succession, thus : — 



e^-rn 



'^=^ 



holding the bottom note down ; for the ear is apt to be satisfied with the 
octave while it is yet too fiat, particularly in tuning the upper notes of the 
instrument ; and striking them, one after the other, in the above manner, 
affords a ready and certain means of detecting any error in this respect. 

The Fifth and Thikd. — The student may now practise tuning the 
fifth, and the major and minor thirds. These concords, when perfectly in 
tune, have neither beat nor wave, but coalesce in one pure, agreeable, unin- 
terrupted, complex sound. At first, he will, of course, tune them perfect ; 
though we shall presently demonstrate that, according to our present musical 
system, these intervals are never so tuned in practice. It is necessary, 
however, that he should be familiar with them in their perfect state, that 
he may be able to judge of the degree of deviation from this point which 
the ear will tolerate. 

As we can tune only one string at a time, to avoid confusion we must 
stop the vibration of the other string or strings belonging to the note which 
we are adjusting. In grand and cabinet pianos, this is done by means of 
the left hand pedal, which shifts the key-board and the hammers belonging 
to the keys, so that they strike only one string to each note. In square 
instruments, however, this must be done by means of a damper, which is to be 
inserted between the string of which we mean to stop the vibration and the 
string immediately adjacent to it, belonging to the next note ; a bit of card, 
soft paper, or leather, answers very well for this purpose. 

On Temperament. — Experience teaches us, and writers on the mathe- 
matical theory of sound demonstrate, that, if we tune the following series 
©f perfect fifths. 



-<i2L 



Ym\' 


- rz 


rj 


- — y 


— 'r^ 


t^J' 






/r 




^ (^ 


^^ 




fV\. CJ 


.. r^ 



~C?" 



the E last obtained wiU be found too sharp to form a trne major third to the 
note 



32: 



412 



MUSICAL. 



the double octave to the C in the base, from which we started. Indeed, the 
third 



^^ 



thus obtained is so sharp as to be utterly offensire to the ear, and therefore 
unfit for harmony, where tliis interval plays so conspicuous a part. 

To remedy this inconvenience, it becomes necessary to tune each of the 
fifths a very small degree flutter than perfect. The E obtained by this 
means will not be so sharp, as that obtained before ; though, if the fifth be 
properly altered, or tempered, as it is termed, it will still be somewhat too 
sharp, as the fifth will not admit of being tuned so flat as to produce a per- 
fect major third, without their (ionsonancy being too much affected. 

If we continue the above series of perfect fifths to B, F;^, CJ, GJ, &c., 
and compare the notes produced, respectively, with the octaves or double 
octaves of the notes G, D, A, E, &c., before obtained, we shall find the same 
defect in all the other major thirds. Hence it appears tJiat, if we tune hy perfect 
fifths, all the major thirds will be so sharp as to be unbearable ; and that if, 
by depressing the fifths, we tune our major thirds perfect, the fiftiis will be 
so flat as to be unfit for the various combinations of harmony. 

We must therefore flatten each fifth of the complete circle, C, G, D, A, 
E, B, Eft, eft, Gft, or A[7, Ej?, B\}, F, C, equally, and in a very small degree; this 
depression, while it will not materially impair the consonancy of the fifths, 
will produce a series of somewhat sharp, though still agreeable and har-- 
monious major thirds. 

To assist the ear in determining the proper degree of depression, let the 
student tune the fifth 



perfect ; and then let him flatten the note G, so that, upon striking the notes 
G and C together, he heart two sloiv and distinct waves, terminating in one 
steady, continuous sound ; and the fifth will be properly tempered. The 
same mechanical test will enable him to tune all the remaining fifths of the 
circle. 

By this time the student will have exercised his ear in tuning the prin- 
cipal intervals, and have acquired somewhat of that flexibility of wrist and 
command of the hammer which enable the hand to move the pegs by almost 
incredibly minute degrees ; he may therefore proceed to learn the following 
scheme : — 



SCALK TOB TUKINO AcCOBDINa TO THB StSTBU OF EqUAL TeMFBBAHEITT. 
Pitch Note. 1 2 8 4 6 



-r — 1 




1 1 






1 1 










/L "^ 


■ rj 














— m — 


— s> — 


irn 






^.-^ 




rlP 


ri) 




v/ 










' 




— 


^,_ 






'•V 








r'^ 




^ 


»— -^ 






^« 




















^— ^ 









































MUSICAL. 



413 



7 8 




-£2- 



i^ ^_AJS^ ii\:^ 



b tf . b g. 



Explanation — In the above scheme, the first note is tuned to the proper 
pitch by the help of a C tuning fork, wliich, with the tuning liammer, may be 
bouglit at any music store. In the next and each subsequent bar, the black 
note is used to distinguisli the note to be tuned, the white note in the same bar 
liaving been tuned already. These black notes always stand in the relation 
either of an octave or a fifth to the white note in the same bar ; and we have 
already explained that all octaves are to be tuned perfect, and all fifths 
somewhat flatter than perfect. The octaves tuned after most of the fifths are 
necessary to confine the circle of fiftlis to the notes in the middle part of the 
instrument; as the vibrations of the upper notes are too quick and indistinct, 
and those of the lower base notes too often mixed witii the sympathetic 
vibrations of other strings, their own harmonics, &c., (particularly when the 
dampers do not act properly, or when the instrument is old,) to allow of the 
ear tempering the fifths formed by such notes with sufficient accuracy. 

When we arrive at the eighth fifth note of the series, instead of proceed- 
ing onwards in the circle to Dj, or E|7, it will be better to return to C, and 
tune the remaining fifths backwards, as sho\Yn in the scheme. In adjusting 
these latter fifths, marked 9, 10, 11, the student must first tune the bottom 
note so as to form a perfect fifth with the upper note, and then sharpen it by 
exactly the same quantity as he depressed the upper notes of the fifths 
which were tuned forwards. By this means, the interval of the fifth is still 
diminished or flattened, as the lower extremity is brought nearer towards the 
upper one. 

When the last fifth is adjusted, we shall have tuned every note within the 
following compass : — 



321 



This operation is called laying the bearings; it forms the most delicate ana 
important step in tuning, as all the other notes on the instrument are tuned 
to these notes by means of octaves above or below. 

Generally speaking, it will be found necessary to go over the bearings a 
second time before we proceed to tune the rest of the instrument by octaves 
to them ; trying the different chords, as we proceed, in the following 
manner : — 

The correctness of the note E, forming the fifth No. 4, must be ascertained 
by comparing it with the C below it, thus : — 



:;^~ 



and observing whether, when struck together, these notes produce a major 
third, somewhat sharper than perfect, but still consonant and agreeable. A 



414 



MUSICAL. 



similar test must be applied to all the subsequent fifths. These trials may 
be represented in notes, as follows ; they afford, at each step, a check by 
whicli we may ascertain tlie correctness of our progress : — 

Trials. 



4 

^ 


5 


6 




tJ -*- or ■•" 

m -- — 1 


or * 

1*. 


or 


L ^ ^ 1 

or or 



8 


9 


10 


11 

\)~i 


W-H — I- 

tJ or 


or .^. 




or 



The last and severest test is the following fif tli : — 



as the two notes of wliich it is formed liave each been obtained by a different 
series of fifths. Any imperfection which may have escaped us in tuning 
will manifest itself here ; hence tliis fifth, from the frequent harshness and 
bowlings of its beats, lias been teclmically termed the wolf. If however, the 
directions which, we liave given have been carefully observed, tliis fifth will 
be little, if at all, inferior to the rest ; and the chords in wliicli one or other 
of its notes enters will not be less harmonious than the same chords on other 
notes of the system of sounds. 

When the hearings are laid with sufficient accuracy, there only remains 
for us to tune tlie remaining notes on the instrument in the relation of octaves 
to those already adjusted. This must be done in the following manner: — 



NOTES TO BE TUNED. 






NOTES ALBEADY TUNED. 



Z2: 



&c., to the top of 
the instrument. 



NOTES ALBEADY TUNED. 



:S«=t5«:: 



NOTES TO BE TUNED. 



&c., to the bottom 
of the instrument. 



MUSICAL, 415 

before we consider the instrument as tliorouglily in tune, each upper 
note should be compared witli its octave and double octave below ; and, 
similarly, each bass note witii its octave and double octave above: this is 
one of the surest ways of detecting any inaccuracy in our tuning. 

In tuning a cabinet or boudoir piano, it will be desirable to adjust first 
the whole series of notes upon one string, and then to tune all the second 
strings in unison to those of the first series. 

In a grand piano, after the second set of strings is tuned, we must tune 
the third set in unison to the first and second. In square pianos, the second 
string to each note must necessarily be tuned before we proceed to anotlier 
note. 

The upper notes must be gone over several times, as the tuning of the 
bass notes is apt to depress their pitch. 

The system which we have explained is that of equal temperament ; it is 
that generally adopted throughout Europe. Various systems of unequal 
.temperament have been proposed, as those of Kirnberger, Earl Stanhope, 
&c., in wiiich some of the major thirds or fifths are to be tuned perfect, others 
modified in various degrees. These have all one capital defect, which is, 
that while some few keys are tuned more harmoniously than by the system 
of equal temperament, all the remaining keys are mucii less perfect ; so that 
it becomes impossible to modulate into them without disn'usting the ear. 

General ()bservations. — Let tlie piano be tuned at least once in two 
months, keeping it ahvaj's at concert pitch. If you allow it to go too long 
without tuning, it becomes flat, and occasions much trouble to get it to stay 
at concert pitch, especially in the country. There is no greater enemy to a 
piano-forte than damp. Close the instrument immediately after you practise ; 
by leaving it open, dust fixes on the sound-board, and corrodes the movements ; 
and if in a damp room, the strings must rust. Sliould the piano-forte stand 
near or opposite a window, guard, if possible, against its being open, especially 
on a damp day. When the sun is on the window, close the blinds. Avoid putt- 
ing metallic or other articles on or in the piano-forte ; such things frequently 
cause unpleasant vibrations, and sometimes injure the instrument. The 
more equal the temperament of the room, and the less the soft pedal is 
used, the better the piano will stand in tune. 

If a string should break, great care must be taken to replace it by anotlier 
of exactly the same thickness, and of wire of the same kind. A little practise 
will enable the student to put on a string neatly. New strings require to be 
drawn up several times, and well rubbed with a piece of soft leather, before 
they will stand in tune. 

Piano-fortes should be carefully guarded against extreme heat or cold, 
being liable by sudden changes of temperature to be put out of tune. Some- 
times, during an intensely cold night, the bass strings will so contract as to 
rise nearly a tone above the pitch. When thus affected they should not be 
touched, as the return of the temperature will bring them into tune again. 

It is advisable not to place them against outer walls, which being more 
or less affected by the state of the atmosphere, naturally communicate such 
effects to adjacent objects. 

The same circumstances produce opposite effects on different kinds of 
instruments. Flutes and other wind instruments are usually tuned a little 
too flat, because the warmth imparted to them by the breath and hands in 
playing upon them causes them to rise a little in pitch. 

In tuning the violoncello, it is best to commence with the second string, 
as we do on the violin, by which means we are less liable to error ; and if 
we take the pitch from the organ or piano-forte, the whole of the instruments 
in an orchestra are tuned witli more ease and certainty from the chord of D 
minor than from any other note or chord. As the German flute plays mostly 
in altissirao, that instrument h more accurately adjusted to the orchestras 
by tuning to the highest D. 



416 



MUSICAL. 



VARIOUS EXEECISES AND EXAMPLES IN TUNING THE 
PIANO-FORTE. 



(The following examples are to be regarded as scientific experiments, 
rather than a system or method for general use in tuning.) 

Several systems of tuning have been successfully employed since the in- 
vention of piano-fortes, the following method, No. 1, seems to give the most 
general satisfaction. The mode of tuning by occasional fourths may suit 
some tuners of long practice, but learners will never tune by fourths so soon 
as by fifths or thirds, because a fourth does not strike an unpractised ear so 
well as a third or fifth. The principal reason given for the system of fourths 
is, that the bearings are brought within a smaller compass than by the usual 
metliod. If tliat is the only principle on which it is defended, Nos. 2 or 3 
are more likely to obtain a preference, as they are both within an octave, 
and are tuned bj' major thirds and perfect fifths. 

If the exact number of beats in a wire could be ascertained, a mathe- 
matical division of the temperament would be no difficult operation ; but as 
no two wires have an exact similitude of vibration, the precise temperament 
required in each piano must be subject to the ear of an experienced tuner. 
The following examples will materially assist the learner, particularly when 
the chords are well examined in their respective places. 



Trial. 10 11 Trial. 




12 13 Trial. 



14 Trial. 15 16 Trial. 17 Trial. 18 19 Trials. 




- 79- 7wr yg: 



Begin tuning with pitch C ; from C descend to the octave. Then 
ascend to G, tuned flat, descend to G. Ascend to D, tuned flat, ascend to A, 
tuned flat; descend to A ; ascend to E, tuned flat. Now try tlie chord of 
C, E, G. Then proceed to B above, which is tuned less flat than the pre- 
ceeding fifths. Try tlie chord of D, G, B. Descend to B, ascend to F sharp, 
tuned flat. Try the chord D, F sliarp, A ; descend to F sharp ; ascend to 
C sharp, tuned flat. Try the chord A, C sharp, E. Ascend to G sharp, 
tuned perfect. Try the chord E, G sharp, B. Descend to G sharp. Now 
return from pitch C to F descending, tuned sharp. Try the chord F, A, C. 
Descend to B flat, tuned sharp. Try tlie chord B flat, D, F ; ascend to B 
flat ; descend to E flat. Try the chords of E flat ; G, B flat, and A flat 
below C, E flat. If properly tuned, the E flat will be a good fifth to B flat 
above, and to A flat below. 

The fifths, in beginning, are tuned less flat than they were formerly, as 
tlie modern temperament is more equal in fifths than according to the old 
method, which was that employed in most organs ; according to which 
system, the keys most used are more harmonious, while the extreme keys, 
not so frequently played in, are intolerable. A good tuner can accommodate 
the temperament to tlie taste of those wlio play in particular keys, which 
they wish to be more perfect than the rest. 

Wlien the bearings are tuned, descend by octaves. Then tune the treble 
also by octaves. When the piano is very flat, tune the treble sharper than 



MUSICAL. 



417 



requisite, as it is sure to fall the first time it is drawn up. Most pianos fall 
from E, F, or G, below pitch C, to the upper part of the instrument. 



12 3 4 Trial 



No. 2. 

5 6 Trials. 



Trial. 




Trials. 



10 11 Trial. 12 Trial. 



13 Trials. 



~S^ 



^ 



W^- 



f 



t»- 









Tune from F to F below ; then to C, tuned flat ; tlien A, tuned sliarp. 
Try the chord F, A, C, F; then from F to B flat, tuned ratlier sliarp; tlien 
D, tuned sharp ; then two trials of chords F, B flat, D, F, and F, A, C, F ; 
then from A to E, tuned flat ; then from A to C sharp, tuned sharp ; tlien 
try the chord A, C sliarp, E ; then C sharp, F sharp, tuned sharp ; then two 
trials of chords F sharp, A sharp, C sharp, and F sharp, A, D ; then from 
D to G tuned sharp ; tiien to B tuned sharp ; then try the cliord of G, B, 
D ; tlien from B to D sharp, tuned sharp ; then try the chord F sharp, B, 
D sharp ; then from E flat to A flat, tuued perfect. Then try the chords A 
flat, C, E flat, and A flat, D flat, F. 



12 3 4 Trial. 



No. 3. 
6 Trials. 



8 Trial. 



I^|=E 



-*- **" ^h 



^ i W 






:§•- 



'^~^- 



Trial. 



10 11 



Trial. 



Trials. 




ff^tfcs: 



Tune from A to A below ; then to E, tuned flat ; then from A to C sharp, 
tuned sharp ; then from A to D, and from D to F sharp, tuned sliarp ; then 
try the chords A, D, F sharp. A, and the preceding chord; then from O 
sharp to G sharp, tuned perfect ; tlien from C sharp to E sharp, or F, tuned 
sharp ; then try the chord D flat, F, A flat ; then from F to B flat, tuned 
rather sharp ; then try the chord B flat, I), F ; then return from F sharp, B, 
tuned sharp ; then to D sharp, tuned sharp ; then from E flat to G, tuned 
sharp ; then to C, tuned sharp ; then try the chords C, E, G, and C, F, A. 



CAUSES OF DEFECTS IN PIANOS, WITH THEIK REMEDIES. 



Keys Sticking. 

When a pin is too tight in the mortise, file it. 
When a hopper spring is too strong, weaken it. 

When the hopper is rough in the part that touches the under hammer, 
sandpaper it and blacklead it. 

18* 



418 MUSICAL. 

When one key sticks to anotlier, consider whether the pins are in a pro- 
per position ; if so, plane a little ofiE the key or keys : or if the key is 
consideral)ly warped, bend it back with a warm iron ; press it very gently, 
for fear of the mortise, where tiie key is weak. 

When touching the front slip ; which, in that case must be reduced in 
thickness. 

When a pin, needle, or any other detached substance, is between two 
keys. 

When a key touches the cheeks of the key frame. 

When it touches the cheeks of the case. 

When it touches the pillars of the hammer rail. 

When any glutinous substance is under it, or betwixt two keys. 

When the leather on the under hammer is rough or too loose. 

When the key is too light behind the balance rail. 

To open the mortises or pin holes, a very fine key file must be used — a 
flat one for the square hole, and a round or rat-tail file for the round hole, 
under the key. They must be used verj'^ carefully. A key is frequently 
spoiled by injudicious management; for if the pin holes are too large a 
rattling will certainly ensue. Most persons, ignorant of the whole apparatus 
of the key, immediately proceed to widen the holes, without examining 
wliether the defect is not elsewhere. The key must be taken out with 
caution ; draw the front block or blade of the hopper forward with your 
finger, to prevent its toucliing the under hammer, while with your other 
hand you gently lift up the key and pull it out. The same care is requisite 
in replacing it. 

The Keys Rattling, Clicking, &c. 

When the pin holes are too large yoU must wedge the key on each side 
of the mortises ; when all the keys rattle from that defect, it is sometimes 
better to introduce thicker pins. 

By friction of one key against another. This is remedied as explained 
in the last page. 

By friction of the key against the front slip. This defect is likewise pro- 
vided for in the last page. 

The friction caused by a key against one of the pillars that support the 
hanlmer rail. Remedy it as on the otlier side. 

When the cloth or baize under the key is not sufficiently soft ; or when 
some hard, detached substance lies between the key and the cloth or baize. 

When the key touches the balance rail, file it underneath. 

When the ivory or ebony is loose, reglue it. 

When tlie lead is loose, hammer it till firm. 

When tile key is unsound, glue it. 

When the front block or bracket is loose, glue it. 

When tlie key frame is not firmly attached to the bottom, first examine 
the screws; if they are tight, glue some brown paper betwixt the rail and 
bottom where the vacancy occurs. If the screws do not hold, introduce 
larger ones. 

When a loose splinter is in the pin hole. 

When a pin is rough, file it at or near the head. 

When the metal of a pin has communicated itself to the hole, which has 
become too hard, file it. 

When the further end of the key touches two damper levers. 

Wlien a key touches a cheek of the hammer rail. 

When a kej' touches a cheek of the case. 

When the key touches the name board, the latter should have cloth 
under it. 

Wlien the leather at the further end of the key is too hard, it rattles 
against the damper lever. 

When the ivory or ebony touches that of the next key, file it as smoothly 
as possible. 



MUSICAL. 419 

When the furtlier end of the ebony touclies the tront of the name 
board, saw or file it off as carefully as possible. 

When a key touches any hard substance at the further end, near the 
damper lever. 

Wlien any hard, detached substance is on a key. 

When a hopper or hopper guard is loose. 

Noise in the Hoppers 

Is caused by the friction of the spring against the groove. 

B}^ looseness of the spring. 

By looseness of the hinge. 

By looseness of tiie check. 

By looseness of tlie tenon. 

By looseness or unsoundness in the blocks. 

By rouglmess of tliat j)art wliich touches the under hammer. 

By touching the next liamnier. 

By a sudden blow against a hard under hammer. 

B}' touching tlie next hopper. 

When tlie cloth is too hard. 

When the pin is loose. 

Noise in the Upper Hammers 

Is caused by looseness or unsoundness of the hinges. 

By hardness of the leather under the block. 

By some detached, hard substance betwixt, upon, or under the hammer. 

By looseness or unsoundness of the head. 

By friction of the head against the damper socket. 

By unsoundness of the shank. 

By the friction of loose glue against the liammer rail, near the hinge. 

By looseness or unsoundness of the block. 

By looseness of the leather under the block. 

By the friction of one shank against another. 

When the upper coat of the hammer is too hard, if there is suflScient 
substance, prick it with a marking awl; if there is no substance in the 
leather, it must be replaced. 

When a hamnier in the box action touches the long block or the belly. 

A Rattling or Noise in the Under Hammers 

Mostly proceeds from the same causes as in the upper hammers. 

To take off a hammer the slip must be first unscrewed. 

To detach and replace the under hammer rail requires great caution. 

Noise in the Dampers 

Happens when the socket hole is not well lined, or through hardness 
of the cloth. To remedy this, prick the cloth with a marking awl, or un- 
screw the damper, and line the socket hole with other cloth, having taken 
out the old. Paste, gum, or thin glue will fasten it. 

When tlie damper wire is loose in the liead, plug up tlie hole and bore a 
fresh one. 

When the damper wire is too close to the string. To remedy this requires 
much care in bending the wire, or in loosening the cloth from tlie socket 
hole on that side of the damper wire that touches the string. It sometimes 
happens that the string must be removed from the damper wire, by bending 
the bridge pins. This last alternative must be avoided, if possible. 

Wlien the damper wire is loose in the button, or detached from it. 
If the wire will not hold, plug up the button hole and bore a new one, or 
introduce another damper wire. 



420 MUSICAL. 

When the whole or major part of the socket holes are misplaced, detach 
the socket and place it in a better position, by planing it or otherwise, as 
the case may require. 

When the socket hole is broken, glue some cloth or leather round it. 

Wlien the damper iiead touches the shade. 

When the damper head touclies the top. 

Noise in the Dami'ER Levers. 

When the hinge is loose or unsound. 

When one lever touclies another. 

When the leather, if any, is too hard. 

Wlien tlie wood is unsound. 

When tlie wood touches tlie slip. 

When there is glue betwixt the hinge and edge of the slip. 

When the last lever touches the key frame cheek. 

When the lever touches any hard substance, detached or otherwise. 

The Strings or Wires Jar or Jingle 

When the damper wire is too close to the string. 

When the strings touch each other. 

When a string touches a rest pin. 

When a string is not firm on the bridges. 

When any brass work on the case is loose. 

When any hard, detached^substance is on the belly. 

When the belly bridge is loose. 

When the belly is unglued. 

When the barring is loose. 

When a castor is loose. 

Wlien tiie piano is not firmly placed on the floor. 

When any detached, hard substance touches the piano. 

When a brass hinge is loose, connected with the top. 

When a wire touclies tlie name board. 

When a wire touches the break of the treble bridge. 

When any detached, hard substance touches a string. 

When a wire is unsound. In this case loosen it, detach it from the 
hitch pin and bridge pins, and rub it with leather. If that does not succeed, 
replace it with a new one. 

When a damper cloth is hard, detach a thread or two with a marking awl. 

When the cloth betwixt the belly bridge and right end block does not 
sufficiently damp the vibration of the strings. 

When a covered string is loose, sometimes by rubbing it you may rectify 
it ; but it generally happens that a new string is the only remedy. 

When a bridge pin is loose. 

When there is not sufficient side bearing. 

When one string is thinner than the other. 

Wlien both strings are too thin. 

When a string is confined by the pins on the belly bridge. 

Defectite Damping 

Occurs when the damper is not sufficiently screwed into the lever 

When the damper cloth is too hard. 

When two wires are not of the same height under the damper. 

When two wires are of different thicknesses. 

When the damper cloth does not bear equallj'^ on two strings. 

When the damper cloth touches the next note. 

When the pedal wire is too long. 

When the damper wire sticks in the socket hole. 

A Hammer Blocks 
When the hopper is too far under the hammer. Unscrew it till the 
hammer falls off at about a quarter of an inch from the strings. 



MUSICAL. 421 

When the hopper spring is too weak, bend it to give it strength, 

"When the hopper check is too high, reduce it, 

When the leather of the under hammer is not firm. 

When the top of the hopper is not smooth, particularly on the inner 
edge, sandpaper and blacklead it. 

When any part of the hopper is loose. 

When the hopper strikes but one side of the under hammer, it must be 
placed in a right position. 

A Hammek Sticks 

Against the damper socket. 

Against the next hammer head. 

Against the long block. In these cases pare off as much leather as you 
can afford ; alter the position of the hammer, or press it with a warm iron, 
as it may require. 

When any glutinous substance adheres to it. 

Against a damper wire. 

Against the belly. 

A Damper Sticks. 

A damper sticks in the socket hole. You must open it, or unscrew 
the damper wire, and rub it witli leather. 
When the lever does not descend. 
When the pedal wire does not act properly. 
When the pedal foot sticks. 

A Hopper Sticks 

Against the under hammer. Examine the leather and hopper spring. 

When the hopper spring does not operate in the groove 

When the key sticks. 

When placed on one side of the under liammer. 

When the top is rough, sandpaper and blacklead it. 

When the spring is too strong. 

When the pin touches the hole of the front block. 

When any part of the hopper is loose. 

Damper Levees Stick 

Against each other. 

Against any detached substance. 

Against the key-frame cheek. 

To Alter the Touch. 

When the touch is too shallow, glue some brown paper under the 
balance rail, till you obtain the deptli requisite. If the hoppers are close to 
the under hammers, plane the bottom of the front rail. After you have 
succeeded in deepening the touch, reduce the hopper checks if too high. 

When the touch is too deep, glue some paper under the front rail. If 
the hopper checks are too low, glue some more leatlier on them. 

When anj' part of tlie keys is deeper or shallower in touch than the 
rest, j'ou must operate as directed above, in tliat particular part alone. 

When one key is deeper than the rest, reduce it on the balance rail. 

When any key is shallower in touch than the rest, you must raise it on 
the balance rail, unless 

When the hopper is too short ; in this case, you must raise the hopper 
by glueing part of a card under it. 

When the touch is too stiff, j'ou must ease the hinges of the hammers 
and levers, if necessary, b}' removing the slip a little off the hinges, or by 
weakening them, if too stiff, with a marking awl. 



422 MUSICAL. 

When the hammer falls off too far from the strings, the touch is .cose ; 
remedy it by turning the hopper pin. 

Wlien the hopper is high, and the front of the key too low, plane off a 
little under the further end of the key. 

Defects in the Pedal. 

When the pedal wire, or stick, is too short to raise the dampers, lengthen 
it b.v fixing leatlier at the top. 

When, by being too long, it raises the dampers too high, shorten it. 
When the pedal foot is too close to the floor. 
When the pedal foot is too high. 
Wlien the pedal foot pin is too tight. 
When too loose, it rattles. 

Defective Rest Pins. ; 

When too small for the hole. 

When tlie rest pin starts or jumps. This occurs when the wire has been 
wound on the pin with damp fingers, or wlien the block is unseasoned. A 
little chalk in the hole will often remedy this defect, which is very un- 
pleasant in tuning. 

Wben the wire is too high or too low on the rest pin. 

When a rest pin, being too close to another, will not admit a tuning 
hammer. 

When a rest pin is too close to the next string. 

Hammers Touching the Wkong Strings. 

When a single hammer, or minor part of the hammers, touches the 
wrong string, you must remedy them in the following manner : — 

If the hammer head is too large, cut it. 

If the hammer head is not too large, you must unhinge it, and replace it 
in a proper position. 

If the wrong string it touches is not in its proper direction, you must 
remove it. 

When a majority of the hammers strike the strings in a wrong direc- 
tion, you must remove the key frame accordingly. 

Causes which Prevent Pianos from Keeping in Tune. 

When the rest pin is loose in the hole. 

When the wire is not tight round the rest pin. 

When the twist of the wire is not tight. 

Wlien the wire is too thick. 

Wlien the wire is defective. 

Wlien the hitch pin does not hold. 

When a tuner pushes the rest pin sideways. 

When the rest pin is turned too frequently. 

When the rest pin is stopped in flattening the tone. 

When the rest pin block is defective. 

When tlie bracing is defective. 

When the back is too tliin. 

When the bottom is too thin. 

When eitlier of the blocks is defective. 

When tlie belly bridge is loose. 

Wiien the belly is unglued. 

When the bridge on the long block is loose. 

When the bridge pins are not firm. 

When the damper wires touch the strings. 

When the hammers block. 



Musical. 423 

When the piano is not firm on the floor. 

When the hammers do not strike the strinfjs in a proper direction. 
When the wood used in tlie construction of tlie case is unseasoned. 
Wlien tlie piano is very flat, it will never stand well in tune tlie first 
time, if drawn up to concert pitch. 

When a new string is put on, it never stands in tune the first daj'. 

On the Horizontal Gkand Piano. 

The peculiarities of the horizontal grand piano are the following: Its 
form resembles that of the harpsicliord. Tiie case is composed of the bent 
side, the end, the back, the bottom, the rest pin block, bracing, including the block 
from the bottom to the nether part of the belly, opposite the rest pin block. 
Several steel arches are screwed against both these blocks, to prevent 
them from yielding to the great pressure of the strings. Some makers 
have cast iron bracing. Another has steel and brass tubes, passing from 
the bent side to the rest pin block. 

Defects. 

Keys as in square, except friction against the dampers. 

Hammers as in cabinet. 

Dampers rattle in mortises when not well closed. 

Wires jingle from most of the causes in square piano. 

Defective damping — when the damper sticks in the socket, or between 
the keys, or from some of the causes in the square piano. 

Hammers block when the lever is too far under the butt. Turn the 
regulating screw to the right, and let the lianimer fall at about a quarter of 
an inch from the strings, as in the square piano. 

When the hammer falls too soon, turn the screw to the left. 

The lever spring will sometimes rattle or clatter, as also the lever, 
when loose. 

The touch is generally altered by blocks or brackets under the balance 
rail, screwed up or down, as required. 

Little brass screws are fixed to the hammer butts, in order to regulate 
the centre wire. In old grand pianos, the centre wires were bushed with 
leather, instead of cloth ; the latter is a great improvement. Great caution 
is requisite in drawing out the key frame : lay hold of the hammer rail, 
and wlien the keys are sufficiently advanced, remove your left hand to the 
front of the key frame. 

On the Upright Piano. 

The form of the upright grand piano is nearly the same as that of the 
horizontal in a vertical position, except that it is squared from the best 
side, for ornament. Its action is principallj' like that of the horizontal, 
with some exceptions. The ke}' frame, bearing the whole action except 
the dampers, is drawn out from behind, after letting down a flap that se- 
cures it. Tlie dampers are behind the strings. The damper frame is fixed 
to the block by numerous little screws. The hammer is more apt to stick 
at its centre than that of the horizontal or cabinet, on account of its shank, 
•which is much longer than either. When the instrument, having been in a 
damp or cold room, sticks at the centre of the hammer butt, take the action 
•'ut, and let it remain some time before the fire. If the hammer still sticks 
<*t the centre, turn the butt-screw ; if that does not succeed, remove the 
brass plate that covers the defective part, take out the centre wire, and 
rub it with leather and whitening ; if after that it does not act freely, open 
the centre hole with a wire for that purpose. You must be very careful 
not to bend the centre wire in detaching or replacing it. To rectify a 
damper, it is often necessary to detacli the damper frame. Sometimes the 
hammer butt, as in the cabinet and horizontal grand pianos, sticks in the 



424 " MUSICAL. 

notclies, wIk ch must then be filed. The soft pedal in this piano, as in the 
horizontal grand, moves the whole action on one or two strings, by touch- 
ing a little bracket that slides up and down a notch or groove in the right 
end key block. 

There are other pianos, as oblique, unique, boudoir, short upright, grand 
square, unichord, etc., nearly similar in action to the preceding instru- 
ments. The unique and oblique have their wires in a slanting direction. 
The short upright has its action in front. The grand square is a grand ac- 
tion in a square case, with the sounding board nearly covering the case. 
The unichord has but one unison. They are all subject to most of the 
defects mentioned in tlie preceding pages. 

ON TUNING THE MELODEON, SERAPHINE, OR REED ORGAN. 

The melodeon should be placed firm and level upon the floor to prevent 
any springing of the case, which may cause the reeds to strike against the 
sockets and produce a rattling or jarring sound, altliough this may be 
caused sometimes by small particles of dust drawing through the bellows, 
and preventing the vibration of the reed. Should this be the case, or any 
reed remain silent when the key is pressed down, the trouble may easily be 
remedied by taking out the key board, and removing the dust with the point 
of a knife. 

Should any note become flat after using, it may be tuned by scraping 
the reed thinner at the point; or, if too sharp, by scraping at the heel of the 
reed. Care sliould be taken, in blowing, to press steadily upon the pedal, 
in order to produce a smooth and uniform tone. Too much pressure bends, 
and frequently flats, the reed. 

Should a reed be fitted too closely in the socket, or by damp weather be 
caused to press against the socket, it may be liberated with a thin, fine file 
upon the inside of the mortise of the socket, without altering the tone of 
the reed. 

There are such a variety of reed instruments, that it will be impossible 
to furnish information which will apply to every case. The rules here 
laid down will reach every ordinary instance. The principles of tuning are 
of course the same with those for the piano-forte. It is a favorite practice 
with many manufacturers to tune the popular keys as perfect as possible, 
throwing the imperfections among the remote keys. But no first-class in- 
struments are tuned in this barbarous way, except when an ignoramus 
accidentally gets hold of them. In repairing a reed instrument, much de- 
pends upon the_ ingenuity and good sense of the practitioner. 

Tuning Fork. — In tuning the notes of a musical instrument, such as 
the piano-forte, the first point is to fix upon some one note, by the pitch of 
which all others maj^ be determined. The only way of retaining a perma- 
nent pitch for use is by having an instrument which time will not alter. A 
standard pitch is usually obtained, by the tuning fork, an instrument con- 
sisting of two steel prongs, extending from a steel handle. When these 
prongs are sharply struck, they vibrate, and if the instrument be tlien held 
to the ear, or placed upon the flap of a table, or any other sound-board, a 
low and pure sound is heard, if the prongs be perfectly equal. These 
tuning forks are usually made to sound either C or A. 

The above Is from " The Tuner's Guide," by permission of Messrs. O. Ditson & Co., Boston, pul>» 
Ulhen. 




BOOK-KEEPING. 

The Science op Single and Double Entry fully Explained, 
The Systems Compared Side by Side, Balancing Books, 
Settling Partnership Accounts, &c., &c., &c. 

Book-keeping is the art of recording in a regular, concise, and system- 
atic manner the transactions of merchants, traders, and other persons en- 
gaged in pursuits connected with money. There are two modes of keeping 
books of account ; the one by what is termed Single and the otlier by Double 
Entry. The system of Single Entry is cliiefly confined to the business of re- 
tail dealers ; when transactions being limited to the detail of sales and pur- 
chases, for cash or credit, a single entry of the account in the ledger is suf- 
ficient for the purpose of a record. This, however, is but an imperfect and 
unsatisfactory mode of book-keeping; and, therefore, in the case of whole- 
sale and mercantile business, recourse is had to the system of double entry. 
By this system each account is entered twice ; first on the Dr. or Cr. side 
of one account, and afterwards on tlie contrary side of some other account. 
It has the advantage of keeping tlie merchant informed, not only of the 
goods sold, but of what remains on hand, without the trouble and incon- 
venience of frequently " taking stock ; " and it also supplies a check by 
which errors may be detected, which, by the system of single entry, would 
probably escape notice. 

In the form of book-keeping by single entry three books only are neces- 
sary — a Cash Book, Day Book, and Ledger. In tlie Cash Book all monies re- 
ceived and paid away should be entered. When goods are purchased for 
cash, the money being paid away, the entry is on the Cr. side, " By mer^ 
chandise per Day Book." The cash should be balanced every month as 
soon after the last day of the month as possible. 

The Day Book contains a record of the transactions of each day in the 
order in which they take place. The party concerned in tlie transaction, 
or customer, is named in full, with tlie term Dr. or Cr. annexed, according 
to the circumstances of the case ; Dr. when you sell goods to him, and Cr. 
when you buy or receive goods _//o/?i him. 

The following instructions will serve as a general guidance for the 
keeping of a Day Book. The date of each entry must be inserted, and 
the names and addresses of customers written in full. When goods are re- 
ceived or purchased on credit enter under the term of Cr. and«distinguish 
it with the word By. When goods are sold on credit add Dr. to the per- 
son's name and residence, and commence the entry with the word To. 
When abatement for short measure and discount are allowed by you, enter 
the person Dr., and when similar allowances are made to you, enter the 
person Cr. 

The Ledger is a book into which every transaction is entered from all 
other books, with certain references, indicating the sources from which the 
items are derived. In this book each customer's name has a certain space 
allotted to it, in which the goods sold appear on the Dr. side, and the cash 
and other considerations received, on the Cr. side : — 

The principal books used for double entry are the Day Book, Cash Book, 
Journal, and Ledger. The Day Book ought to contain the main transac- 



426 BOOK-KEEPING. 

tions that occur in the several stages of business. All entries in this book 
should be fully intelligible, as it contains tlie major part of the materials 
from vvliich the other books are formed. Tlie Cash Book contains a 
record of every transaction that takes place in which cash bears a part ; 
the entries are made roughly and at the time that they ac- 
tually transpire in tlie same manner as other transactions are enter- 
ed in the Day Book. The Journal is a book in which the scattered 
items of the Day Book and Cash Book are fairly entered and methodically 
arranged. Tiie Ledger is the final depository into which the entries from 
the Journal are again transferred under their several heads. An Index 
Book is used in connection with the Ledger in which the names of all the 
accounts are alphabetically arranged with tiie number of the page of the 
Ledger opposite each. In double entry, it must be remembered that 
eacli item is entered twice, (once on the Dr. side of one account and 
once on the Cr. side of another account, for instance if we buy merchandise 
amounting to $500, and pay cash for the same the following would be our 
[double) entry. 

Merchandise Dr. $500,00 

To Cash $500,00 

It will be seen that this transaction is entered twice. The Dr. side 
shows that the merchandise has cost us $500. The Cr. side shows that 
we have paid away cash $500). Genekal accounts are treated in precisely 
the same manner as personal accounts are treated in the single entry ledger. 
Tlius accounts are opened with Cash, Merchandise, Bills Receivable, Bills 
Payable, hiterest. Commission, Profit and Loss, Trade Expenses, ^c, just as 
though they were John P. Smith & Co., Peter Jones, or W. H. Norris ; 
every item received or disbursed on their behalf being duly debited and 
credited to their account. 

For instance, if we sell a lot of goods for John Jones and charge him a 
commission of $65, our entry would be thus 

John Jones Dr. $65,00 

To Commission $65,00 

also. 
If we owed Peter Williams $750, and gave him a note for the amount 
with $25 interest added, this would be our entry. 

Sundries To Bills Payable $775,00 

Peter Williams $750,00 

Interest 25,00 

Accounts are styled "Real" and "Representative;" such accounts as 
Interest, Commission, Profit and Loss, &c., are representative accounts and 
should l)e Debited and Credited for what they cost or produce. In the 
above cases " Commission " produces us $65,00 just as much as if John 
Jones had paid us so much money in hand, consequently we Cr, " Commis- 
sion " with the amount produced. In the next case Interest has cost us 
$25,00 which we charge to that account, by tlius doing, when we balance 
our books we are enabled to tell just what these different representative ac- 
counts have cost or produced us. 

We h^e present in the first place, a complete set of books, kept after 
the method of single entry ; in the second place, a set kept by double 
entry. In the single entry set we use the Cash Book, Day Book, Ledger 
and Bill Book. In the double entry set, we use tlie above-named books ; 
also the Journal, the most important book connected with double entry, as 
the whole principle of double entry is attached to the Journal. If the Journal 
is wrong the Ledger will also be in error. 

In both sets we liave used the same Cash Book, with the identical items. 
The " double entry " day book contains precisely the same business trans- 
actions as the " single entry " day book witli change in form of entries 
necessary to adapt it to " double entry." We do this so that the student 
may be enabled to distinctly see and understand the difference between the 
two methods and compare the one with the other. The transactions con- 



BOOK-KEEPING. 427 

tained herein are those of every day business life. We have endeavored 
to make tliem so plain that "a fool need not err therein." B3' the carefui 
study of and attention to these pages, the student will be able to obtain all the 
information necessary to enable him to keep a set of books intelligently 
either by single or double entry. 

In the single entry set^ tlie items are traced directly from the Daj' and 
Cash Book to the Ledger and in the double entry set they are traced from 
the Cash and Day Book to the Journal, thence to the Ledger. 

Amongst merchants and traders, it is usual to have a periodical adjust- 
ment of the account books; and before taking a general balance, it is ne- 
cessary to prove the posting of the ledger, by making out a trial-balance. 
This is done by adding all the Dr. sides into one sum, and all the 
Cr. sides into another ; these sums will be equal wlien the ledger 
has been correctly posted, but if any difference exists, there is cer- 
tainly an error somewhere that requires investigation. If, however, any 
sum has been entered to a different account than the one to which it be- 
longs, but on the same side, the two sums will still agree; and the only 
method to detect an error of this kind, is to have the journal and ledger 
compared by two persons, the one reading off the journal, and the other 
turning up the accounts in the ledger, and marking them, when correct, as 
he proceeds. When a journal entry is either wholly omitted, or twice en- 
tered in the ledger, the summing up of the Dr. and Cr. sides of the ledger 
will not detect the error ; but if the cash received, cash paid, bills receiv- 
able, bills payable, and day-book entries, are added together, the sum will 
always agree with that side of the ledger wliich is correct, and lead to the 
detection of the error. Double entry would appear, at first sight, to be in- 
volved in inextricable confusion, but it is not so in reality, all transactions 
being governed by the following simple rule : — Anything received, the re- 
ceiver, or the account on which anything is received, is Dr. Anything de- 
livered, the deliverer, _ or the account on which anything is delivered, is Cr. 

" By Journal laws, what you receive 
Is Dr. made for what you give." 

In journalizing the subsidiary books, and in posting the ledger, errors 
frequently occur ; such as debiting or crediting one person on account in- 
stead of another; entering tlie sum too large or too small ; omitting entries 
altogether ; posting them twice, &c. Where errors of this kind are dis- 
covered they must be immediately corrected. And this must not be done 
by any erasure or interlineation, but by an entry explanatory of the mis- 
take in the Day Book. The following is then to be journalized like a regular 
transaction and posted into tlie ledger: for instance, we will suppose that in 
the Ledger, John Rose is on the 8th of February debited to bills payable, but 
on the 31st of March it is discovered that this entry sliould have been posted 
to Henry Smart's account ; Henry Smart is therefore debited to John Rose in 
the Day Book, and the mistake is thereby explained. If any account has been 
overposted, it must either be debited or credited for the excess ; and if it 
has been underposted, a new entry must be made upon the same side for 
the deficiency. When an entry has been entirely omitted, it must be 
made whenever it is discovered, mentioning when omitted ; and when an 
entry has been posted twice, it may be corrected by entering the amount 
on the other side, noting the fact of its being twice posted. 

The most dangerous of all errors, are those which may be made in the 
original entries, and they should therefore be strictly guarded against. 
The balancing of books should not be delayed beyond a certain time, as 
too wide an interval renders the correction of anj' error a work of greater 
difficulty. It may also happen in the case where an account has been under- 
paid a year or two previously tliat the person has subsequently died, 
failed, retired from business, or have otherwise become inaccessible from 
any accidental circumstance that is likely to occur with the lapse of time. 



428 BOOK-KEEPING 

In these instances a positive loss is sustained which might otherwise have 
been avoided. 

In addition to the books already enumerated, other subsidiary books 
are generally used. The Petty Cash Book lias a record of the various 
charges incurred in trade, wliich are too trifling to be entered separately 
in the cash book ; sucli for instance, as postage-stamps, carriage of goods, 
&c. ; this book is balanced once a month, and the total amount of expendi- 
ture transferred to the cash-book, under the head of petty casli. The Bill 
Book is used in the same manner in both Single and Double Entry. Bills 
Receivable. When a Note is received, it should be immediately entered un- 
der tliis head, and duly numbered ; and when a Draft is accepted or Note paid 
away, it should be entered as Bills Payable ; for each of these a separate 
book should be kept and the bills entered in the form we have given for 
the purpose. 

Some merchants keep a Cash account and Bank account separate, that 
is, if they have $1000, on hand in cash and should deposit $300 of it in tlie 
City Bank, they would Debit (or charge) the bank with the amount and Cr. 
cash for the amount paid away, and when tliey draw any portion from the 
bank they Cr. the bank with the amount and debit cash with it, or if it is 
paid away to any one they charge the party with it. 

The " Balance account " (see Ledger, page 441) in large establislmients 
where they have a great number of accounts is frequently kept in a separate 
book, so as to avoid taking up so much space in the Ledger. 

We liave made this set of books (both the double and single entry) a 
partnership set, so as to enable the student to perceive just how partner- 
ship accounts are settled. After understanding this distinctly it will be an 
easy matter to understand the manner of settling or balancing the books 
when there is only one party interested. Some book-keepers use the term 
" Stock " to represent the proprietorship wliere tliere is only a single party 
interested; others use the personal name — either is perfectly correct. In 
all cases in closing the " Profit and Loss " account, each partner must be 
debited or credited (according to whether the business has made or lost) for 
his proportion of the gain or loss. 

We have devoted a great deal of our space to the important subject of 
book-keeping, well knowing the importance of the subject. The student of 
book-keeping has an opportunity of studying the two different forms and 
seeing where they differ and how they differ and tlie advantages of one 
system over the other. This is the first time within our knowledge that 
a set of books precisely alike as reyards transactions have been " written up" 
in both single ahd double entry. One can easily see the advantage of having 
the two systems to compare side by side. 

We have not introduced any calculations of Interest, Average, &c, 
at the close of this article, as is customary generally in works on book-keep- 
ing. We don't think there is any necessity for it as it all can be learned 
from the arithmetics with which the country is flooded : our purpose is to 
give matter that cannot be so easily obtained elsewhere. 

Tliese Eighteen pages contain the entire principles of both " Single and 
Double Entry Bookkeeping." Bear in mind 

The Thing Received is Dh. 
The Thing Delivered is Cb. 
What You Owe is Cb. 
What Owes You is Db. 



BOOK-KKEPINO. 



429 



<S 



6 



8g88§§ 


o 
o 


gggggs 


„ 






to 


to 








- VW> 


PQ 


1. Go „ 




^ C O PI 


§ §El^ 






5§£Si3 


og-2.^1 




I^^SI 


»(N<0- t- 




» 5;* 


Es S— — 


'-' "Ti 


II 



^1 




Sa 




. s 




ti • 








h) « 




5^ 




1?3 




S5 




o.q 




s5 


. 




& 


S« 


Oi 


^ e» 


"8 


fl® 


p 


£fi 


V 


.■S o 


1 


-H 


o 




is 


tl 


g 


«5 


s 




&2 


o c 


o o 


^ « 


O CK 


w^ 


^U 




t^ 


cs 


-.9 


» fe 


o o 


5S) 


.'is 


e^ 


&-^ 


e <« 


1^;"^ 


■«• 


to 


«^ 


2 ® 








t^ 




-5 




•s: 


S"- 


60 

PQtH- 


r^ 


^& 


s* 



.^ 




450 



BOOK KEEPING. 



SINGLE ENTRY DAY BOOK. 



New York, January 1st, 1875. Dr. Cr. 



Eobert Smith and Wm. Jones enter into co- 
partnership and commence business this day 
with capital as follows, viz. : 

Robert Smith advances in cash 

per Cash Book f 10,000 

"Wm. Jones do do do 7,000 



Total 17,000 

The above having been deposited in City- 
Bank. 
Wm. Jones also contributes in merchan- 
dise. 

300 bbls Flour at $5,00 

-3 



John P. Smith & Co., Boston, Mass. Cr. 

By 376 bbls Flour (bo't of them on our 
Note at 3 months from this date) 
at $5,00 
4 



Joseph K. Wilson & Son, Phila. Pa. Cr. 

By 400 bushels Wheat (bought of them 
on ace.) at $1,00 

6 



Cash. Cr. 

By 75 bbls Potatoes (.Dougnt oi Sutton & 
Co., at $2,00 150 

paid as per Cash Book. 
■10- 



R. Brown & Co., Rochester, N. T. 
To 300 bbls Flour at $7,00 
sold them on their note at 
3 months from date. 
■12- 



Dr. 



Cash. Dr. 

Sold Phelps & Co. for cash per C.B. 
400 bushels Wheat at $1,50 $600,00 
being invoice bo't of 
J. K. Wilson & Co., Jan'y 4th. 
-16- 



Peter Jones, 



City. 



Cr. 



Peter Jones, 



By bill rendered for office furniture 
and painting. 
17- 



City. 



Dr. 



To 10 bbls Flour (delivered him on 
ace. of bill rend.) at $7,00. 



Inventory. 



366 bbls Flour cost 5,00 $1830 
75 " Potatoes " 2,00 150 



Office Furniture 



$1980 
$373,20 

$2353^0 







1500 






1880 






400 


2100 


00 


373 


70 


00 





00 



00 



00 



20 



•The! 

t In " taking stocK" as it is termea ; ror tne purpose ot ascertaining amount on 
band vrith a view of " closing the books " or balancing them so as to ascertain the 
amt. of profits or losses the business has sustained, it is customary to take account 
of furniture and fixtures on hand at the cost price in the same manner as merchan* 
cUBe. 

X Need not be posted as it is posted from Cash Book. 

X Sijjnifies that the entries have been noticed and not passed over. 



BOOK-KEEPING. 



43J 









a 


'So 


m 


tc 




n 


Ah' 


3 


>-i 


a 



> o 



s s -^ 



53 



ft^ 



Pq 



!^ 

s " I 
; S "^ 2 
■ <=) -g-d 

; C-. -^ <i> 



S?«. 



. 


0-1 S^ 


1^ 


5 (D 213 




o a ^ 


^ 


-2 g «^ 


"o 





432 



BOOK-KEEPING. 



6 



H 


-<; 


n 


•+0 

•<s> 


>< 


^ 


H 






t^ 


Q 


?^ 


h3 




C5 


o 


00 


»s 






0(N 


s; 






1 








- 








^t- 



'^ 1-5 



CO 
O 



OS * 



M- - 



ihS t- 


1875. 
Jany 




00 Od 


to 


05tO 
t-05 

00 


to 

00 




»-t 






to 



CQ 



^ 





CO 




1^ 




O 

o 


i 




- 



CO 




12 








c3 





o 

CO 
CO 



w el 

CO c8 



BOOK-KEEPING. 



433 



c!3 






o 



o 


id 






s 


g 

C4 




rH 






tti 



§ 


O 


CO 


g 




•H 



s 






00 

1: 


§ss 


§ 


lO t-io 


CO 




iHrH 



2= 



19 



434 



BOOK-KEEPING. 



d 



-I— 

SO 
so 

o 

CO 

S 



>0(N§ 






00 
CO 
O 









l§S|a§ 






.£45 



ooooo 
eqooocN 



OOOO05 



»- So. 
— ® "^ 

« 00 (D 4^ 



P5 






fc fij s s » 
"^ es' ~ " * 



« S: ^ 

•r< C .Q 

fci « s 

■-I n> ^ 

* C3 g 



O c8 



ri 



0(1.3 



"O OS 



■S 1^ -s I 

.-H ® 03 2 

& a' o £ 

O ^ C3 O 

*> O <1>^ 



O 5 5 



00 


§§ 





































































e& 




e& 


m- 



O 00 



« (d 



CO a 



a- 



BOOK-KEEPING. 435 

SINGLE KNTKY. 



The $820 profit has of course been made on the merchandise bought and sold. 
We give below a statement of goods bought, sold and on hand. It will be seen that 
it agrees exactly with our statement of " Profit and Loss and Balance of Assets 
and Liabilities" although obtained by another method of figuring. 

300 bbls Flour at 5,00 $1500,00 
376 " " at 5,00 $1880,00 

400 bush Wheat at 1,00 $ 400,00 
75 bbls Potatoes at 2,00 $ 150,00 

Total cost of Mdse $3930,00 

Sold. 
300 bbls Flour at 7,00 $2100,00 
400 bush Wheat at 1 ,50 600,00 
10 bbls Flour at 7,00 70,00 

Total amount sold $2770,00 

Amount of Stock on hand. 

366 bbls Flour at 5,00 ) 

75 bbls Potatoes at 2,00 ) 

Total amt Stock on hand. $1980,00 

Profit of Mdse sold 820,00 



$4750,00 $4750,00 



When an account is settled it is customary to " rule off" the account as in the 
case of " R. Brown & Co." 

In this set of books it will be seen that we commenced business January Ist 
and on January 17th we took " account of Stock and balanced our books for the 
purpose of informing ourselves in regard to the manner in which our business 
was going, that is, whether we were making money or losing it. We find f ror* 
our " Balance Sheet " that during that time we have made a profit of $820. This 
amount we have credited in the Ledger to the account of the partners and allow- 
ed them each their proportion of the same. The difference then existing between 
the two sides of the Ledger (the Dr. and Or.) shows the amount of interest each 
has in the firm or business. For the purpose of " closing the account " or 
" balancing it " we write the word " Balance " on the smaller side and enter the 
figures necessary to make one side equal the other. We then " rule off " the ac- 
count. Now if we wish to continue the account on the same page wo bring down 
the amount of balance and enter it on the first line under the ruling on the op- 
posite side of the account and write the word ''Balance." By so doing we re- 
open the account and take a new start. If the space allotted to the account has 
been filled with entries so that there is no room on that page, then we carry the 
" balance " to any other page we desire. These directions in regard to balan- 
cing apply to all personal accounts. 

It will be seen that the accounts of " W. H. Norris " and " J. K. Wilson & 
Son" have not been "ruled off" asitis not customary or necessary to rule off 
except when there is more than one entry to the account. The principal reason 
for " ruling off " is so as to get the total amount of the account on a single line 
and each of these accounts are on one line only. Whenever the space allotted 
to an account becomes filled we foot up the two sides and enter the word balance 
and carry the amount of balance forward to another page, entering the page of 
the Ledger opposite, both to the page carried and from the page brought forward. 

In posting accounts from the Day Book to the Ledger enter the Ledger folio on 
the Day Book and the Day Book folio on the Ledger, so that they can be easily 
referred to. 



436 



BOOK-KEEl'lNG. 

DOPBLE EHTllY JOURNAL. 



New York, January 1st, 1875. 



Robt. Smith and Wm. Jonea of N. Y. City 
have entered into co-partnership and com- 
menced business tliis day, the capital consist- 
ing as follows : — 



To 



Sundries. 



Sundries 

Cash 

Merchandise 

Robert Smith 
William Jones 
Robt. Smith has advanced Cash 
Wm. Jones has advanced Cash $7000 
" " '< MdseperD.B. 1500 8500 



18500 



Merchandise Dr. 

To Bills Payable 
Bot of Jno P. Smith & Co on our note at 
3 mos 376 bbls Flour as per D. B. 

_4 



Merchandise Dr. 

To Joseph K. Wilson & Son 
Bot of them 400 bushels Wheat on account 
per D. B. 

_6 



Merchandise 



Dr. 

To Cash 

Bot of Sutton & Co 75 bbls Potatoes per 
D. B. Paid them our check on City Bank. 

-10 



Bills Receivable Dr. 

To Merchandise 
For 300 bbls Flour sold B. Brown & Co on 
their note at 3 mos per D. B. 
12 



Wm Jones 



Dr 

To Cash 
Paid him on personal account per C. B. 



Cash 



Dr 

To Merchandise 
Sold Phelps & Co 400 bushels Wheat per D.B. 

-16 



Office Fixtures Dr 

To Peter Jones 
Being amt of bill rendered for Office Furni- 
ture per D. B. 



Sundries Dr 

To Cash 
W. H. Norris amount loaned him 
Peter Jones paid him on account Office Fix. 
-17 



Peter Jonea Dr 

To Merchaiidise 
Sold him 10 bbls Flour on ace bill Office Fix- 
tures per D. B. 



Robert Smith Dr 

To Cash 
Paid him on personal ace per C. B. 



Closing Entries 
Balance Dr 

Cash 
Amt on hand per C. B. 

Carried Forward 



17000 


00 




1500 


00 


10000 
8600 


1880 


00 


1880 


400 


00 


400 


150 


00 


150 


2100 


00 


2100 


79 


80 


79 


600 


00 


600 


373 


20 


373 
540 


390 


00 




150 


00 




70 


00 


70 


50 


00 


60 


16780 


20 


16780 


41523 


20 


41623 



00 



00 



00 



00 



80 



00 



20 



00 



00 



BOOK-KEEPING. 

DOUBLE ENTRY JOURNAL. 



437 



New York, January 17th, 1875. 





4 
3 

4 
3 

4 
3 

4 
2 

3 

2 
2 

3 

2 

2 
1 

1 

4 
1 

1 


Brot Forward 
Balance Dr 

To Merchandise 
Amt on hand per Inventory 


41523 
1980 

2100 

373 

390 

1880 
400 
153 

820 
820 

10393 

8796 


20 

00 

00 
20 
00 

00 
00 
20 

00 
00 

24 
96 


41523 
1980 

2100 

373 

390 
2433 

820 

443 
376 

19190 


20 

00 




Balance Dr 

To Bills Receivable 
Amt Notes on hand in our favor 


00 




Balance Dr 

To Office Fixtures 
Cost of same on hand 


20 




Balance Dr 

To W. H. Norris 
Amount due us 


00 




Sundries To Balance 
Bills Payable sundry Notes oiitstanding 
Joseph IC. Wilson & Sou amt due them 
Peter Jones amt due him 


20 




Merchandise To 

Profit & Loss 
being amt of profit on Mdse sold to date 


00 




Profit and Loss To Sundries 
Robert Smith 

for his share of gain 
Wm. Jones 

for his share of gain 


24 
76 




Sundries To Balance 
Robert Smith 
Wm Jones 

For amt Capital Invested 


20 




69629 


80 


69629 


80 



In " Double Entry " the cash items are sometimes posted from the Cash Book 
direct to the Ledger and at other times they are carried to the Journal (as is the 
case in this set) and posted from that book to the Ledger. Either way is correct. 

The term " Sundries" is used to avoid repetition — (see first Entry in "Double 
Entry Journal "). If the word "Sundries" was not used in this case the Entry 
would read thus, 

Dr 10,000,00 

To Robert Smith 
Dr 7,000 00 

To William Jones 
Dr 1,500,00 

To Wm Jones 



Cash 



Cash 



10,000,00 
7,000,00 



Merchandise 



1,500,00 



By comparing the two entries the importance of " Sundries " will easily je seen. 



438 



BOOK-KEEPING. 



4 




^c; 



^ 



5^ 

t-O 

o 






» 3" « 5 





05 


Co 








03 (1^ 


OS: 



s 

^ 




o 

5 o 

t»fL| 



1H t- 



J3 



00 

6 



•^3 



as 



00000 

O00OO(M 



00000 



.2 « 

•3 « 



• ■a » P 



iSs. a o c3 

>>^ , .. - 

fq> I s - 



«o5hSS- 



^3 



BOOK-KEEPING. 



439 



e 



o 



1 fc=i 

o rSS 






00 c« 



^^ 



1^ 







t- 








g §" 










^ ^ 






to 


00 








§§§ 


s 




n 

CO 




iHt-IN 



1^ 





To Cash 
" Merchai 
" Balance 


(Ob-- 

tHiH- 







e^ 







6=-^ 






■ad 












3 fl 




^ 


o » 






« » 




•^ 


s-^ 










IP 


.S > 




s 


5J 




o 


o2 






sg 




t- 


• 




M >. 


00 




Oh 




00 




<c a 


o 


>o >? 


A » 


s 

^ 


00 tS 


"1 










s 






c 








o 

§3 


1^ 


> 




"^ 








ste 








































* 


^ ID 

si 

03 _0 



II 





■£ 


<oa 




•d 


A ® 










pj 


.a 




CQ 


WW 




^ 






1^ 








t-> 


.iUc 




'"' 


£:a 














m 




pq> 






* ^ 


00 






>S 


« 



440 



BOOK-KEEPING. 





1- 






o 




o 


I 




V ". 




oooo 1 o 


§2.2 










1 


















oooo 1 o 






o 




o 




























rH CD Ca It' 

M 1-1 1 -J" 








c^ 






CO 


































T-*»HlHlM 


■§H-= 




^ 




c^ 






(M 




■ Ji .■" 














>>1i 














a u-a 










































COM 




« 




o 

M 

1 










2 

o 






1 
















able 

unt so 
on ha 
Ledge 
d loss 




1 










lis Receiv 

sh 

ter Jones 

lance 

^s the amo 
it of stock 
les of the 
profit an 




M A 




*3 








1 i 




1 




a -=1 




*< fe 


03 


71 




* a 
















=1 a fe n 
S ® «> s 




o 

H 


"3 


>> 

P3 


2 
•-3 

-a 
§ 

aT 

a 






2 




fflj3.a S 






t- 


0(Nt-t- 


t-i m ^ S 


:5^ 


eo 




-* 


to 
O 


0) 

1 

O 

CM 
o 


00 S- " - 

-H 1-5 


Kg" 


I— R 

00 cS 


12 g' 

CO CS 






•H l-S 


. CO 

3 i-^ 


-1 l-S 


3 
.2 
V 

2 


'-' iT) 


3 




«2 

o 


o 


§ 


o 


O OOOO 
O O O O O 


o 
o 


a 

c« 


OOOOO 


o 


1 


o 


£5 


5 


r-l »H 


t- 


Is 

S o 




CJ 


o 


& 


S 


01 

o 
















iHrHrHiHCq 






(M 


bC 


iH 






'-• 


















? 






8 
















1? 




5 

fl 




a 






« 




O 














1 
1 




03 

CM 
O 




O 
°0Q 


&Son 

ss 

nt sho 
of a pr 
side. 




o 




3 

o 




1 


s§ 3 o-g.^ 




o 


.2 


at 




« tH 


dries 

sPaya 

C. Wils 

h 

fit and 

this ace 
8 inste 
ntheC 






■a 






I- 

n 


Sun 
Bil 
J.I 
Cas 
Pro 

of 

a los 
edo 












(S 


To 

side 
een 
ntei 




H (D 


o 

H 






s 


















iH »■* cot- 






t- 


1. 


o 






s 














i2 ^ 


5^ 




12 fe- 




[2 >> 






12^ 












00 cj 










S ^ 


1 




rH h. 




-H (-5 











BOOK-KEEPING, 



441 




5^.9^ 



a 






x; o aj 3 



<!&> § 



53 3 -» 

5§ 5 



1^ 






00000 
MO OIMO 



-CI i-( CO CO 1 CO 



«S ft 



iH c^c^eqc^ 



IC >- 3 kl 

§1 = 6^; 



o-S 



9 o< 



;l5 



4) S 



19* 



442 



BOOK-KEEPING. 

• DOUBLE ENTRY. 



To 



Sundries 



Sundries 
Merchandise 
Interest (2 mos on J. Young's acceptance) 
Cash 

Bills Payable 
Bills lieceivable 
Merchandise 
Coniinissiou 
Interest 
Bot of J. H. Browning & Co., Boston, Mass. 
200 bush salt at 75c $ 150,00 

200 bbls Flour at 6,00 1200,00 

50 boxes Cheese 1875 lbs at 10c 187,50 
30 csks Linseed Oil 720 gls at 1,00 720,00 



$2257,50 



Paid them as follows, viz : — 
Our cheque on City Bank for 
" Note at .3 mos from date for 
Acceptance of J. Young (due in 

2 months) 
10 bags Java Coffee 1010 lbs at 

30c 
Amount Commission due us for 

goods sold for J H B & Co 
Amount Interest due in their 

favor (old account) 



$1000,00 
600.00 

200,00 

303,00 

60,00 

96,83 

$2259,83 



To 



Sundries 



Sundries 

Cash 

Interest (or Discount) 

Bills Receivable 
Bills Payable 

The City Bank has discounted Note of 

Wm. P. Smith favor ourselves and due 

May 13th 3 months from this date 
also 

Our own Note at 6 mos 

Amount face Smith's Note 600,00 

Less 3 mos Interest 9,04 



Amount face our own Note 
Less 6 mos Interest 



$490,96 



800,00 
28,00 

$771,66 



City Bank 



300,00 



Dr 

To Cash 300,00 

Amount deposited per Pass Book 



Cash Dr 50,00 

To City Bank 50,00 

Amount drawn per Check Book 



2257 
2 



1262 
37 



1000 

600 

200 

303 

60 

96 



600 

800 



* This last form is entirely independent of the other transactions contained 
in this work. It stands alone by itself. We have introduced the first 
entry for the purpose of furnishing a study for the student who will see tliat 
it is somewhat complicated but we liave made it so plain tliat he will not be 
long in understanding it. It is an entry tliat beautifully illustrates the 
grand system of double entry bookkeeping. The second entry also shows 
for itself ; we have iiad our own note discounted at the bank, also a note 
that was due us from another party, and tlie above entry is applicable to 
the case. The last two entries are fully explained on page 428. 



LETTER WRITING. 



iNTilODUCTORY, ItS UsE AND PROGRESS, HoW LETTERS SHOULD 

BE Written, Rules for Spelling, Pronunciation, 
Grammar, &c. 

Introductory. 

The importance of epistolary writing is such, tliat it is almost useless to 
itisist upon tlie advantages that result from it ; the more so. because all 
wiio can boast of this accomplishment must be fully sensible of its sterling 
value, which nothing can depreciate. On the contrary, persons who are 
unable to convey their sentiments to a friend witliout the assistance of a 
tiiird person, feel the unpleasant situation in which their ignorance places 
them, with keen regret ; to such no arguments can he necessary to convince 
them that it is their own interest they promote, when the}' endeavor to be- 
come acquainted with a branch of knowledge so likely to prove extremely 
useful, beneficial, and pleasant. Letter-writing is also still more agreeable, 
because it enables us to hear from our friends, and to communicate to them 
our affairs and wishes, however distant we may be, and this too under the 
bond of secrecy, at least it is so in this country where freedom reigns to 
bless us. 

Had letters been known at the commencement of the world, e})istolatory 
writing would have been coeval with love and friendship ; for, as soon as 
they began to flourish, the verbal messenger was stopped, and the affec- 
tionate language of the heart was then committed to characters which 
faithfully preserved it. Secrecy was ensured, and the intercourse of social 
life rendered more easy, and infinitely more agreeable. 

Many of the most ancient compositions were written in this manner, and 
even the Holy Gospel was delivered by the Apostles in an epistolary form. 

The Romans attained perfection in this art ; as a proof of which, we 
need only to produce the elegant letters of Cicero; nor are the moderns 
less aware of its importance and its beauties. Amongst the French, many 
of their first writers have built their fame upon epistolary correspond- 
ence ; and our own countrymen of tlie present age, appear to be fully 
sensible of its merits and utility. Indeed, epistolary writing appears in 
some degree to have triumphed over every other species of composition ; 
the historian has adopted it ; we have the Greek and Roman histories, as 
well as that of our own nation, elegantly e.xecuted in this style of writing. 
The novelist also finds it better adapted to his purpose than any other mode 
of writing. Poets have also resorted to it ; and travellers find it to Le their 
only consolation during the lingering period of absence from friends justly 
endeared to their hearts. 

Letters are the very fountain of trade, the food of love, the pleasure of 
friendship, the enjoyment of the pohtician, and the general entertainment 
of all mankind ; as, without their pleasing medium, we should find our- 
selves miserably curtailed in every comfort and amusement; because, next 
to speaking to those we love, an epistolary correspondence with them is the 
greatest blessing we can possibly enjoy. 

The Rise and Progress of Writing. 

Next to speech, writing is the most useful art of which men are pos- 
sessed. Writing is an improvemeirt upon speech, and therefore must 



444 LETTER WRITING AND GRAMMAR. 

have been posterior to it in order of time. At first, men thought of nothing 
more than conimunicating their sentiments to one another when present, 
by means of words or sounds whicli they uttered. Afterwards, they de- 
vised tliis further method of mutual communication witli one another, 
when absent, by means of marlcs or characters presented to tlie eye, wliich 
we denominate Writing. 

Written cliaracters are of two kinds : either signs for things, or signs 
for words. The signs for tilings, are the pictorial hieroglyphics and sym- 
bols, employed by the ancient nations ; tlie signs for words, are the alpha- 
betical characters now employed by all civilized nations. 

Pictures were, undoubtedly, the first attempt towards writing ; and, as 
mankind are naturally fond of imitation, some methods have been obtained 
in all ages, and among all nations, of copying or tracing the likeness of sen- 
sible objects. Those metliods would soon be employed by men for giving 
Home imperfect information to others at a distance, of what had happened ; 
or, for preserving the memory of facts which they wished to record. Tims, 
to signify one man liad killed another, they painted the figure of a dead 
man stretched upon the earth, and of another standing by him with a hos- 
tile weapon in his hand. When America was first discovered, this was the 
only kind of writing known in the kingdom of Mexico. By historical pic- 
tures, tlie Mexicans are said to have transmitted to posterity the most im- 
portant transactions of their empire. Tiiese, however, must have been ex- 
tremely imperfect records ; and the nations who had no otlier must have 
been very gross and rude. Pictures could do no more tiian delineate exter- 
nal events. They could neither exhibit the connections of them, nor de- 
seribe such qualities as were not visible to the eye, nor convey any idea of 
the dispositions or words of men. 

To supply in sonve degree, this defect, there arose, in process of time, 
the invention of what are called hieroglj'phical characters; which ma}' be 
considered as the second state of the art of writing. Hieroglyphics consist 
in certain symbols, which are made to represent invisible objects, on ac- 
count of an analogy or resemblance wliich such symbols were supposed to 
have to the objects themselves. Thus an eye was the hieroglypliical symbol 
of knowledge ; a circle, of eternity, which has neither beginning nor end. 
Hieroglypliics, therefore, were a mere refined and extensive species of 
painting. Pictures delineated the resemblance of external visible objects ; 
hieroglyphics painted invisible objects, by analogies taken from the exter- 
nal world. 

Egypt was the country where this sort of writing was most studied and 
brought into a regular art. In hieroglyphics was conveyed all the boasted 
wisdom of the pri,ests. They pitched upon animals to he the emblems or 
hieroglyphics of moral objects, according to the properties or qualities 
Avliich they ascribed to them. Thus, ingratitude was denominated by 
a viper ; Imprudence, by a fly ; wisdom, by an ant ; a man universally 
shunned, by an eel, which they supposed to be found in company with no 
other fish. 

But as many of those properties of objects which they assumed for the 
foundation of their liieroglyphics, were merely imaginary, and the allusions 
drawn from them forced and aml)iguous, this sort of writing could be no 
otlier than enigmatical and confused in the highest degree, and conse- 
quently must have been a very imperfect vehicle of knowledge. 

From hieroglyphics, mankind gradually advanced to simple arbitrary 
marks which stood for objects, tliough without any resemblance or analogy 
to the objects signified. Of this nature wa.^ the method of writing prac- 
tised among the Peruvians. They made use of small cords of different 
colors ; and by knots upon these of various sizes, and differently arranged, 
they invented signs for giving information and communicating their 
thoughts to one another. 

Of this nature also, are the written characters which are used to this 
day tliroughout the vast empire of China. The Chinese have no alphabet 



LETTER WRITING AND GRAMMAR. 445 

of letters, or simple sounds, of which their words are composed, but every 
single character which tliey use is expressive of an idea ; it is a mark wliich 
stands for someone tiling or object; consequently the number of these 
characters must be immense. They are said to amount to seventy thou- 
sand. To read and write them to perfection is the study of a whole life, 
which subjects learning among them to infinite disadvantage, and must 
have greatly retarded the progress of ever}' kind of science. 

As to the origin of the Cliinese characters there have been various 
opinions, but the most probable one is, that tlie Chinese writing began, like 
the Eg3'ptian, with pictures and liieroglypliical figures ; and these, in pro- 
cess of time, became abbreviated in their form, for tiie sake of vrriting them 
with greater facility. In consequence their number became enlarged, and 
at length passed into those marks or characters which they now use, and 
which have spread themselves througli several nations of the East. For 
we are informed that the Japanese, the Tonquinese, and the Corolans, who 
speak different languages from one another, and from the inhabitants of 
Cliina, use, however, the same written characters with them ; and by this 
means, correspond intelligibly with each other in writing, though ignorant 
of the language spoken in their several countries ; a plain proof that the 
Chinese characters are, like liieroglyphics, independent of language, are 
signs of things, not of words. 

Our arithmetical figures, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, &c., give a very good ex- 
ample of tills sort of writing. They have no dependence on words, each 
figure denotes the number for whicli it stands : and, consequently, is under- 
stood by all the nations who have .agreed in the use of these figures. 

But, in process of time, different nations became sensible of the imper- 
fections, the ambiguity, and the tediousness of each of these methods of 
communication ; they therefore began to consider, that by employing signs 
that should stand not directly for things, but for the words by which things 
were distinguished, a considerable advantage would be gained. The first 
invention of this sort seems to iiave been an alphabet of syllables instead of 
an alphabet of letters. Such a one is said to be retained to this day in 
Ethiopia, and some countries in India. But still, it must have been highly 
imperfect, as the number of characters was very great, which rendered both 
reading and writing exceedingly complex and laborious ; till, at last, some 
happy genius arose, and tracing the sounds made by the human voice to 
their most simple elements, reduced them into vowels and consonants ; and 
by affixing to these the signs wiiich we now call letters, taught men how, by 
their combinations, to express in writing the various combinations of sound 
whicii they emplo3'ed in speech. By being reduced to this simplicity, tiie 
art of writing was brought to its highest state of perfection ; and, in this 
state we now enjoy it in all the countries of Europe and America. 

To whom we are indebted for this sublime and refined discovery, is not 
determined. The alphabet was first brought into Greece by Cadmus, a 
Phoenician. It then contained only sixteen letters ; the rest were after- 
wards added according as signs for proper sounds were found wanting. It 
is curious to observe, that the letters which we use at this day, can be 
traced back to this very alphabet of Cadmus (who flourished in the time of 
King David). It is observed by learned men, that the ancient Greek char- 
acters have a remarkable conformity with the Hebrew or Samaritan char- 
acters, which, it is agreed, are the same with the Phoenician, or the alphabet 
of Cadmus. 

The ancient order of writing was from the right hand to the left. This 
manner of writing existed among the Abyssinians, Phoenicians, Arabians, 
and Hebrews ; and, from some very old inscriptions, it also appears to liave 
prevailed among the Greeks. They afterwards adopted a new method, by 
writing their lines alternately from the right to the left, and from the left 
to the right, whicli they called Boustrophedon, or writing after the manner 
in which oxen plough the ground. This manner of writing continued to 
the days of Solon, the celebrated legislator of Athens. But at length tlie 



446 LETTER WRITING AND GRAMMAR. 

motion from the left hand to tlie riglit being found more natural and com- 
modious, tiie practice of writing in this direction prevailed throughout all 
the countries of Europe. 

Writing was at first engraven on pillars and tablets of stone, afterwards 
on plates of the softer metals, such as lead. In proportion as writing be- 
came more conmion, ligliter and more portable substances were employed. 
The leaves and the bark of certain trees were used in some countries ; and 
in others, tablets of wood, covered with a thin coat of soft wax, over which 
the impression was made with a stylus or pen of iron. In later times the 
hides of animals, properly prepared and polished into parchment, were the 
most common materials. Our present method of writing on paper, is an 
invention of no greater antiquity than the fourteenth century. 



AN EASY INTRODUCTION TO GRAMMAR, 

Calculated to assist persons in Letter-writing, as far as respects 

accuracy. 

Grammar. — English grammar is the art of speaking and writing the 
English Language correctly. 

It is divided into four parts, Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and 
Prosody. 

Ortiiography shows the nature and power of letters, and the proper 
method of spelling words. 

Etymology treats of the classification, properties, and derivation of 
words. 

Syntax teaches the agreement, and placing of words in the construction 
of sentences. 

Prosody directs the correct pronunciation of words, and the laws of 
versification. 

Orthography. — The English alphabet contains twenty-six letters : — 

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, 1, J, K, L, M, N, 0, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, 

X, Y, Z. 

Of these, five are always vowels, viz. a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w, and y, 
of which latter letters, when either begin a word or a syllable, they are, 
consonants, but in other situations they become vowels. 

A vowel forms a perfect sound when uttered alone, but a consonant can- 
not be distinctly uttered till joined to a vowel. 

Consonants are either mutes or semi-vowels. The mutes cannot be 
sounded at all, without the aid of a vowel : they are, b, p, t, d, k, and c 
and g hard. 

The semi-rowels have an imperfect sound when alone ; as f, 1, m, n, r, v, s, 
z, and c and g soft. L, m, n, r, are called liquids, because they seem to 
flow into the sound of other letters. Two vowels imited in the same 
syllable form a diphthong, as Caesar; three, a triphthong, as beauty. 

Syllables. — A syllable consists of one or more letters, forming one 
sound : as a, it, though. A single consonant between two vowels belongs 
to the latter syllable, as bo-som, ri-val ; e-xcept in compound words, as un- 
arm, mis-use ; and syllables ending with x, as ex-alt, ex-ile. 

Two consonants coming immediately together, are separated ; as ad-der, 
bet-ter, vel-lum ; except such as can begin a word, as a-ble, o-gle, lu-cre. 
Tiiree consonants proper to begin a word, are not separated when a long 
vowel precedes ; as re-strain, de-stroy ; but a preceding short vowel takes 
the first consonant into its syllable ; as dis-train, mis-trust. 



LETTER WRITING AXD GRAMMAR. 447 

When three or four consonants, wliicli cannot begin a word, meet be- 
tween two vowels, sucli of tlieni as can be spelled together belong to the 
latter syllable ; the rest to the former ; as in in-stant, in-struct, trans-gress, 
A-bing-don. 

Two vowels, not being a diphthong, belong to separate syllables ; as bri- 
ar, o-rient, in-e-bri-ate. 

Compound and derivative words are generally resolved into their prim- 
itives ; as ink-horn, not-with-stand-ing. 

Words. — Words are sounds which we make use of to express our ideas. 

A word is denominated primitive, when it is not formed from a simple 
word in the language ; as harm, great, connect, derivative, when it is formed 
from a simple word ; as harm-less, great-ly, con-nect-ed ; un-con-nect-ed. 

A compound word consists of two or more simple words ; as waterman, 
shoemaker, nevertheless, notwithstanding, etc. 

A monos^'Uable is a word of one syllable ; a dissyllable, of two sylla- 
bles ; a trisyllable, of three syllables ; a polysyllable, of more than three 
syllables. 

Rules for Spelling. — Monos^'llables ending in f, 1, or s, preceded by a 
single vowel, double the final consonant, as muff, bull, lass ; except if, of, 
as, was, yes, is, his, this, us, thus. 

When tiie vowel precedes any other consonant, that consonant remains 
single ; except ebb, add, odd, egg, ann, inn, butt, buzz, purr. 

An added termination does not change the orthography of a primitive word. 
Exceptions — Primitives accented on the last syllable, and ending in a single 
consonant preceded by a single vowel, generally double their final letter, 
when they are prefixed to a syllable commencing with a vowel, as rob, 
robber ; fun, funny ; hot, hotter, hottest ; begin, beginning. But I final is 
frequently doubled, when its syllable is not accented; as duel, duelling, 
revel, reveller. 

The final e of the primitive word, is generally omitted before able, ible, 
ing, ish ; as blame, blamable ; force, forcible ; rave, raving: white, whitish ; 
except singe, singeing; dye, dyeing, etc. But when able follows e preceded 
by c or g soft, the general rule is observed ; as peace, peaceable ; charge; 
chargeable. The final of the primitive word is omitted in judgment, abridg- 
ment, acknowledgment. 

Primitives ending in 11 generally reject one I before full, ness, less, ly ; 
as skill, skilful, dull, dulness, etc. In other combinations, they also fre- 
quently drop one I ; as in always, fulfil, miscal, enthral, welfare. 

The final y of the primitive word, when preceded by a consonant, be- 
comes i before a syllable beginning with a consonant ; as merry, merrily, 
merriment ; oloudy, cloudiness. It undergoes the same change in forming 
verbal nouns, past participles, the persons of verbs, tiie plurals of nouns, 
and the degrees of adjectives ; as carry, carrier, carried, earnest, carries, 
carrieth ; ally, allies ; merry, merrier, merriest. 

Participles ending in ing retain the y, that i may not be doubled ; as 
carry, carrying ; rally, rallying. 

Y preceded by a vowel in such instances as the foregoing, follows the 
general rale ; except lay, pay, say ; which becomes laid, paid, said, unlaid, 
repaid, aforesaid. 

The orthography of other words may be ascertained by consulting 
Webster's or Worcester's Dictionary. 

Etymology. — There are nine sorts of words, or parts of speech. 1st. Sub- 
stantive or noun — 2nd, Article — 3rd, Adjective — ith. Pronoun — 5th, Verb 
— 6th, Adverb — 7th, Preposition — 8th, Conjunction — 9th, Interjection. 

The Substantive ok Noun. — A substantive is the name of a thing— 
and it is either common or proper. A common substantive is a name com- 
mon to many things ; as man, region, city. A proper substantive is a 
name distinguishing an individual ; as George, America, York. A name 
signifying a number of individuals, is denominated a collective noun, as 
troop, sheep, herd. 



448 LETTER WRITING AND GRAMMAR. 

The Article. — An article points out a substantive, or determines its sig- 
nification. Tliere are two — tlie indefinite an, sometimes sliortened into a ; 
and the definite the. The indefinite article ascertains tlie noun in an un- 
certain manner ; as a man, that is any man. Tlie definite article points out 
tlie particular thing mentioned, as tlie man, the ships. 

An drops its n before all the consonants, except h mute, and aspirated 
words accented on the second syllable ; as, a cow, a house ; — a also precedes 
u long, and the words ewe and one. 

The Adjective — Is used to express the quality of a thing; as good, Eu- 
ropean, one, second,double, any, nutbrown, etc. 

Pronouns. — A pronoun is used instead of a noun, and, like substantives, 
they have the properties of person, gender, number and case. There are 
three kinds of pronouns — 1st. Personal: I, thou, he, she, it — 2nd, Adjective 
or possessive : my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their — 3rd, Relative : who, 
which, what, that. A personal pronoun merelj'^ supplies the place of a 
noun. The possessives are equivalent to the genitives (singular and plural) 
of the personals — and the relative pronoun is substituted for a personal 
and a c«)n junction. 

The Verb. — A verb signifies to be, to do, or to suffer ; and is therefore 
neuter, active, or passive ; as, I am, I conquer, I am conquered. 

The Adverb. — Adverbs are joined to verbs and adjectives, to express 
some quality or circumstances ; they express in one word what would other- 
wise require two or more, as hither, for, to this place ; hence, for, from this 
place, etc., etc. 

The Preposition. — A preposition is placed before a substantive, to con- 
nect it with other words ; the principal prepositions are — after, about, above, 
among, amid, against, along, around, behind, at, before, below, beneath, 
beside, between, beyond, by, down, for, from, in, into, of, off, on, over, 
since, through, till, to, up, upon, with, within, without, etc., etc. 

The Conjunction. — Conjunctions connect either words or sentences. 
They are either copulative, disjunctive, or adverbial. The copulative ex- 
press an addition, a cause, or a supposition ; they are : and, both, but, be- 
cause, for, that, if. 

The disjunctives express opposition of meaning ; tliey are, or, not, either, 
neither, than, though, unless, lest, but, whether, notwithstanding. 

Adverbial conjunctions are words which when not used as connectives 
are simply adverbs ; as, also, then, when, whenever, where, wherever, whith- 
er, whence, hence, since, likewise, as, therefore, wherefore, however, never- 
theless, else, yet, until, otherwise, even. 

The Interjection. — Interjections express the passions of the mind. 
The principal interjections are. Ah ! Alas ! Ha ! Oh ! Huzza ! etc. 

Prosodt. — The principal thing in prosody is to be acquainted with 
the stops, as they serve to regulate the voice in reading, and to prevent con- 
fusion and perplexity ; their names and marks are as follows : — 

Comma , Period or full point 
Semicolon ; Note of Interrogation 1 
Colon : Note of Admiration ! 

The comma marks a small part of a sentence, where a short breathing 
time may be permitted without injuring the sense, and allows you to stop 
while you can deliberately say one. The semicolon divides the sense into 
portions, and allows you to stop while you can count one, one. The colon 
marks where the sense is complete, but not the sentence, and allows you to 
stop while you can count three. The period marks where the sense is com- 
plete, and allows you to stop while you can count four. The note of inter- 
rogation is placed after all questions ; and the note of admiration after all 
sudden emotions of the soul, or every thing which gives surprise ; the 
breatliing times at both are the same as at the period. 

Syntax. — Syntax, or the composition of sentences, teaclies you to apply 
what you have learned in the foregoing rules. A sentence must contain, 



LETTER WRITING AND GRAMMAR. 449 

iibsolutely, at least one affirmation and one name, of which something is 
affirmed, as, God is just. This is called a simple sentence ; but if we say, 
God is just, but man is unjust, it is a compound sentence, as it contains two 
simple sentences joined together by the conjunction but. 

The principal rule in the construction of sentences is, that the affirma 
tion must agree with tiie name in number and person, as, John runs well, 
where the proper name, John, and the affirmation runs, are both of the third 
person singular, and consequently agree to find the name in any sentence 
wliich should agree with the affirmation, ask the question. Who ? and the 
answer given to it, as in the above sentence, say, Who runs well ? Answer, 
John. — John is therefore the name to agree with the affirmation, runs. 

The name of multitude must be singular; thus, the crowd is great, not 
are great, because it is but one crowd. 

When two singular names are joined together by a conjunction, the 
affirmation must be plural ; thus. Bill and Tom fight, not fights. 

The a, or and, and the, come before names and qualities ; as is placed be- 
fore a consonant, and before a vowel, and the, indifferently before both ; 
but sometimes in construction they are placed between the quality and tlie 
name, as, so fair a face, so good an e-xample, how great the gift, etc. 

Necessary Directions for Letter Writing. — Writers of letters on 
business or trade should never for one moment lose sight of the subject 
under discussion ; they should be worded as briefly as may be consistent 
with the subject they are written on. In short, a good writer, whatever 
may be liis subject, will never forget that a comprehensive idea of it, given 
in short but forcible language, is the most certain method of ensuring ap- 
probation. 

Relatives, in their correspondence, must always consider their own char- 
acters. Thus a father, when writing to his son, will preserve his superior- 
ity by a gentle degree of authorit}' ; and a son will never lose sight of the 
manner in which he can best express liis sense of filial ilutj-. In friendship 
the heart will express its sentiments, with an honest and confident freedom. 
It will bestow its applause with pleasing sincerity, and censure with modest 
reluctance. 

In letter writing, however, tlie grand aim should be, to write exactly in 
the same manner in which we should converse with persons to whom we 
are writing, were they present ; if we do so, we shall seldom fail to write 
well. 

A strict attention to the preceding grammar, and the above-mentioned 
directions, will soon convince tlie learner, that he has not wasted his time 
in a fruitless pursuit. Indeed, by devoting ourselves seriously to the study 
of any art, we maj' ultimately surmount every difficulty. Every writer 
should cautiously avoid affectation, his style should be clear, his sentiments 
judicious, and his language plain, yet sensible and elegant ; by which line 
of conduct, his letters will always give pleasure, and be intelligible to every 
capacity. 

Consideration in all matters of business is absolutely necessary, 
and before any letter of importance is written, some time should be devoted 
to this requisite point ; by attending to which, much serious trouble and 
mischief maj"^ be avoided, while the end proposed will be certainly facili- 
tated. 

Pronunciation. — The principal rules of pronunciation are as follows : — 
C before a, o, and u, and in some other situations, is a close articulation 
like k. Before e, i, and y, c is precisely equivalent to s in same, thus, as in 
cell, cider, cypress. E final indicates tliat the preceding vowel is long, as in 
hate, mete, sire, robe, lyre, uhnte, recede, invite, remote, intrude. E final indicates 
that c preceding has the sound of s, as in lace, lance ; and that g preceding has 
the sound of /, as in charge, page, challenge. E final in proper English words 
never forms a syllable, and in the most used words in the terminating un- 
accented syllable, it is silent ; thus, nature, genuine, examine, granite, are 
pronounced natur, genuin, examin, granit. E final in some words of foreign 



450 LETTER WUITING AND GRAMMAR. 

origin forms a syllable — syncope, simile. E final is silent after I in the fol- 
lowing terminations, ble, cle, die, fle, gle, kle, pie, tie, zle, as in able, manacle, 
cradle, raffle, mangle, wrinkle, supple, rattle, puzzle, wliicli are pronounced 
ah'l, man'acl, cra'dl, raf'Jl, man'gl, ivrin'kl, sup' pi, puz'zl. E is usually silent 
in tlie termination en, as in token, broken, pronounced to'kn, bro'kn. Ous in 
tlie terminati(m of adjectives and their derivatives is pronounced us, as in 
gracious, pious, pompous. Ce, ci, ti, before a vowel, has the sound of sh, 
as in cetaceous, gracious, motion, partial, ingratiate, pronounced cetashus, 
grashus, moshon, parshul, ingrashiate. Si, after an accented vowel, is 
pronounced like zh, as in Ephesian, confusion, pronounced Ephezhan, con- 
fttzhon. When ci or ti precede similar combinations, as in pronuncia</on, 
wegotiiition, tliey maj' be pronounced ce instead of she, to prevent a repeti- 
tion of the latter syllable, as pronunceashon instead of pronunsheashon. Gh, 
botli in the middle and at the end of words, is silent, as in caught, brought, 
fright, nigh, sigh, pronounced caut, baut, frite, ni, si. In tlie following ex- 
ceptions, however, gh is pronounced nsf: cough, chough, dough, enough, lauqh, 
rough, tough, trough. Tlie seven sounds which the combination o«(/'A variously 
assumes, are illustrated in the following couplet : — 

" Though the rough cough and hiccough plough me through, 
'Mid life's dark lough my course I still pursue." 

Wlien wh begins a word, the aspirate h precedes w in pronunciation, as in 
what, whiff, whale, pronounced hwat, hwiff, hwale, iv having precisely the 
sound of 00 ; in the following words wis silent: who, whom, lohose, lohoop, 
whole. H after r has no sound as in rheum, rhijme, pronounced reum, ryme. 
H should be sounded in the middle of words, as in fore/iead, ab/tor, beAold, 
exAaust, inhabit, unhorse. H should always be sounded except in the fol- 
lowing words : heir, herb, honest, honor, hospital, hostler, hour, humor, 
humble, and all their derivatives, as honestly, honorable, &c. Kand gare 
silent before n, as knoio, gnaw, pronounced 7io, naw. W before r is silent, as 
in wrong, icreath, pronounced rong, reath. B after m is silent, as in dumb, numb, 
pronounced dum, num. L l:)efore k is silent, as in baulk, talk, walk, pronounced 
bauk, tauk, wauk. Ph has the souiui of f as in philosophy, pronounced 
fHosofy. N after m, and closing a syllable, is silent, as in hymn, condemn. P 
before s and t is mute, as in psalm, pseudo, ptarmigan, pronounced sahm, sudo, 
tarmigan. R has two sounds, one strong and vibrating, as at the begnining 
of words and syllables such as rock, reckon, raw ; tlie other at the termination 
of words, or when it is succeeded bj'^a consonant, us farmer, morn. Before 
the letter r there is a slight sound of e between the vowel and the con- 
sonant ; thus, bare, parent, mere, mire, more, pure, are pronounced nearly baer, 
pnerent, meer, mier, moer, puer. There are other rules of pronunciation 
affecting the combination of vowels, &c. ; but the foregoing are the chief. 

Errors made in pronunciation are very numerous, and many of them 
grate offensively on the ear; the abuse of the letter H, being aspirated 
when it should be silent, and silent when it should be aspirated, is one of 
the most prominent of these fatilts. Pronouncing the letter u as though it 
were oo is also another error very generally committed. The interchange 
of w for V. and v for lo ; the sound k instead of g at the termination of words, 
as something?, nothing; tlie addition of r at the end of words ending in 
vowels, as idea?-, Elizar ; and the pronouncing of words ending in ow as 
though they were spelt er — are all of them offences against correct pronun- 
ciation and good taste. A glaring error, even amongst intelligent persons, 
is dropping the final consonant in a word, such as bread an' butter, what 
will you gi'e for it, no more o' that, instead of bread and butter, what will 
j'ou giye for it, no more o/'that. To attain a faultless pronunciation, ii per- 
son siiould exercise himself in writing down certain sentences, repeating 
tliem to himself, and correcting errors wnicli fall upon his ear, until he is 
perfect 



INFOEMATION CONCERNING PATENTS. 



How TO Obtain Them, Length of Time Required, Amount 
OF Fees, Forms for Patents, Caveats, Assignments, 
Licenses, Shop Rights, &c. Compiled Chiefly from 
THE Official Rules and Regulations for Proceedings 
in the Patent-office. 

Caution to Persons Desiring and Applying for Patents. — If yon 
have a new invention, or one at least that you tliink is new, and desire to 
obtain a patent for it, be extremely cautious to whom you exhibit the same, 
and especially so in regard to whose hands you place it into for tlie 
purpose of obtaining a patent. Many valuable inventions have been lost to the 
inventor from the fact of their having shown the invention to unscrupulous 
persons, who, being sharp, as it is termed, have taken the advantage of this 
confidence, and, by changing the invention slightly, have obtained patents 
for themselves, while the originator was getting ready, little thinking what 
was in store for him. 

Patents in very many cases have been denied inventors from the fact of 
their having placed them in the hands of inexperienced agents, who, 
although they pretended to know all the ins and outs in relation to the 
method of procuring patents, really knew but little, and what little they did 
know proved a serious damage to their clients. 

We know that in some (^ases it is hard to tell who to go to, as there are 
so many that make the procuring of patents a business, and for this reason 
we take up mucli of our valuable space for the purpose of tr^^ing to enlighten 
our friends and to lead them aright. 

We would reconmiend all and any who have any new inventions that 
they desire patented, to place them in the hands of Messrs. MUNN & CO., 
No. 37 Park Row, New York City. They have been actively engaged in 
the business of obtaining patents for over Thirty Years. Many thousands 
of inventors have had benefits from their counsel. And a very large 
proportion of all patents granted have been obtained through them. 

Those who have made inventions, and desire to consult with them in 
regard to obtaining patents, are cordially invited b}' them to do so. They 
will be happy to see them in person at tlieir office, or to advise them by 
letter. In all cases, they may expect from them an honest opinion. For such 
consultations, opinions, and advice, they make no charge. 

Having access to all the patents, models, public records, drawings, and 
other documents pertaining to the Patent Office, they are prepared to make 
examinations, and give opinions upon all infringement questions, advice as 
to the scope and ground covered by patents, and direct with vigor au}'^ legal 
proceedings therewith connected. Their clients are numbered by hundreds 
of thousands. They are to be found in every town and city of tlie Union. 
Sucli a thing as the betrayal of a client's interests, when committed to 
their professional care, never lias occurred, .and is not likely to occur. It is 
enough to say that they are the publishers and proprietors of the Scientific 
American, a paper having a circulation of nearly 50,000 copies, and is 
known and read all over the world. 

'Iat Obtain a Patent. — Any person, whether citizen or alien, 

451 



452 PATENTS. 

being the original and first inventor or discoverer of any new and useful 
art, machine, manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and use- 
ful improvement thereof, may obtain a patent for his invention or discovery. 

Joint inventors are entitled to a joint patent; neitlter can claim one 
separately ; but independent inventors of separate improvements in the 
same macliine cannot obtain a joint patent for tlieir separate inventions; 
nor does the fact that one man fiirnislies the capital and the other makes 
tlie invention entitle tliem to take out a joint patent. 

In case of an assignment of the wliole, or of any undivided interest in 
the invention, tlie patent may issue to tiie assignee of the whole interest, or 
jointly to the inventor and the assignee of the undivided interest, the assign- 
ment being first entered of record, and the application being duly made and 
the specification duly sworn to by the inventor. 

The application must be made by the actual inventor, if alive, even if the 
patent is to issue or reissue to an assignee ; but where the inventor is dead, 
the application and oath may be made by the executor or administrator. 

Form of Petition for a Patent with Power of Attorneif. 

To THE Commissioner of Patents : 

Your petitioner prays that letters-patent may be granted to him for the 
invention set forth in the annexed specification ; and he liereby appoints 
MuNN & Co., of the cities of New York and Washington, D.C., his attorneys, 
with full power of substitution and revocation, to prosecute this application, 
to make alterations and amendments therein, to receive the patent, and to 
transact all business in the Patent-Office connected herewith. 

Peter Pendent. 

Two or more distinct and separate inventions may not be claimed in one 
application ; but where several inventions are necessarily connected each 
with the other, they may be so claimed. 

The specification must be signed by the inventor, or if deceased, by his 
executor or administrator, and must be attested by two witnesses. Full 
names must be given, and all names, whether of applicant or witnesses, 
must be legibly written. 

The Oath of Invention, 

The oath of invention should follow the specification. The following is 
the official form : 

State op New York, County of Albany, ss. : 

Peter Pendent, the above-named petitioner, being duly sworn, (or 
affirmed,) deposes and says that he verily believes himself to be the original 
anil first inventor of the improvement in seed-drills described in the fore- 
going specification ; that he does not know and does not believe that tiie 
same was ever before known or used ; and that he is a citizen of the United 
States. Peter Pendent. 

Sworn to and subscribed before me this 13th day of March, 1876. 

Simon Shallow, 

Justice of the Peace. 

If the applicant be an alien, the sentence, " and that he is a citizen of the 
United States," will be omitted, and in lieu thereof will be substituted, 
" and that he is a citizen of the republic of Mexico," or " and that he is a 
subject of the King of Italy," or " of the Queen of Great Biitain," or as the 
case may be. 

If the applicants claim to be joitit inventois, the oath will read, " that 
they verily believe themselves to be the original, first, and joint inventors, 
etc. 

The oath or .affirmation may be made before any person within the 



PATENTS. 453 

United States authorized by law to administer oaths, or, wlien tlie applicant 
resides in a foreign country, before any minister, charg^ d'affaires, consul, 
or commercial agent, holding commission under the government of the 
United States, or before any notary pubhc of tlie foreign country in vvliich 
the applicant may be, the oath being attested in all cases, in this and other 
countries, by the proper official seal of such notary. 

The Drawings, 

The rules of the Patent-Office in respect to drawings are stringent. 

The following rules must be observed : 

The paper must be thin Bristol board or thick drawing-paper, with a 
smooth or calendered surface. The outlines must be executed in deep 
black lines, to give distinctness to the print. Pale, ashy tints must be dis- 
pensed with. 

In siiading, lines of black ink should be used, and such lines should be 
distinct and sharp, and not crowded. Brush shadings or shadows will not 
be permitted. 

All colors, except black, must be avoided in the drawing, lettering, and 
signatures ; violet and purple inks must not be used. 

No agent's, attorney's, or other stamp must be placed, in whole or in 
part, within the margin. 

The Model. 

A model is required in ever}' case where the nature of the invention 
admits of such illustration. Such model must clearly exhibit every feature 
of the machine which forms the subject of a claim of invention. 

The model must be neatly and substantially made, of durable material. 
It should be made as small as possible, but not in any case more than one 
foot in length, width, or height. If made of pine or other soft wood, it 
should be painted, stained, or varuislied. Glue must not be used, but the 
parts should be so coimected as to resist tlie action of iieat or moisture. 

The Official Examination. — No application can be examined, nor can 
the case be placed upon the files for examination, until the fee is paid, the 
specification, with the petition and oath, filed, and the drawings and model, 
or specimen, filed or deposited. 

AH cases in the Patent Office are classified and taken up for examination 
in regular order; those in the same class being examined and disposed 
of, as far as practicable, in the order in which the respective applications 
are completed. When, however, the invention is deemed of peculiar 
importance to some branch of the public service, and when, for that reason, 
the head of some department of the government specially requests imme- 
diate action, the case will be taken up out of its order. These, with ap- 
plications for re-issues, and for letters patent for inventions for which a 
foreign patent has already been obtained, which cases have precedence over 
original applications, are the only exceptions to the rule above stated, in 
relation to the order of examination. 

The personal attendance of the applicant at the Patent-Office is unneces- 
sary. The business can be done by correspondence or by attorney. 

The Patent-Office will not return specifications for amendment ; and in no 
case will any person be allowed to take any papers, drawings, models, or 
samples from the office. If applicants have not preserved copies of such 
papers as they wish to amend, the office will furnish them on the usual 
terms. 

The final fee on issuing a patent must be paid within six months after the 
time at which the patent was allowed, and notice thereof sent to the appli- 
cant or his agent. And if the final fee for such patent be not paid within 
that time, the patent will be forfeited, and the invention therein described 
become public property, as against the applicant therefor, unless he shall 
make a new application therefor within two years from the date of the orig- 
inal allowance. 



454 PATENTS. 

Appeals. — Every applicant for a patent or the reissue of a patent, any of 
tlie claims of which have been twice rejected, and every party to an inter- 
ference, may appeal from the decision of the primary examiner, or of tlie 
examiner in charge of interferences, in such case, to the Board of tlie Exam- 
iner-in-chief, having once paid a fee of ten dollars. For this purpose a peti- 
tion in writing must be filed, signed by the party, or his authorized agent or 
attorney, praying an appeal, and setting forth briefly and distinctly the 
reasons upon which the appeal is taken. 

All cases wiiich have been acted on by the Board of Examiners-in-chief 
may be brouglit before the Commissioner in person, upon a written request 
to that effect, and upon the payment of a fee of twenty dollars required by 
law. A case deliberately decided by one Commissioner will not be disturbed 
by his successor. The only remaining remedy will be by appeal, in those 
cases allowed by law, to the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia, 
sitting in banc. 

The mode of appeal from the decision of the office to the Supreme Court 
of the District of Columbia, is by giving written notice thereof to the Com- 
missioner ; said notice being accompanied by the petition addressed to the 
Supreme Court of the District of Columbia, by reason of appeal, and b}' a 
certified copy of all the original papers and evidence in the case. The rea- 
sons of appeal must be filed within thirty days after notice of tlie decision 
appealed from. 

Interferences. — An " interference" is an interlocutory proceeding for the 
purpose of determining which of two or more persons, eacli or either of whom 
claims to be the first inventor of a given device or combination, really made 
the invention first. 

The fact that one of tlie parties has already obtained a patent will not 
prevent an interference ; for although the Commissioner has no power to 
cancel a patent already issued, lie may, if he finds that another person was 
the prior inventor, give him also a patent, and thus place them on an equal 
footing before the courts and the public. 

Upon the declaration of an interference, each party will be required, be- 
fore any time is set for the taking of testimony, to file a statement under 
oath, giving the date, and a detailed history of the invention ; showing the 
successive experiments, steps of development, extent and character of use, 
and forms of embodiment. Such statement siiall not be open to inspection 
by the other party until both are filed, or until the time for filing both has 
expired. In default of such filing b}' either party, or if the statement of 
eitlier fails to overcome the primn-facie case made by the respective dates of 
application, or i/ it shows that the invention has been abandoned, or that it 
has been in public use for more than two years prior to the application of 
the affiant, the other party shall be entitled to an adjudication by default 
upon the case as it stands upon the record. 

In cases of interference, parties have the same remedies by appeal as 
other applicants, to the Examiners-in-chief and to the Commissioner, but no 
appeal lies, in sucli cases, from the decision of the Commissioner. Appeals 
in interference cases should be accompanied with a brief statement of tiie 
reasons thereof. 

In cases of interference, the party who first filed so much of his applica- 
tion for a patent as illustrates his invention will be deemed the first inventor 
in the absence of all proof to the contrary. A time will be assigned in 
which the other party shall complete his direct testimony, and a further time in 
which the adverse party shall complete the testimony on his side ; and a still 
further time in which both parties may take a rebutting testimony, but shall 
take no other. If there are more than two parties, the time for taking testi- 
mony sliall be so arranged, if practicable, tliat each shall have a like oppor- 
tunity in his turn, e.ach being lield to go forward and prove his case against 
those who filed their applications before him. 

If either party wishes the time for taking his testimony, or for the hear- 
ing postponed, he must make application for such postponement, and show 



PATENTS. 455 

gufficiient reason for it by affidavit filed before the time previously appointed 
has elapsed, if practicable ; and must also furnish his opponent with copies of 
iiis affidavits, and with reasonable notice of the time of hearing his application. 

Reissues. — A reissue is granted to tlie original patentee, his legal repr^e- 
sentatives, or the assignees of the entire interest, when by reason of a defec- 
tive or insufficient specification the original patent is inoperative or invalid, 
provided the error has arisen from inadvertence, accident or mistake, and 
without any fraudulent or deceptive intention ; but although tlie patent has 
been assigned, the application must be made, and the specification sworn to, 
by the inventor. 

The petition for a reissue must sliow that all parties owning any undivid- 
ed interest in the patent concur in the surrender. A statement, under oath, 
of the title of the party proposing to surrender must be filed with the 
application. 

The general rule is, that whatever is really embraced in the original in- 
vention, and so described or shown that it might have been embraced in the 
original patent, may be the subject of a reissue ; but no new matter shall be 
introduced into the specification, nor in case of a machine patent shall the 
model or drawings bo amended, except each by the other ; but when there 
is neither model nor drawing, amendments may be made upon proof satisfac- 
tory to the Commissioner, that such new matter or amendment was a part of 
the original invention, and was omitted from the specification by inadvert- 
ence, accident, or mistake, as aforesaid. 

Reissued patents expire at the end of the term for which the original 
patent was granted. For this reason applications for reissue will be acted 
upon as soon as filed. 

A patentee, in reissuing, may at his option have a separate patent for 
each distinct and separate part of the invention comprehended in his original 
patent, by paying the required fee in each case, and complying with the other 
requirements of the law, as in original applications. Each division of a re- 
issue constitutes the subject of a separate specification descriptive of the 
part or parts of the invention claimed in such division ; and the drawing may 
represent only such part or parts. All the divisions of a reissue will issue 
simultaneously. If there be controversy as to one, the other will be with- 
held from issue until tlie controversy is ended. 

In all cases of applications for reissues, the original claim, if reproduced 
in the amended specification, is subject to re-examination, and may be re- 
vised and restricted in the same manner as in original applications ; but if 
any reissue be refused, the original patent will, upon request, be returned to 
the applicant. 

[Note. — The documents required for a reissue are a statement, petition, 
oath, specification, drawings. The official fee is $30. The attorney's charge, 
in simple cases, is $30 for preparing and attending to tlie case. Total ordi- 
nar3' expense, $60. 

By means of reissue, a patent may sometimes be divided into several 
separate patents. Many of the most valuable patents have been several 
times reissued and subdivided. Where a patent is infringed, and the claims 
are doubtful or defective, it is common to apply for a reissue with new 
claims which shall specially meet the infringers. 

On making application for reissue, the old or original patent must be sur- 
rendered to the Piatent-Office, in order that a new patent may be issued in 
its place. If the original patent has been lost, a certified copy of the patent 
must be furnished, with an affidavit as to the loss. To enable your attor- 
ney to prepare a reissue, the applicant should send to him the original patent, 
remit as stated, and give a clear statement of the points which he wishes to 
have corrected. 

Assignments. — A patent may be assigned, either as to the whole interest 
or any undivided part thereof, by any instrument of writing. No particular 
form of words is necessary to constitute a valid assignment, nor need the 
instrument be sealed, witnessed, or acknowledged. 



456 PATENTS. 

A patent, will upon request, issue directly to the assignee or assignees of 
the entire interest in any invention, or to the inventor and the assignee 
jointly, when an undivided part only of tlie entire interest has been con- 
veyed. 

In every case where a patent issues or reissues to an assignee, the assign- 
ment must be recorded in the Patent-Office at least five da3's before the issue 
of the patent, and tlie specification must be sworn to by tlie inventor. 

Every assignment or grant of an exclusive territorial right must be re- 
corded in the Patent-Otfice within three months from tiie execution thereof; 
otherwise it will be void, as against any subsequent purchaser or mortgagee 
for a valuable consideration, without notice; but, if recorded after that time, 
it will protect the assignee or grantee against any such subsequent purchaser, 
whose assignment or grant is not tiien on record. 

Tlie patentee may convey separate riglits under his patent to make or to 
use or to sell his invention, or he may convey territorial or shop rights wiiich 
are not exclusive. Such conveyances are mere licenses, and need not be 
recorded. Tlie receipt of assignments is not generally acknowledged by the 
office. They will be recorded in their turn within a few days after tiieir 
reception, and then transmitted to the persons entitled to them. 

Forms of Assignments of the Entire Interest in an Invention be- 
fore THE Issue of Letters-patent. — In consideration of one dollar to me 
paid by Ephraim G. Hall, of Cleveland, Ohio, I do hereby sell and assign to 
said Ephraim G. Hall all my rigiit, title, and interest in and to a certain in- 
vention in ploughs, as fully set forth and described in the specification which 
I have prepared [if the application has been already made, say " and filed "1 
preparatory to obtaining letters-patent of the United States therefor. And I 
do hereby authorize and request the Commissioner of Patents to issue the 
said letters-patent to the said Ephraim G. Hall, iis my assignee, for the 
sole use and behoof of the said Ephraim G. Hall, and his legal represen- 
tatives. 

Witness my hand this 16th day of February, 1876. 

J. F. Crossette. 

Op the Entire Interest of Letters-patent. — In consideration of five 
hundred dollars to me paid by Nathan Wilcox, of Keokuk, Iowa, I do hereby 
sell and assign to the said Nathan Wilcox all my right, title, and interest in 
and to the letters-patent of the United States, No. 41,806, for improvement 
in locomotive head-lights, granted to me Jul}' 30th, 1864, the same to be held 
and enjoyed l>y the said Nathan Wilcox to the full end of the term for which 
said letters are granted, as fully and entirely as the same would have been 
held and enjoyed by me if this assignment and sale had not been made. 

Witness my hand this 10th day of June, 1876. 

Horace Kimball. 

Of an Undivided Interest in the Letters-patent and Extension 
Thereof. — In consideration of one thousand dollars to me paid bj'^ Obadiah 
N. Bush, of Chicago, 111., I do hereby sell and assign to tlie said Obadiah N. 
Bush one undivided fourth part of all my right, title, and interest in and to 
the letters-patent of the United States, No. 10,485, for an improvement 
in cooking-stoves, granted to me May 16th, 1856 ; the same to be held and 
enjoyed by the said Obadiah N. Bush to the full end of the term for which 
said letters-patent are granted, and for the term of any extension thereof, as 
fully and entirely as the same would have held and enjoyed by me if this 
assignment and sale had not been made. 

Witness my hand this 7th day of January, 1876. 

John C. Morris. 

Exclusive Territorial Grant by an Assignee. — In consideration of 
one thousand dollars to me paid by William H. Dinsmore, of Concord, N. H., 
I do hereby grant and convey to the said William H. Dinsmore the exclu- 



PATENTS. 457 

■ive right to make, use, and vend within the State of Wisconsin, and the 
counties of Cook and Lake in tlie State of Illinois, and in no other place or 
places, the improvement in corn-planters for which letters-patent of the 
United States, dated August 15tli, 1867, were granted by Leverett R. Hull, 
and by said Hull assigned to me December 3d, 1867, by an assignment duly 
recorded in liber X^, p. 416, of the records of the Patent-Office, the sama to 
be held and enjoyed by the said William H. Dinsmore as fully and entirely 
as the same would have been held and enjoyed by me if this grant had not 
been made. 

Witness my hand this 19th day of March, 1876. 

Abraham Moore. 

License — Shop Right. — In consideration of fifty dollars to me paid by 
the firm of Simpson, Jenks & Co., of Huntsville, Ala., I do hereby license 
and empower the said Simpson, Jenks & Co. to manufacture, at a single 
foundry and machine shop in said Huntsville, and in no other place or 
places, the improvement in cotton-seed planters for which letters-patent of 
the United States, No. 71,846, were granted to me November 1.3th, 1868, and 
to sell the machines so manufactured throughout the United States, to the 
full end of the term for which said letters-patent are granted. 
Witness my hand this 22d day of April, 1876. 

Joel Norcross 

Table of Official Fees. 

On filing every application for a design, for three years and six 

months $10 00 

On filing every application for a design, for seven years 15 00 

On filing every application for a design, for fourteen years. . . . 30 00 

On filing every caveat 10 00 

On filing every application for a patent 15 00 

On issuing each original patent 20 00 

On filing a disclaimer 10 00 

On filing every application for a division of a reissue 30 00 

On filing every application for an extension 50 00 

On the grant of every extension 50 00 

On filing the first appeal from a primary examiner to examiners-in- 
chief 10 00 

On filing an appeal to the commissioner from examiners-in-chief. . 20 00 

On depositing a trade-mark for registration 25 00 

For every copy of a patent or other instrument, for every 100 words. 10 
For every certified copy of drawing, the cost of having them made. . 
For copies of papers not certified, the cost of having them made. . 

For recording every assignment of 300 words or under. 1 00 

For recording every assignment, if over 300 and not over 1000 words 2 00 
For recording every assignment, if over 1000 words, 3 00 

The First Inquiry. — The first inquiry that presents itself to one who 
has made any improvement or discovery is: " Can I obtain a Patent"?" "A 
positive answer can only be had by presenting a complete application for a 
Patent to the Commissioners of Patents. An application consists of a Model, 
Drawings, Petition, Oath, and full Specification. Various official rules and 
formalities must also be observed. The efforts of the inventor to do all 
this business himself are generally without success. After a season of per- 
plexity and delay, he is usually glad to seek the aid of persons experienced 
in patent business, and have all the work done over again. The best plan 
is to solicit proper advice at the beginning. 

If the parties consulted are honorable men, the inventor may safely con- 
fide his ideas to them ; they will advise whether the improvement is proba- 
bly patentable, and will give him all the directions needful to protect his 
rights. 

A pen-and-ink sketch and a description of the invention should be sent, 

20 



1^38 PATENTS. 

together with stamps for retnrn postage. Never mind your inexperience, 
Nicety of writing or drawing is not essential ; all that is needed is to get 
your idea. Do not use pale ink. Be brief. 

Caveats. — The filing of a Caveat is oftentimes of great imjjortance, as 
it may be quickly done, and affords a limited but immediate protection. The 
filing of a Caveat prevents, during its existence, the issue of a patent, witli- 
out the knowledge of tlie Caveator, to any other person forasimilar device. 
Sliindd a competitor apply for a patent, the Caveator is notified, and called 
upon to file in his application for a i)atent. 

A Caveat consists of a Specification, Drawing, Oath, and Petition. To 
he of any value, these papers should be carefully drawn up. No model is 
required. When specially desired, they can be ready to send to the appli- 
cant, for signature and affidavit, by return mail, or at an hour's notice. The 
whole expense to file a Caveat is generally $25, of which the official fee is 
$10, and the agent generally charges $15 to prepare the papers and attend 
to the business. On the filing the Caveat in Wasliington the Patent-Office 
issues an Official Certificate thereof, wliich is forwarded to the applicant. 
The existence of a Caveat is an evidence of priority of invention. A Caveat 
runs for a year, and can be extended from year to year. 

Caveats can only be filed by citizens of the United States, and aliens 
who have resided here one year and have declared their intention to be- 
come citizens. 

To enable your agent to prepare Caveat-papers, all that is needed is a 
sketch, drawing, or photograph, and description of tlie invention, with 
which remit fees as above. Model not required. All Caveats are secret. 
No one can see or obtain a copy of a Caveat without the order of the Cavea- 
tor. The filing of a Caveat does not prevent other persons from making, 
using, or selling the invention. No exclusive right of sale is secured luider 
a Caveat. Is is only the Patent that secures such a right. All persons are 
at liberty to use and sell any device until the patent issues. The filing of a 
Caveat is not an evidence that a Patent will be granted. The Government 
makes no searcli as to novelty when a Caveat is filed. No portion of the 
money paid for a Caveat applies toward the Patent. 

How TO Apply fob a Patent. — If the invention is simple, the whole cost 
to apply for a patent is $40,* and wiien allowed, $20 more are paj'able, mak- 
ing $60 in all.t The applicant has six montlis in which to pay the last in- 
stalment of $20, after the patent is allowed. If the invention is compli- 
cated, the costs are somewhat increased, because the preparation of the 
drawings and specifications involves extra labor. 

Under the Patent laws, all persons, citizens and foreigners, pay the same 
official fees. There is no distinction as to nationality. Patents are also 
granted to women and minors ; also to tlie executors or administrators of 
deceased inventors. The patent is granted for 17 years, during which time 
the patentee enjoys the full and exclusive right to make, use, and sell the 
invention, and grant rights, licenses, or privileges. 

In order to apply for a patent, all that is necessary is to send a model of 
the invention to your attorney, by express, prepaid, with an explanation of 
the merits and working of the invention. Never mind spelling or grammar, 
hut be very particular to give your ideas in full about the invention. Describe 
lis intended working, and mention all the advantages that you can think 
of. This statementis always of assistance in preparing the specification 
and drawings. Also remit $15 on account, and give the inventor's full 
name, middle name included. Drawings and specification will then be pre- 
pared and the latter sent to you, with full instructions, for examination and 
signature. 

How the Business is Done. — On the receipt of the model and first 

* If a patent is not granted, the applicant loses this cost of making the application. 

t Of this sum tlie first Govennneiit fee is $15, the attorney's charges, $25. and 
the second Goverinuent fee is $20, making $60 in all. When an appeal is required, 
there are additional expenses. 



PATENTS. 459 

payment of $15, the case is duly registered upon the books of your agents 
and the application proceeded with as fast as possible. Wlien tlie documents 
are ready, they are sent to tlie inventor by mail, for his examination, signa- 
ture, and affidavit, with a letter of instruction, etc. The charges for prepar- 
ing the case are then due and will he called for. On return of the papers 
the case will be presented to the Patent-Office, and as soon as the patent is 
allowed, the applicant will be notified to remit the last instalment of the 
Government fee, namel}-, $20, and the patent will then be printed and issued. 

The average time required to procure a patent is six weeks. They are 
obtained, however, frequently, in less time ; bat in other cases, owing to dehiy 
on the part of the officials, the period is sometimes extended to two or three 
months, and even more. 

Appeals. — When the Examiner refuses to allow a patent, and finally 
rejects the case, the fact is reported to the client, and lie is informed as to 
the probabilities of obtaining a reversal of the Examiner's decision by appeal, 
Three appeals are allowed : namely, to the Examiners-in-Cliief, to the 
Commissioner of Patents, to the Supreme Court of the District. The fees 
and expenses of these appeals are small. 

First Appeal. — The government fee payable by the applicant, on making 
an appeal to the Examiners-in-Chief, is $10. Attorney's charges for prepar- 
ing and conducting this appeal are very moderate, and in part contingent 
upon success. 

Second Appeal. — From the decision of the Examiners-in-chief an appeal 
may be taken to the Commissioner of Patents. Government fee, $20. 

Third Appeal. — From the decision of the Commissioner of Patents an ap- 
peal may be taken to the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia. 
The applicant pa_\ s all the costs. 

The Patent-Office does not prepare patent-papers, or make models 
These must be provided by the applicant or his attorney, according to law, 
otherwise his claim will not be considered. 

The law especially requires that all documents deposited in the Patent- 
Office shall be correctly, legibly, and clearly written, and that the drawings 
shall be of a specified size, and executed in an artistic manner. 

Models, Remittances, etc. — Persons who apply for patents are by law 
required to furnish a model, in all cases where tlie invention can be illus- 
trated or partly illustrated by a model. The model must not exceed twelve 
inches in any of its dimensions ; it should be neatly made, of hard wood 
or metal, or other substantial material ; the name of the inventor should 
be engraved or painted upon it conspicuously. Where the invention 
consists of an improvement oh some known machine, the model only needs 
to show the working of the improved parts. A representation of the whole 
machine in the model will not be necessary. 

When the invention consists of a new article of manufacture or a new 
composition, samples of the article must be furnished. 

New medicines or medical compounds, and useful mixtures of all kinds, 
are patentable. Samples must be furnished, and a very minute statement 
must be made for the exact proportions and ingredients used. 

As soon as the model or specimen is ready, it should be placed in the 
hands of your agent. 

If the model does not exceed 12 ounces in weight, it can be sent to your 
agent by mail. 

When sending it away by express always pay the charges on the package. 

Simultaneously with the model or specimens, the inventor should remit 
$15 on account. The money may be forwarded either by express, with the 
model, or by mail. The safest way to remit is by draft, or by Post-Office 
order. Always send a letter with the model, and also with the remittance, 
stating the name and address of the sender. 

Design Patents. — The laws for the grant of patents for new designs are 
of the most liberal and comprehensive character, and their benefits may be 
enjoyed by all persons, without distinction as to nationality. 



460 PATENTS. 

Foreign designers and manufacturers who send goods to this country 
may secure patents here upon their new patterns, and thus prevent other 
makers from seUing similar goods in this market. 

A patent for a design may be granted to any person, whether citizen 
or aUen, who, by liis own industry, genius, efforts, and expense, has invent- 
ed or produced any new and original design for a manufacture, bust, statue, 
alto-relievo, or bas-relief ; any new and original design for the printing of 
woollen, silk, cotton, or other fabrics ; any new or original impression, orna- 
ment, pattern, print, or picture, to be printed, painted, cast, or otherwise 
placed on or worked into any article of manufacture ; or any new, useful, 
and original shape or configuration of any article of manufacture, the same 
not having been known or used by others before his invention or production 
thereof, or patented or described in any printed publication, upon payment 
of the duty required by law, and other due proceedings had, the same as 
in cases of inventions or discoveries. 

Patents for designs are granted for a term of three and one half years, 
or for the term of seven years, or for the term of fourteen years, as the said 
applicant may elect in his application. 

The petition, oath, specification, assignments, and other proceedings in 
the case of applications for letters-patent for a design are the same as for 
other patents. 

The applicant must furnish either a model or drawings of the design, op 
photograj)hs or engravings thereof. 

The expenses for design patents are as follows : 

Patent for three and a half years, whole expense, $25. 

Patent for seven years, whole expense, $30. 

Patent for fourteen years, whole expense, $45. 

The above includes government fees and agents' charges.* 

The personal presence of the applicant is not necessary in order to ob- 
tain a design patent, as the business can be done b}' correspondence. 

Those who reside at a distance should send their names in full, mid- 
dle name included, together with twelve photographs of the design not 
mounted. Also remit the fees as above, by draft, check, or postal order. 
The petition, oath, and specification will then be prepared and forwarded to 
the applicant for signature. On their return by him, the papers are filed 
at the Patent Office, when an official examination is made, and if no con- 
flicting design is found to exist, a patent is issued. 

Tkadb Marks. — Any person or firm domiciled in the United States, and 
any corporation created by the authority of the United States, or of any 
State or Territory thereof, and any person, firm, or corporation resident of 
or located in any foreign country which, by treaty or convention, affords 
similar privileges to citizens of the United States, and who are entitled to 
the exclusive use of any lawful trade-mark, or who intend to adopt or use any 
trade-mark for exclusive use within the United States, may obtain pro- 
tection for such lawful trade-mark by complying with the official require- 
ments. 

Those who desire to secure protection for trade-marks, labels, &c., who 
live at a distance will please observe the following directions : 

1. Send the names of the parties, their residence, and place of business. 

2. State the class of merchandize and the particular description of 
goods in connection with which the trade-mark is to be used. 

3. Describe the particular mode in which the trade-mark has been and 
is intended to be applied and used. For example, for a trade-mark for 
sheetings, the statement would be, " The trade-mark is to be printed in blue 
ink, upon the outside of each piece of sheeting." Or, " The trade-mark is 

*[Tlie government fee is $10 for three and a half years, $15 for seven years, and $.30 
for fourteen years. The attorney's charges are $15. When it is inconvenient for 
applicants to furnish their own drawings or photographs, he will supply them at a 
reasonable cost-] 



PATENTS. 461 

to be printed in black, or red, white and blue, upon tbe exterior of a paper 
wrapper, which is to cover or extend around each package of tlie goods." 

4. State wiiether the trade-mark is already in use, and if so, how long 
it lias been used. 

5. Send twelve copies of the trade-mark. 

Also remit at tlie same time $40 in full for the expenses, of which $25 
are for government fees, and $15 agent's charge. 

Tlie necessary petition, declaration, and oath for signature by the appli- 
cant, will be prepared and shortly thereafter forwarded to him with the 
official certificate of protection. 

In applying for protection for a trade-mark, a declaration must be made 
under oath by the applicant or some member of the firm or officer of the 
corporation, to the effect that the party claiming protection for the trade- 
mark has a right to the use of the same, and that no other person, firm, or 
corporation lias a right to such use, either in the identical form or having 
such near resemblance tliereto as might be calculated to deceive, and that 
the description and fac-similes presented for record are true copies of the 
trade-mark sought to be protected. 

Trade-marks remain in force for thirty years, and may be renewed for 
thirty years more, except in cases where such trade-mark is claimed for, 
and applied to, articles not manufactured in this country, and in which it 
receives protection under the laws of any foreign country for a shorter pe- 
riod, in which case it shall cease to have force in this country at the same 
time that it becomes of no effect elsewhere. 

No proposed trade mark will be received or recorded which is not and 
cannot become a lawful trade-mark, or which is mereh' the name of a per- 
son, firm, or corporation only, unaccompanied by a mark sufficient to dis- 
tinguish it from the same name when used by other persons, or wliicli is 
identical with a trade-mark appropriate to the same class of merchandise 
and belonging to a different owner, and already registered or received for 
registration, or which so nearly resembles such last-mentioned trade-mark 
as to be likely to deceive the public ; but any lawful trade-mark already 
lawfully in use may be recorded. 

The right to the use of any trade-mark is assignable by any instrument 
of writing, and such assignment must be recorded in the Patent-Office with- 
in sixty days after its execution. 

Trade-marks are registered at the Patent-Office in the exact order of 
their reception, the exact time of receipt being noted and recorded. 

Certified copies of any trade-mark may always be obtained. 

Copyrights. — Any citizen or resident of the United States may ob- 
tain a copy-riglit who is the author, inventor, designer, or proprietor of any 
book, map, chart, dramatic or musical composition, engraving, cut, print, or 
photograph or negative tliereof, or of any painting, drawing, chromo, 
statue, statuary, and of models and designs, intended to be perfected as 
works of the fine arts. 

A copyright cannot be obtained unless the title or description is record- 
ed in the library of Congress, before the pvhlication of tlie ivork. 

Agents' charge for attending to the business of obtaining a copyright 
$5, which remit with the title. 

If a copyright is desired for a painting, drawing, chromo, statue, statu- 
ary, or model or design for a work of art, send a brief description thereof 
and $5. 

Copyrights are granted for the term of twent3'-eight years, and maybe 
renewed for fourteen additional years, if the renewal is filed within six 
months before the expiration of the first term. 

Copyriglits may be assigned ; the assignment must be recorded by the 
Librarian of Congress. 

Infringers of copy-right? are subject to heavy fines and penalties. 

Foreigners who are not residents of the United States cannot obtain 
copyrights ; but if resirlents, they may obtain copyrights. 



462 PATENTS. 

Patents for Labels and Prints. — Labels and prints of all kinds, for 
bottk's, boxes, and packages, for medicines, compounds, and every de- 
scription of merchandise, may now be patented by registration in the Pa- 
tent-Office. 

In order to obtain such registration, the applicant should forward to his 
agent his full name, and send six copies of the label or print, together with 
sixteen dollars, which covers all expenses.* On receipt thereof the neces- 
sary papers will be prejjared and filed in the Patent-Office, and the Official 
Certificate of Registration forwarded to the applicant. The whole business 
only occupies a few days' time. 

Tlie patent or registration so obtained lasts for twent\'-eight years, and 
may be then renewed for an additional period of fourteen years. It secures 
to the proprietor the exclusive right to use the registered label or print dur- 
ing the periods named, and all persons who imitate the same will be liable 
in damages as infringers. 

Patents of registration for labels and prints may, like .the ordinary 
patents, be sold either wholly or in part, in state, county, town rights, etc., 
or subject to royalties. 

All licen.^es, agreements, rights of use, or assignments, must be record- 
ed at Washington within sixty days after the execution of the document. 

By the word "label," as used in the Act of Congress, is meant a slip or 
piece of paper, or other material, to be attaclied in an}- manner to manufac- 
tured articles, or to bottles, boxes, and packages containing them, and bear- 
ing an inscription (not a trademark), as for example, the name of the manu- 
facturer, or the place of manufacture, the quality of goods, directions for 
use, etc. 

By the word "print," as used in the said Act, is meant any device, pic- 
ture, word or words, figure or figures (not a trade-mark), impressed or 
stamped directl}' upon articles of manufacture, to denote the name of the 
manufacturer, or place of manufacture, style of goods, etc. 

But no such print or label can be registered uidess it properly belong to 
an article of commerce, and be as above defined ; nor can the same be re- 
gistered as such print or label when it amounts in law to a technical trade- 
mark. 

General Information. — If you wish for general information as to the 
rules and law of infringements, reissues, claims, etc., state 3'our inquiries 
clearlj', and remit $5. Opinions in special cases of infringement cost more. 

If you wish for advice in regard to assignments, or upon the rights oi 
parties imder assignments, joint ownership in patents, contracts, or licenses, 
state the points clearly upon which information is wanted, and remit $5. 

If you desire to knov/ in whose name the title to a Patent is officially 
recorded at Washington, or if you wish for an abstract of all the deeds of 
transfer connected with a Patent, send the name of the patentee, date of 
patent, etc., and remit $5. 

If you desire to have an assignment of a Patent, or any share thereof, 
or license, made out in the proper manner, and placed on record, give 
the full names of the parties, residences, title of the invention, etc., and 
remit $5. This includes record fee. 

Inventions, or shares thereof, may be assigned either before or after the 
grant of a i)atent. Agreements and contracts in regard to invention need 
to be recorded, like assignments, at Washington. For any agreement or 
contract that .you wish prepared, remit $5. 

CopfES OF Patents, Claims, etc. — Copies of specifications or draw- 
ings of any existing patent, or open rejected case, official letter, assignment, 
etc., etc., can readily be furnished. The expense is very moderate, gener- 
ally not exceeding $1, if the date of the patent is given. Also for $1 a copy 
of the claims only of any existing patent, provided the date or number of the 
patent is given. 

* The Goverunient feo is $6, and the agent's charge is $10. 




MASONS, BUILDERS, &c. 



Measurements, Estimates of Labor, Mortar, Plaster, 
Marbles, &c. 

Labor on Embankments. — Single horse andcart. Ahorse with a loaded 
dirt cart employed in excavation and embankment, will make 100 lineal 
feet, or 200 feet in the distance per minute, wliile moving. The time lost 
in loading, dumping, awaiting, etc., = 4 minutes per load. A medium la- 
borer will load a cart in 10 hours, with tlie following earths, measured 
in tlie bank : GraveUi/ earth, 10, Loam 12, and Sandy earth 14 cubic yards; 
carts are loaded as follows : Descending hauling, ^^ of a cubic yard in bank; 
Level hauling, 2-7 of a cubic yard in bank ; Ascending hauling, 2-7 of a cu- 
bic yard in bank. Loosening, ^-c. In loam, a three-horse plough will loosen 
from 2-50 to 800 cubic yards per day of 10 hours. Tiie costoi loosening earth 
to be loaded will be from 1 to 8 cents per cubic yard, when wages are 12-5 
cents per day. The cost of trimming and bossing is about 2 cents per cubic 
yard. Scooping. A scoop load will measure 1-10 of a cubic yard, measured 
in excavation. Tiie time lost in loading, unloading and trimming, per load, 
is ly^ minutes. The time lostforevery 70 feet of distance, from excava- 
tion to bank, and returning is 1 minute. In Double Scooping, the time lost 
in loading, turning, &c., will be 1 minute ; and in Single Scooping, it will be 
1^ minutes. {Ellivood Morris.) 

Hauling Stone. — A cart drawn by horses over an ordinary road will 
travel 1.1 miles per hour of trip. A 4-horse team will haul from 25 to 86 
cubic feet of limestone at each load. The time expended in loading, lyi- 
loading, &c., including delays, averages 35 minutes per trip. The cost of 
loading and miloading a cart, using a horse crane at the quarry, and unload- 
ing bj- hand, when labor is $1.25 per day, and a horse 75 cents, is 25 cents 
per perch = 24.75 cubic feet. Tlie work done by an animal is greatest 
when tlie velocity with which he moves is ^ of the greatest with which he 
can move when not impeded, and the force then exerted .45 of the utmost 
force the animal can exert at a dead pull. 

Earth Digging. — Nuinber of cubic feet of earth in a ton. Loose earth 24 ; 
coarse sand, 18.6. Clay, 18.6 Earth with gravel, 17.8. Clay with gravel, 
14.4. Common soil, 15.0. The volume of earth and sand in bank exceeds 
that in embankment in the following proportions : sand 1-7, clay 1-9, gravel 
1-11, and the volume of rock in embankments quarried in large fragments 
exceeds that in bank fully one-half. 

"Weight of Earth, Rock, &c. — A cubic yard of sand or ground weighs 
about 30 owt. ; mud, 25cwt. ; marl, 26 cwt. ; clay, 31 cwt. ; chalk, 36 cwt. ; 
sandstone, 39 cwt. ; shale, 40 cwt. ; quartz, 41 cwt. ; granite, 42 cwt. ; trap, 
42 cwt. ; slate, 43 cwt. 

FiEE-PKOOF Houses. — The rendering a dwelling-house fire-proof is a 

463 



464 MASONS, BUILDERS, AC. 

matter of great importance, furnishing, as it does, the occupant with per- 
fect comfort and security. Tliis precaution is all the more necessary for 
country dwellings, where a house may be on fire for a long time before 
any assistance arrives, or any means are found for extinguishing it. The 
chief means proposed have been iron roofs, floors supported by iron or flat 
brick arches,' plaster or what is called flagging under the flooring-boards, 
stone or iron staircases, brick or at least brick-nogged partitions, metal 
sashes, iron plating round all timbers : in short, using metal or brick, and 
slate, wherever it is possible, instead of wood. 

Tiles. — These form a heavier covering for a roof than slates, and are 
now employed for offices and houses of an inferior class. There are two 
kinds of tiles in common use, plain tiles and pantiles. Plain tiles are of 
tlie same form as slates, but are laid on laths of oak or fir, and bedded and 
pointed with mortar. The pitch of tiie roof requires to be forty-five de- 
grees, and the tiles require frequent pointing. Pantiles are curved, and 
are laid on each other dry : they are seldom used except in cow-houses, 
sheds, and other outbuildings. They do not form so warm a roof as plain 
tiles, and are more liable to be deranged. Common tiles are not nearl}- so 
durable as slates, being much affected by the frost; but when glazed, as 
they sometimes are, with a dark glaze, they are very durable. Wiien the 
red color of tiles is objectionable, they may be covered with a coat of anti- 
corrosive paint. 

Walls. — In the construction of walls, it is essential that the stones be 
either taken from the quarry, or consist of the largest land-stones, broken 
in such a manner as to have a good flat surface, in order that they may 
bind well ; that they be built by masons, and well pinned ; that they have 
as dry and deep a foundation as possible in order to guard against frosts, 
etc. ;"that they may I)e made wide at the bottom, and tapering upwards 
Aviien the C()i)ing is to be applied ; that tiie coping consists of materials that 
caimot be readily overturned or removed, for, upon the manner in which 
ii is finished, much of the future value and durability of the wall will be 
found to depend. Independently of the ordinary walls of stone, there are 
others, made of various materials, and constructed in several ways. Turf 
u-alls form a fence for enclosing fields, and for the formation of folds, pens, 
or other places of confinement for cattle during the niglit. In general they 
are made with turf only, pared off from the adjoining surface, and used 
witliout any mixture of earth ; in other cases, tiie wall consists of a fenc- 
ing Of turf on each side, while tlie-space between is filled up with loose 
earth. Stone and turf walls are also very common in many situations, and 
are frequently employed from necessity, when other materials are expen- 
sive or procured \yith diflSculty. Mud mails with a mixture of straw are also 
used. In the construction of these, a small quantity of straw should be 
taken, and incorporated with a sufficient proportion of clay ; the straw in 
tills case, answering the same purpose as hair in lime-i)laster ; when a sufli- 
cient number of small masses are made, the work is begun by laying a 
stratum at the bottom of the embedded wall ; this being done, and the dif- 
ferent pieces firmly kneaded together upon the hand, a flat deal board is 
applied on each side, which, being properly pressed and rubbed against the 
building in a horizontal direction, not only serves to consolidate the work, 
but gives it a degree of smoothness and uniformity ; successive strata are 
added, till the wall is raised to the intended height, care being taken to 
taper it gradually upward.s. Walls made in this way will last for many 
years ; and, if washed witli lime at the proper season of the year, will have 
an appearance no way inferior to such as are made with stone and lime. 
Walls may also be made of rammed earth. In constructing them, the 
?arth is previously pounded, in order to crumble any stones therein ; clay 
is added in a small quantity, about one-eighth part. It is all beaten and 
mixed up together by repeated blows of tiie mallet. Tiie earth being thus 
prepared, and slightly wetted, the foundation of the wall is dug. This is 
laid with stone ; and, when it is about one foot high above the surface of 



MASONS, BUILDERS, &C. 465 

the ground, planks are arranged on each side, and the space between filled 
with earth intended for tlie wall ; this method is continued successively 
until the wall is completed. 

How TO Build Gravel Houses. — This is the best building material in 
the world. It is four times cheaper than wood, six times cheaper than stone, 
and superior to eitlier. Proportions for mixing : to eight barrows of slaked 
lime, well deluged with water, add 15 barrows of sand; mix these to a 
creamy consistency', then add 60 barrows of coarse gravel, whicii must be 
worked well and completely ; you can then throw stones into this mixture, of 
any siiape or size, up to ten inches in diameter. Form moulds for the walls 
of the house by fixing boards horizontally against upright standards, 
which must be immovably braced so that they will not yield to the immense 
pressure outwards as the material settles ; set the standards in pairs around 
the building where the walls are to stand, and from six to eight feet apart, 
and so wide that the inner space siiall form the thickness of the wall. Into 
tiie moulds thus formed tlirow in the concrete material as fast as you choose 
and the more promiscuously the better. In a short time the gravel will get 
as hard as the solid rock. 

Excellent Cheap Roofing. — Have your roof stiff, rafters made of 
stuff 1^ by 8 inches, well supported and 6 feet apart, with ribs 1 inch by 
2 inches, set edgeways, well nailed to the rafters, about 18 inches apart. 
The boards may be thin but must be well seasoned, and nailed close 
together : this done lay down and cover the roof with thin, soft, spongy 
straw paper used in making paper-boxes, which is sold in rolls and comes very 
low. Lay in courses up and down the roof, and lap over, nailing down 
with common No. 6 tacks, with leather under the head like carpet tacks. 
Then spread on several coatings of the following composition, previously 
boiled, stirred and mixed togetlier : good clean tar, 8 gals. ; Roman cement, 
2 gals, (or in its place very fine, clean sand may be used) ; resin, 5 lbs. ; 
tallow 3 lbs. ; apply hot : and let a hand follow, and sift on sharp grit san<l, 
pressing it into the tar composition. If wished fire-proof, go over tlie above 
with the following preparation ; slake stone lime under cover with hot 
water till it falls into a fine powder, sift and mix 6 qts. of this with 1 qt. of 
salt; add 2 gals, water, boil and skim. To 5 gals, of this, add 1 lb. of alum, 
and 1^ lbs. of copperas, slowly while boiling, 1^ lbs. of potash and 4 qts. of 
clean, sharp sand, and any color desired. Apply a thick coat with a brush, 
and you have a roof which no fire can injure from the outside. 

CUBIC, OR SOLID MEASURE. 

To find the Cubical Contents in a Stick of Timber, Block of Stone, Box, 
Bin, &c. If all the Dimensions are in Feet, multiply the Lengtii by the 
Breadth, and this product by the Depth to obtain the number of Cubic Feet. 

If the Length is in Feet and the width and depth in inches, multiply the 
length by the width and this Product by the depth in inches, — then divide 
the last Product by 144 for the Cubic Feet. If all the Dimensions are in 
Feet and Inches reduce the whole to Inches, then multiply the Length, 
Breadth and Depth together, and divide the Product by 1728 to obtain the 
Cubic Feet. 

Required the number of cubic feet in a box, stone, &c., 4^ feet long, 2}4 
feet wide and 2 feet deep ? 

4.5 X 2.5 X 2 = 22^ cubic feet. 

To find the capacity of a bin, cistern, tanner's vat, &c., find its (interior) 
cubic contents in inches, by the preceding niles, then if the capacity be 
required in gallons, divide the whole number of inches by 231 ; — if in bush- 
els, by 2150.42,— or, if in heaped bushels, by 2747.70. 

Or, if the interior of a coal bin be 4 feet in length, 41 inches in breadth, 
and 32 inches in depth ; then, 

4 X 41 X 32 X 00694 = 36^ cubic feet = 2000 lbs., or 1 ton of Beaver 
Meadow or Lehigh Coal. 

20* 



466 MASONS, BUILDERS, &C. 

1 Cubic Foot of Peacli Mountain Coal, broken or screened for stoves, 
weighs 54 pounds, and it requires 37 cubic feet of space to stow one ton of 
2000 pounds. 

Coal is bought at wholesale at the rate of 2240 pounds to the ton, and 
sold at retail at the rate of 2000 pounds to the ton, screened. 

Or, if the interior of a crib be 6J feet in length, 3|^ feet in breadth, and 
8X feet in deptli ; then, 

6-5 X 3-75 X 3-25 X -80356 = 63-6522 (or 63i bushels and I peck.^ 
The Solid Contents of all bodies, which are of uniform bigness through- 
out, whatever may be the form of the ends is found by multiplying the area 
of one end into its height or length. 

144 inches equal (=) 1 square foot, (or area.) 
1728 inches equal (=) 1 cubic foot, (or solid contents.) 

TABLE. 

1728 cubic inches (cu. in.) make 1 cubic foot cu. ft. 

27 cubic feet " 1 cubic yard cu. yd 

40 cubit; feet of round timber, or | « i . i i m 

50 " " hewn " \ 1 ton or load T. 

16 cubic feet " Icordfoot cd. ft, 

8 cord feet, or ) « i j i- j ^j 

128 cubic feet } 1 ^"'"'^ "^ ^^""^ Cd. 

243^ cubic feet " 1 \ P«^^'' ^^ «*«"^ } . . . .Pch. 

'^ ( or masonry, ) 

ScAi.ii — ascending, 1728, 27. The other numbers are not in a regular 
scale, but are merely so many times in 1 foot. The unit equivalents, being 
fractional, are consequently omitted. 

A cubic yard of earth is called a load. 

Railroad and transportation companies estimate light freight by the space 
it occupies in cubic feet, and heavy freight by weight. 

A pile of wood 8 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 4 feet high, contains 1 cord ; 
and a cord foot is 1 foot in length of such a pile. 

A perch of stone or of masonry is 16^ feet long, 1^ feet wide, and 1 foot 
high. 

Joiners, bricklayers, and masons, m.ake an allowance for windows, 
doors, etc., of one half the openings or vacant spaces. Bricklayers and ma- 
sons, in estimating their work by cubic measure, make no allowance for 
the corners of the walls of houses, cellars, etc., but estimate their work 
by the r/?Vf,that is, the entire length of the wall on the outside. 

Engineers, in making estimates for excavations and embankments, 
take the dimensions with a line or measure divided into feet and decimals of 
a foot. The computations are made in feet and decimals, and the results are 
reduced to cubic yards. In civil engineering, the cubic yard is the unit to 
which estimates for excavations and embankments are finally reduced. 

In scaling or measuring timber for shipping or freighting, 1-5 of the 
solid contents of round timber is deducted for waste in hewing or sawing. 
Tiius, a log that will make 40 feet of hewn or sawed timber, actually con- 
tains 50 cubic feet by measurement ; but its market value is only equal to 40 
cubic feet of hewn or sawed timber. Hence, the cubic contents of 40 feet 
of round and 50 feet of hewn timber, as estimated for market, are identical 

MEASUREMENT OF STONE OR BRICK WORK 

1. Perch, Masons' or Quarrymens' Measure. 

\&\ feet long 

16 inches wide \ — ^22 cubic feet. To be measured in wall. 



12 



feet long ^ 
inches wide > = 
" Idgh V 



MASOKS, BUILDERS, &C. 467 

16^ feet long, 1 ( 

18 inches wide ^ = < 24.75 cubic feet. To be measured in pile. 

12 " high) I 

1 cubic yard = 3 feet X 3 feet X 3 feet = 27 cubic feet. The cubic 
yard has become the standard for all contract work of late years. Stone 
walls less than 16 inches thick count as if 16 inches thick to masons ; over 
16 inches thick, each additional inch is counted. 



NUMBER OF 


BKICKS 


KEQUIRED IN 


WALL PER 


SQUARE FOOT FACE OF 








WALL. 












Tttckuess of 


wall. 




Thickness of 


wall. 




4 inches 


H 




24 incii 


es 


46 




8 " 




15 




28 


It 




524 




12 " 




22^ 




32 


« 




60 




16 " 




30 




36 


ti 




67i 




20 " 




371 




42 


It 




75 



Cubic yard = 600 bricks in wall. 
Perch (22 cubic feet) = 500 bricks in wall. 
To pave 1 sq. yard on flat requires 48 bricks. 
" " 1 " " edge " 68 " 

Square Measure. — Squave Measure is used in measuring surfaces, or 
things whose length and breadth are considered without regard to height or 
depth ; as land, flooring, plastering, &c. Its denominations are aci-es, roods, 
square rods, square yards, square feet, and square inches. 

144 square inches (sg'.i«.)make 1 square foot, marked sq.Ji. 

9 square feet " 1 square yard, " sq. yd. 

40 square rods " 1 rood, " jR. 

4 roods,or 160 square rods" 1 acre, " A. 

640 acres " 1 square mile, " M. 

Note. — 16 square rods make one square chain ; 10 square chains, or 
100,000 square links, make an acre. Flooring, roofing, plastering, &c., are 
frequently estimated by the " square," which contains 100 square feet. 

Mortar, Plaster, &c. — 22 Kinds. — 1. Stone Mortar. — Cement, 8 parts ; 
lime, 3 parts ; sand, 31 parts. Mortar. — Lime, 1 pa:rt ; sharp, clean sand, 2^ 
parts. An excess of water in slaking tlie lime swells the mortar, wliich 
remains light and porous, or shrinks in drying: an excess of sand destroys 
the cohesive properties of the mass. 3. Brown Mortar. — Lime, 1 part; 
sand, 2 parts ; and a small quantity of hair. 4. Brick Mortar. — Cement, 3 
parts ; lime, three parts ; sand, 27 parts. Lime and sand, and cement and 
sand, lessen about j^ in volume when mixed together. 5. Turkish Mortar. — 
Powdered brick and tiles, 1 part ; fine sifted lime, 2 parts ; mix to a proper 
consistency with water, and lay on layers of 5 or 6 inches thick between 
the courses of brick or stone. Very useful on massive or very solid build- 
ings. 6. Interim- plastering — Coarse Stuff. — Common lime mortar as made 
for brick masonry, with a small quantity of hair ; or by volumes, lime paste 
(30 lbs. lime), 1 part; sand, 2 to 2^ parts ; liair, Ye part. When full time 
for hardening cannot be allowed, substitute from 15 to 20 per cent, of the 
lime by an equal portion of hydraulic cement. For the second or brown 
coat the proportion of hair may be slightly diminished. 7. Fine Stuff. — 
(Lime putty): Lump lime slacked to a paste with a moderate volume of 
water, and afterwards diluted to the consistency of cream, and tiien hardened 
by evaporation to the required consistency for working. In this state it is 



468 MASONS, BUILDERS, AC. 

used as a slipped cnat, and when mixed with sand or plaster of Paris, it is 
used for tiie finishing coat. 8. Gauge' Stuff or Hard Finish is composed of 3 
or 4 vohimes of fine stuff and 1 volume of plaster of Paris, in proportion 
regulated by the degree of rapidity required in hardening for cornices, &c., 
the proportions are equal volumes of each, fine stuff and plaster. 9. Stucco 
is composed of from 3 to 4 volumes of wliite sand to 1 volume of fine stuff 
or lime putty. 10. Scratch Coat. — The first of 3 coats wlien laid upon laths, 
and is from y% io % of an inch thickness. 11. One Coat Work. — Plastering in 
1 coat without finish either on masonry or laths that is rendered or laid. 
Work on well. 12. Two Coat Work. — Plastering in 2 coats is done either in 
.•I laying coat and .set, or in a screed coat and set. The screed coat is also 
termed a Floated Coat. Laying the first coat in two co«t work is resorted 
to in common work instead of screeding, when the finished surface is not 
required to be exact to a straight edge. It is laid in a coat of about f inch 
in thickness. The laying coat, except for very common work, should be 
hand floated , as the tenacity and firmness of tlie work is much increased 
thereby. Screeds are strips of mortar 26 to 28 inches in widtii, and of the 
required thickness of the first coat, applied to the angles of a room, or 
edge of a wall and parallelly, at intervals of 3 to 5 feet over the surface to 
be covered. When these have become sufficiently hard to withstand the 
pressure of a straiglit edge, tlie interspaces between the screeds should be 
filled out flush with tiiem, so as to produce a continuous and straight even 
surfaee. Slipped Coat is the smoothing off of a brown coat with a small 
quantity of lime putty, mixed with three per cent, of white sand so as to 
make a comparatively even surface. This finish answers when the surface 
is to be finished in distemper of paper. Hard Finish : Fine stuff applied 
with a trowel to tlie depth of about ^^ of an inch. 13. Cement for External 
Use. — Aslies, 2 parts; clay, 3 parts; sand, 1 part; mix with a little oil. 
Very durable. 13. Composition for Streets and Boads. — Bitumen, 16.875 
parts : asplialtum, 2.25 parts ; oil of resin, 6.25 ; sand, 1.85 parts. Thick- 
ness from lj4 to IX inches. Asplialtum, 55 lbs., and gravel 28.7 lbs. will 
cover an area of 10.75 square feet. 15. Asphalte Composition. — Mineral 
pitch, 1 part ; bitumen, 11 parts ; powdered stone or wood ashes, 7 
parts. 16. Asphalte Mastic is composed of nearly pure carbonate of lime 
and about 9 or 10 per cent, of bitumen or mineral pitch. Tlie powdered 
asphalte is mixed with the bitumen in a melted state along with clean gravel 
and consistency is given to pour it into moulds. The asphalte is ductile, and 
has elasticity to enable it, with the small stones sifted upon it, to resist ordi- 
nary wear. Sun and rain do not affect it, wear and tear do not seem to 
injure it. The pedestrian in many cities in the United States and Canada, 
can readily detect; its presence on the sidewalk by its peculiar yielding to 
the foot as he steps over it. It is also a most excellent roofing material 
when rightly applied, it being on record in France that a stout roof of this 
material withstood the accidental fall of a stack of chimneys, with the only 
effect of bruising the mastic, readily repaired. 17. Asphalte for W<d.ks. — 
Take 2 parts very fine, dry, lime rubbish, and 1 part coal ashes, also very 
dry, all sifted fine. In a dry place, on a dry day, mix them, and leave a 
liole in the middle of the heap, as bricklayers do when they make mortar. 
Into this pour boiling hot coal tar ; mix and when as stiff as mortar, put it 
three inches thick where the walk is to be ; the ground should be dry and 
beaten smooth ; sprinkle over it coarse sand. When cold pass a light 
roller over it ; in a few days the walk will be solid and waterproof. 18. 
Mastic Cement for Covering the Fronts of Houses. — Fifty parts, by measure, 
of clean dry sand, 50 of limestone (not burned) reduced to grains like sand 
or marble dust, and 10 parts red lead, mixed with as much boiled linseed 
oil as will make it slightly moist. The bricks to receive it, should be 
covered with three coats of boiled oil, laid on with a brush, and suffered to 
dry before the mastic is put on. It is laid on with a trowel like plaster, but 
it must not be so moist. It becomes hard as a stone in a few months. 
Care must be exercised not to use too much oil. 19. Cement for Tile-Roofs. 



MASONS, BUILDERS, &C. 



469 



— Equal parts of whiting and dry sand, and 25 per cent, of litharge, made 
into the consistency of putty with linseed oil. It is not liable to crack 
when cold, nor melt like coal-tar and asphalte, with the heat of the sun. 20. 
Cement for Outside of Brick Walls. — Cement for tlie outside of brick walls, to 
imitate stone, is made of clean sand, 90 parts ; litharge, 5 parts ; plaster of 
Paris, 5 parts ; moistened with boiled linseed oil. The bricks should receive 
two or three coats of oil before the cement is applied. 21. Water Lime at Fifty 
Cents per Barrel. — Fine clean sand, 100 lbs. ; quick-lime in powder, 28 lbs. ; 
bone ashes, 24 lbs. ; for use, beat up with water, and use as quick as possi- 
ble. 22. Cement for Seams in Roofs. — Take equal quantities of white lead 
and white sand, and as much oil as will make it into the consistency of 
putty. It will in a few weeks become as hard as stone. 

Estimate of Materials and Labor for 100 Square Yards of Lath 

AND Plaster. 



Materials, 


Three coats 


Two Coats 


Materials, 


Three coats 


Two coats 


and Labor. 


hard finish. 


Slipped. 


and Labor. 


hard finish. 


Slipped. 


Lime . . . 


4 Casks. 


Z% casks. 


White Sand 


2\ bushs. 




Lump Lime 


% " 




Nails . . . 


13 lbs. 


13 lbs. 


Plaster of 






Masons . . 


4 days. 


3i days. 


Paris . . 


i " 




Laborer . . 


3 " 


2 


Laths . . . 


2000 


2000 


Cartage . . 


1 " 


H " 


Hair . . . 


4 bushs. 


3 bushs. 








Sand . . . 


6 loads. 


6 loads. 









Varnish for Plaster Casts. — White soap and white wax, each }i oz., 
water, 2 pts., boil together in a clean vessel for a short time. This varnish 
is to be applied when cold with a soft brush. 

The Bronzing of Plaster Casts is effected by giving them a coat of 
oil or size varnish, and when this is nearly dry, applying with a dabber of 
cotton or a camel-hair pencil any of tiie metallic bronze powders ; or the 
powder may be placed in a little bag of muslin, and dusted over the sur- 
face, and afterwards finished witli a wad of linen. The surface must be 
afterwards varnished. 

Sobstitute for Plaster of Paris. — Best whiting, 2 lbs. ; glue, 1 lb. ; 
dnseed oil, 1 lb. Heat all together, and stir thoroughly. Let the com- 
pound cool, and then lay it on a stone covered wltli powdered whiting, and 
heat it well till it becomes of a tough and firm consistence ; then put it by 
for use, covering with wet cloths to keep it fresh. When wanted for use, 
it must be cut in pieces adapted to the size of the mould, into which it is 
foi'ced by a screw press. The ornament may be fixed to the wall, picture- 
frame, etc., with glue or white lead. It becomes in time as hard as stone 
itself. 

Modelling Clay. — Knead dry clay with glycerine instead of water, 
and a mass is obtained which remains moist and plastic for a considerable 
time, being a great convenience to the modeller. 

To Polish Plaster of Paris Work. — The addition of 1 or 2 per cent, 
of many salts, such as alum, sulphate of potash, or borax, confers upon 
gypsum the property of setting slowly in a mass capable of receiving a 
very high polish. 

To Make Plaster of Paris as Hard as Marble. — The plaster is put 
in a drum, turning horizontally on its axis, and steam admitted from a 
steam boiler : by this means the plaster is made to absorb in a short space 
of time the desired quantity of moisture, which can be regulated with 



470 MASONS, BUILDERS, &C. 

great precision. Tiie plaster thus prepared is filled into suitable moulds ; 
and the whole submitted to the action of an hydraulic press ; when taken 
out of the moulds, the articles are ready for use, and will be found as hard 
as marble, and will take apolisli like it. 

To Take a Plaster of Paris Cast from a Person's Face. — The per- 
son must lie on his back, and his hair be tied behind ; into each nostril put 
a conical piece of paper, open at each end, to allow of breathing. The 
face is to be lightly oiled over, and the plaster being properly prepared, is 
to be poured over the face, taking particular care that the eyes are shut 
till it is a quarter of an inch thick. In a few minutes the plaster may 
be removed. In this a mould is to be formed, from which a second cast is to 
be taken, that will furnish casts exactly' like the original. 

Fire-proof Boxes, Closets, &c. — Tlie principle upon which these 
should be constructed is, that they should be made of such materials as are 
not only incombustible, but as little as possible capable of being heated. 
Metals are not combustible by ordinary fires ; but, as they are susceptible 
of being made extremely hot, they are not proper for this purpose. If the 
joints are not perfectly close, so as to exclude the external air, papers and 
other inflammable substances will be burnt and consumed in them in case 
of a fire; and even should the joints fit quite tightly, papers in them will 
at least be charred and rendered useless. Brick, soft stone, layers of pum- 
ice, charcoal, and other porous substances, are the best non-conductors of 
heat. Fire-proof boxes should, therefore, be constructed of these materials 
which may be cased with sheet iron, merely to keep them together. Air is 
a good non-conductor ; therefore two boxes of non-conducting materials, 
with a space of a few inches between them, will be far safer than any single 
box. The inner box should rest upon pieces of pumice, and should not 
touch the external one anj-where; or the space between the two boxes 
ihould be filled with pumice. 



\\.\i W^'bll I M 




FEINTING AND BOOKBINDING. 



Ho"W TO USE Ink, the Amount Required for Different 
Kinds of Work, Mixing Colors, Rollers, Marbling 
Books, &c. 

If it were possible to contract for work, with permit to charge specifically 
for such ink as would be used, it would be of advantage to the printer. 
This, however, is not the usual course. The printer's estimate must be 
fixed, and must include both labor and ink. 

It is difficult to make such estimate with justice. Even those who have 
had large experience in the use of colored inks, and who have kept and con- 
sulted written records of the value of ink used on previous jobs, often find 
themselves at fault in estimating. 

There is great difference in inks of apparently the same quality and at 
the same price. Some colored inks contain much more color than others. 
If judiciously used, these full-bodied inks will give much more service 
than thin-bodied inks. 

TJie temperature affects the service of colors. On poster or flat-tint 
work, one pound of red ink in summer will cover as much surface as one 
and a lialf pounds in winter. A warm atmosphere softens tlie varnish, and 
allows the ink to be spread in a thin and even film over the type. Cold 
weather stiffens the varnish, makes it more difficult to distribute, and com- 
pels tlie pressman to use it in larger quantity. 

The quality of paper has a very marked influence. A thick, spongy or 
pulpy paper will imbibe ink greedily. A dry rough-faced News does 
not imbibe it, but the ink must either be piled on or forced in the 
paper. It will require from one-fourth to one-half more than a smooth 
calendered paper. Straw paper, of fair make and smooth face, is well 
adapted for economical consumption of ink. It absorbs color less than any 
other quality of ordinary printing. Dry paper will use more color than damp 
paper, but a really wet or over-damped paper will absorb more than either. 
The most favorable quality for a small consumption of ink is a smooth 
sized and calendered sheet, slightly dampened. 

The length of the edition will vary the amount of ink used. One pound 
of carmine ink may be barely sufficient to print 1000 impressions on a show 
card. A large portion of the color will be unavoidably wasted in the can 

471 



472 FEINTING AND BOOKBINDING. 

and in charging the fountain. But an order of 5000 could be done with 
three and a half pounds, possibly with three pounds, for the greatest waste 
is chiefly on the first 1000 impressions. 

The pressman's metliod of work has mucli to do witli saving or waste 
of color. If he uses soft rollers, and makes ready with a light spongy im- 
pression against fine blanket or rubber clotli, he will use much more color 
tlian a pressman who jirefers moderately firm rollers, and makes ready 
against a hard surface, witli firm impression. If the pressman washes his 
rollers too frequentlj', or if he does not protect his ink and ink fountains 
from dirt and dust, he may waste nearly as mucli color as he uses. 

The quantity of color required is often a matter of taste. One pressman 
will merely stain the paper, considering the presswork bad, if every hair-line 
is not tliin, sharp and weak, almost to illegibility; while another, aiming at 
brilliant effect and decided contrast, will use an excess of ink, regardless of 
thick liair-lines, if he can preserve a soUd and even color on the body marks 
of the letter. 

The surface inked will produce the greatest variation in amount of color. 
A small margined duodecimo in solid bold-faced type, will use three times 
the ink of a double-leaded octavo in light-faced type. An ordinary poster 
will use ten times the ink of any book form ; a flat surfaced tint block, with 
few white lines, will use twice as much as any poster. This rapid increase 
in consumption of color, with the increase of surface inked, is alwaj'S surpris- 
ing to the novice, and is often the cause of many losses. 

Tiie price at which ink is sold does not always indicate its value. Special 
inks arc made for special purposes, for wliich purposes they are clieap and 
efficient, and outside of which they are both expensive and unsatisfactory. 
Ink made for job work on dry paper is not economical when used for book 
work on damp paper. The value of ink must be determined quite as much 
by its extending and covering capacity as by its nominal price. The finest 
black is the strongest of all colors, and although it is sold from $2.00 to $5.00 
per pound, it is not an expensive color, when used for open tj'pe work. It is 
very bulky for its weight ; the coloring matter in it is exceedingly light, and 
this color is mixed with as little varnish as is possible. The color is also 
better, it has more extending capacity, is more finely ground, wastes less and 
works cleaner than a cheap ink. But when such expensive ink is used on 
very solid black work, little or nothing is saved by its superior extending 
properties. 

In hazarding estimates on work, the following observations on the prob- 
able value of ink will be of service. But they should not be accepted as 
applicable to all cases. Differences in quality of inks, in the paper, the tem- 
perature, and the method of pressmen, must make variations in result. 

Black Inks. — On common news and rough book work, the value of 
black ink at 40 cents, used and wasted in printing a wet-down sheet of size 
24 X 38 inches, or thereabouts, is a little less than 17 cents per 1000 impres- 
sions, or about 4 cents* a token of 250 impressions. If the sheet is over- 
colored, it will cost 6 cents ; if it is under-colored, or if printed on damp 
calendered paper, (an unusual quality of this class of work), it will not cost 
3 cents per token. 

For ordinary book work, using ink at 60 cents, on smooth paper of size 
24 X 38 inches, the average cost of ink used and wasted will be about 6 cents 
per token ; on dry and rougli paper, it will reach 10 or 13 cents. 

Fine book or pamphlet Presswork on damp sheets of calendered paper, of 
sixc 24 X 38, using ink at $1.00, should have its average value rated at 10 
cents per token for an ordinary edition. Upon a short edition, for which ink is 
specially put in the fountain, and of which much is wasted, the cost will be 

* It is a popular belief that the ink used for this class of work, on this size, doei 
not exceed 3 cents per token. This is the ordinary reckoning, which is for use only. 
But the waste of this quality of ink is rarely ever less than one-fifth, and it often 
approximates nwre closely to one-third of the aniounk purchased. 



PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING. 473 

from 15 to 25 cents per token. If the paper is a soft and spongy Book, cost 
for either quantity will be still higher. 

Illustrated Catalogues, printed on medium sheets, 19 X 24 inches, on 
dry calendered paper, with cuts of large size and blackness, will use of 
wood-cut ink at $2.50 per pound, on an edition of 1000, at the rate of 60 
cents to $1.00 per token. If the edition is of 6000 impressions, the value of 
ink used will range from 40 cents to 70 cents per token. If cuts are very 
large or black, they may consume ink, on an edition of 1000 copies, at the 
rate of $1.50 per token. If ink at $3.00 or $5.00 is used, in place of ink at 
$2.50, the price will increase, but not in true proportion — the more expensive 
color is finer, and has more extending capacity. These are prices for cuts of 
machinery. The amount of color on this work is largely under the control 
of tlie pressman. He can use it freely or sparingly, at will, but with a cor- 
responding effect of strength or weakness in the work. 

Book Illustrations. The ordinary illustrations of books and newspapers, 
when not too frequent, or too black, do not sensibly increase the con- 
sumption of ink. It is not usual to make account of the value of ordinary 
ink on this class of work. But when the cuts are numerous and are black, 
and fine inks are used, the value of color used cannot be overlooked. On a 
large edition of work of this class, the average value of ink at $2.00, on a 
sheet 24 X 38 inches, will be 50 cents per token. Upon an edition of 1000, 
the cost of the same ink would be more than $1.00 per token. A Double 
Royal sheet 29 X 43 inches, on an edition of 20,000, with ink at $3.00, with 
many cuts, has been worked at a cost of 53 cents per token for ink ; but this 
is a rare result, the economy being due as much to the skill of the pressman as 
to the length of the edition. If the edition had been 1000, the value of 
the black ink used and wasted would have been at the rate of $1.50 per token. 
Posters. An ordinary poster, 12 X 19 inches, will consume of black ink 
at 25 cents per pound, at the rate of 30 and 40 cents per 1000 impressions, 
the quantity used depending upon the size of the type and the quality of the 
paper. Under the same conditions, a poster 19 X 24 inclies, will consume 
black ink of same quality at the rate of 75 cents and $1.00 jier 1000 impres- 
eions ; a poster 24 X 38 inches, from $1.25 to $2.00 per 1000 impressions. 
The value of the color used increases with the size of the sheet, and for this 
work, in greater proportion. The larger form has larger type, and the 
larger press wastes more color. 

Tint Blocks. A solid tint Block cut on pine, for a sheet 24 X 38 inches, 
with a few white lines, will use of 25 cent ink, at the rate of $3.00 per 1000 
impressions. If finer inks are used, the advance in price will be nearly in 
- strict proportion. For a sheet 24 X 38, of smooth, thick paper, dry, printed 
on a metal tint-plate, with ink at $1.00 per pound, the cost of ink will be 
$10.00 per 1000 impressions. For this class of work, a pound of fine ink will 
do more work than a pound of cheap ink. On common flat work, a good 
black ink will permit a liberal reduction of body with varnish. 

Blue Inks. — Many qualities of this color are used. The leading varieties 
are best known to printers as light, dark, ultramarine and bronze blues. The 
light has a limited use for flat surfaces and tints ; the ultramarine, for flat 
surfaces, tints, posters, and to some extent, in its finer qualities, on fine type; 
the dark and bronze blues are most used for fine and light work, for which 
they are well adapted, having strong body, and in extending property being 
nearly equal to fine black ink. 

Ultramarine is the favorite color for bright showy work. It is very bulky 
for its weight, and works well upon all flat surfaces. It is not a finely- 
ground color. The best colors only are used for type, but they do not work 
with the freedom and smoothness of dark or bronze blues. The prices 
range from 50 to $3.00 per pound. 

Flat Surfaces. A flat-faced label, 9 X 14 inches, will consume of pure 
ultramarine blue at $1.00 per pound at the rate of $3.00 per 1000 impressions. 
A flat tint block, 18 X 22 inches, on fair paper, will use of this color, when 
Bomewhat reduced with varnish, at the rate of $9.00 per 1000 impressions. 



474 PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING. 

A flat tint block of pine wood, mjide for paper 24 X 38 inches, will use of 
ultramarine at 76 cents, largely reduced with varnish, at the rate of $15.00 
per 1000 impressions. 

Posters. For a poster, 12 X 19 Indies, on ordinary News, the value used 
of ultramarine ink at $1.00 will be at the rate of $2.00 per 1000 impressions ; 
for a poster, 19 X 24 inches, on ultramarine blue at 75 cents, $3.50 per 1000 
impressions ; for a poster, 24 X 38 inches, on ultramarine blue at 75 cents, at 
the rate of $6.00 to $8.00 per 1000 impressions. Ink at 50 cents per pound 
would diminish the value of the color used, but not in ratio with the reduced 
price. The cheaper color is thinner, not so well ground, and is consumed 
more freely. If it is used on any but the largest type, it will not prove of 
marked economy. 

Dark blue and bronze blue are little used for posters or flat tints. If 
used in bulk, without reducing, they will be much more expensive tlian 
ultramarine. When used on this kind of work, they are usually thinned 
with white ink, varnish, turpentine, benzine, etc., and sometimes with mag- 
nesia. When \ised on light, open and fine work, the value of dark or bronze 
blues, may be rated as about double that of tlie same quality as black ink. 

Red Inks. Under this heading may be classified man}' qualities of 
scarlet and crimson color. The leading qualities are vermilion, lake and 
carmine. 

Vermilion red, a pure scarlet, is the basis of the better qualities of the 
cheap reds in greatest use. Commoner qualities, such as are sold at 75 
cents and $1.00 per pound, are largely mixed with clieaper colors. In its 
pure state, vermilion is the densest, and, in extending property, the w^eakest 
of all colors. A pound of vermilion red at $3.00 per pound is about half 
the bulk of fine black at $1.00 per pound. Where the black will yield color 
for 1000 impressions, the vermilion red will be used-up with about 350 
impressions. The value of the red color, extending capacity considered, is 
about ten times as great as that of fine black. 

Lake red, a deep crimson, is inferior to black in extension, but will give 
treble the service of ordinar}' vermilion. It is too expensive for most bold 
work, or for flat surfaces, nor does it produce as good an effect as pure 
vermilion. It is largely used for fine work, for which it is well fitted. 

Carmine, an intense and glowing crimson, is but little inferior to the 
finest black in extending properties. It is one of the most expensive colors, 
and can be used to profit and with effect only on light and open work. 
For flat and solid work, the effect produced is but little superior to tliat of 
the finer lakes, and is seldom worth the extra cost. 

Posters. — The value of red ink at $1.00 per pound, that will be used and 
wasted in printing 1000 posters, 12 X 19 inches, may be rated at $3.00; on 
1000 posters 19 X 24 inches, the value of color may be estimated at $5.00 and 
$6.00 per 1000 ; on a poster, 24 X 38 inches, at $9.00 and $12.00 per 1000. 
The color is weak, and the use of light or bold-faced type will maJce serious 
differences in the consumption of color. On double medium posters, the 
value of the color may be averaged at $1.00 per 100 impressions. 

Flat Surfaces. A flat label 9 X 14 inches, with ordinary amount and 
size of lettering cut for white, such as is used for soap boxes, etc., will con- 
sume of i)ure red ink at $1.00 per pound, at the rate of $4.50 and $5.00 per 
1000 impressions. If the plate is flat, without lettering, at the rate of $6.00 
per 1000 impressions. A flat tint poster for paper 19 X 24 inches, with let- 
ters cut in white as above, will use of red ink at $1.00 per pinmd, that has 
been somewhat thiimed with varnish, at the rate of $9.00 and $10.00 per 1000 
impressions. If pure color is used, it will consume color to the amount of 
$14.00 or $15.00. A flat tint poster for paper 24 X 38 inches, cut on pine, 
with lettering as above, will consume of red ink at $1.00 per pound, tliinned 
with varnish, at the rate of $18.00 and $25.00 per 1000 impressions. If dry 
paper is used, as is necessary for registered work it could not be rated at 
less than $20.00 ; for damp paper, carefully managed, it may be less than 
$18.00, but this is unusual. 



PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING. 47'^ 

All these estimates for colors must be used with discretion. Much will 
de[)end upon the workman. A neat and capaVjle pressman, who lias experi- 
ence in use of colors and who knows when and how to dilute color to 
advantage, can do work at somewhat less cost than is here stated ; a care- 
less or inexpert pressman will use much more ink than is here allowed. 

Black, red and blue are tlie colors in greatest request, and the only ones 
probably that need remarks on their extending properties. Some observa- 
tions on other colors may be of service. 

Yellow is used chietiy for shades, tints, and picture work, or as a mix- 
ing color to lighten the tones of dark greens or browns. As a shade for 
blacks it is quite effective. It is too feeble a color to be used unsupported, 
as the body color for type work. As a Hat tint, it will bear niucli extension 
without deterioration, and for this purpose may be considered an economical 
color. 

Brown is made in great variety of shades, and of very unequal value. 
Upon fine type, the cheaper qualities of brown do not work freely, and 
they give much trouble to the pressman. A really fine bright or deep 
brown that will work freely is an expensive color. An estimate made for 
such color should be the same as for fine lake red. 

Geeen is made in many shades, most of which are sold at moderate 
prices. The pea green and apple green are weak colors, and require an 
unusual quantity of Ink to produce the proper effect. The dark greens 
are colors of good extending properties, and of great permanency. 

Aniline Colors. — Within a few years many new colors of exceeding 
beauty and brilliancy have been introduced, which are known as aniline 
colors. They comprise many varieties of color, the most popular of which 
are intense purple, claret, and j)ink. Tliey work freely and smoothly, and 
even surpass carmine in extending properties. But they lack permanency. 
All aniline colors, so far as the writer's experience extends, are fugitive, 
and fade readily on exposure to light. For elegant and epliemeral work, 
like ball tickets, notices and circulars, they are of great service. But 
they should never be used on any job that will receive much exposure to 
light, like a sliow card, or on notes, stock certificates, or work that may 
be preserved for months or years. ISTor should they be used to make tint 
colors. 

Purple made of carmine and blue is not so bright, but is more durable 
than the aniline purple. But all purples are transitory colors ; where they 
do not fade, tliey soon lose their brilliancy. 

White Inks are used almost exclusively for making tints. For com- 
mon work, the lower grades may be used ; for fine or even ordinary good 
work, it will be found most economical to use that sold at the highest price. 
The mixing of colors, to produce another color or a variation in tint, should 
be done with great caution, and only in small quantities, until the right ef- 
fect is produced. Some colors are pure minerals, some are vegetable ex- 
tracts, and some are composed of animal matter; some are mixed with one 
kind of oil or varnish ; some are mixed with an entirely different substance ; 
and some are entirely devoid of all oil or varnish. To produce the needed 
qualities, ink makers find it necessary to use a great variety of chemicals. 
That which is essential to one color is destructive to another. Whoever 
undertakes to mix inks together without a knowledge of their constituents, 
is liable to mix incompatible substances. When these constituents have a 
mutual antipathy either the color will be spoiled, or the mixture will work 
badly on the rollers and type. 

In mixing tints, of which the body is white ink, the tinting color 
should be added to the wliite, and gradually increased until the mixture is 
of satisfactory shade. If white is added to the tinting color, by an inex- 
pert, it is more tlian probable that an unnecessary amount will be mixed, 
and much good color spoiled. Very little dark color is needed to tint wliite. 

To use bright colors with economy, absolute cleanliness is of the first 
importance. The form, the rollers and the distributing table must be so free 



476 PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING. 

from ink and dust, tliat tliey will not soil soft white paper, which should be 
used as a test before applying fine color. On fine work, the merest trifle 
of black or dark ink will dim tlie brightness of any light color, while a 
badly washed roller or dirty form will ciiange the color completely. 

On all flat surfaces, ink' must be thinned to secure freedom of working, 
as well as economy. Varnish, boiled oil, turpentine, benzine and magne- 
sia, are used for this purpose. Pressmen of experience can apply these 
materials to extend the color with economy, and without injury to the work. 
Those who are inexpert should use them with great caution. An ounce too 
much of any of these materials may spoil a pound of color. 

Estimates cannot be given for the amount of color used on show cards 
with flat tintti. When great depth and brilliancy of color is wanted, it is 
often necessary to use extra colors, and sometimes the tint is printed twice 
in same or similar color, one color over the other, after the first color is 
dry. 

Printing in colors is really but a method of painting. "When a color is 
weak, one coat of paint will not produce the effect. Carriage or cabinet work 
is always treated with many coats of color or varnish. This usage can be 
imitated to some extent with marked success and economy in printing bright 
colors. Feeble colors, like pale greens or pale vermilions, when printed 
twice show a softness and smoothness that can be secured in no other way. 
On rich and bright colors, the effect is sometimes as good as that of the 
best flock or velvet work. For the first coat of color a cheaper ink may 
be used. Pale vermilion over orange red is of better effect than two 
printings of vermihon ; carmine over deep vermilion is better than two 
printings of carmine. When such methods are used, more than double 
price inust be charged. The work is unavoidably tedious, and superior 
presses of infallible accuracy of register are indispensable. 

Too frequent washing up of rollers wastes ink seriously. Color should not 
be laid on until everything is clean, and should be added with great caution 
until the right tone is secured. 

Presswork in colored inks must always be at higher price than in black. 
There are two kinds of colored ink in which the amount of color used is trivial, 
and the cost per pound of the bright color is the same as that of black. 
But the covering capacity of the bright color is usually much less, so that 
its actual cost is really more. 

The cost of the color is not the only consideration that should determine 
the price. Black ink is the standard color, with which all press fountains 
are filled. To use bright color, it is necessary to change the ink in tlie 
fountain, and to cleanse all the rollers. This takes time and adds to tlie 
expense, which expense should be assessed upon the work. Request is 
sometimes made, on tinted envelopes and similar work, for a variety of tints. 
Every added color should consequently be at extra price. 

Ink of bright color requires newer and better rollers than black. On 
really fine work, the rollers are rapidly destroyed. When a press carries 
six or more rollers, this rapid waste is a serious extra expense. If they are 
a trifle too hard, or too soft— faults that could be corrected or overlooked 
on black — they cannot be used for colors. 

Colored inks usually compel the press to run at slower speed. There 
are kinds that work as smoothly as black, but they are exceptions. Some 
of the brightest and best colors are apt to clog the type and rollers, and re- 
quire frequent washing up. If really fine work or good colors are desired, 
a diminished speed for the press should always be considered in making an 
estimate for presswork in colors. 

Wliere much colored work is done, there should be a separate ink foun- 
tain for every decided color — one each for black, red, blue and yellow. 
There should also be separate cloth distributing rollers for each of tliese 
colors. By much waste of labor, it is possible to clean up a black ink 
fountain to' serve for red, but it is quite impossible to clean a clotli roller 
that has been used for black, so that it will serve for red. 



PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING. 477 

Small orders and light-faced forms may be printed with economy, by 
feeding on tlie ink with a palette knife or a braver, but it is difficult to 
maintain uniformity in color. For long editions, tiie ink will be used with 
more economy, and with better result, if it is fed from the fountain. 

The old method of pricing colored presswork was to charge double price 
for all colored ink, and treble price for bronze. As colors are better made 
now, and give less trouble, this rule cannot be considered as absolute in its 
application. Where the colors are cheap and easy working and tlie form is 
small and of light-faced type, an addition of one-half to tlie price of black 
work of the same class will be sufficient. In a few rare cases, one-fourth 
extra is enough. Where the form is full of bold type, as on a poster, double 
price may be insufficient. 

Work in Bronze should be rated at about tliree times the price of 
black of the same class. The ordinary quality of bronze is not expensive, 
but the mere labor of applying it, and of tlie subsequent dusting and press- 
ing of the sheets, is at least as great as that required for presswork in black. 
When bronze is used in quantity, treble price is not enough. 

Dry Color Work siiould be at least four times the price of black 
presswork of the same class. It is a disagreeable method of printing. 

Crystal or Spangled Work should be from six to eight times the 
price of black. 

Flock Work should be about five times the price of black. 

Every printer should keep a record of the time spent, and the value of 
ink consumed on every job of importance, witii such explanatory memo- 
randa as maj' be needed. Such a record will be of service in making sub- 
sequent estimates for work of like nature. 

The making of colored inks by printers is not to be recommended. The 
Apparently favorable results are always delusive. Ink-making is both a 
trade and an art, and one in which the novice has to pay dearly for his ex- 
perience. Those printers who have experimented most in this direction, 
and who know most about it, do not make, but buy tiieir inks.* 

Printers' Rollers. — No. 1, Black Composition, very durable and elastic. 
Genuine Irish or Buffalo glue, lOJ lbs. ; black sugar cane, or best maple mo- 
lasses, 1 gal. ; purified India rubber shavings, 1 lb. ; Carolina tar, 2 ozs. ; gly- 
cerine, 12 ozs. ; strong vinegar, 4 ozs. Soak the glue over night and drain 
in the morning by means of a covered colander. Boil molasses and skim 
for 20 minutes. Add the rubber shavings and stir until it combines with 
the molasses, add tlie glue and boil 6 or 7 minutes, and pour. If purified 
rubber cannot be procured add 1^ lbs. more glue and 4 ozs. more glycerine. 
No. 1 glue, 2 lbs. ; Baeder's glue, 2 lbs. ; best sugar house molasses, 1 gal. ; 
glycerine, -J- pint. For Wititer use, reduce each glue ^ to | of a lb. Soak 
the glues wrapped up separately in woollen cloths about three hours. Boil 
the molasses 45 or 50 minutes, skimming thorouglily. Then add the glues 
drained of superfluous water. Boil the whole for 15 or 20 minutes, add the 
glycerine, boil and stir 3 to 6 minutes, then pour off. No. 3, Strong Middle 
Weather Rollers. Temp. 60* to 70° Fahr. Cooper's best glue, 8^ lbs. ; ex- 
tra syrup, 2 gals. ; glycerine, 1 pt. ; Venice turpentine, 2 ozs. Steep the 
glue in rain water until pliant, and drain it well. Then melt it over a mod- 
erate fire, but do not " cook it." This will take from 16 to 25 minutes. 
Next put in the syrup, and boil f of an hour, stirring it occasionally and 
skimming off impurities arising to the surface. Add the glycerine and turpen- 
tine a few minutes before removing from the fire, and pour slowly. Slight- 
ly reduce or increase the glue as the weather becomes colder or warmer. 

Printing on Glass. — A Frenchman, named Wilbaux, has taken out a 
patent to use an elastic tj-pe for printing on glass with fluorspar rendered 
adhesive by some such material as mucilage or printers' ink ; sulphuric acid 
of suitable temperature is then allowed to act on that portion of the glasc. 

•This article is taken from Theo. L. de Vinnb's Price List, an excellent work (published 
by Francis Hart & Co., New York), that should bo in the hands of every printer. 



478 PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING. 

The hydrofluoric acid generated iii tliis way would etch the glass on the 
places printed on. When completed, the whole is washed off with warm 
water and lye. 

Liquid fok Brightening Common Qualities of Black or Color- 
ed Inks. — Deniar varnish, 1 oz. : balsam fir, ^oz.; oil bergamot, 25 drops ; 
balsam of copaiba, 35 drops; creosote, 10 drops ; copal varnish, 50 drops. 
Use in small quantities. The whites of fresh eggs are also brighteners of 
colored inks, but they must be ai)plied a little at a time, as tliey dry very 
hard, and are apt to take away the suction of rollers if used for an3' extend- 
ed period. 

Good Reducing Dryer. — Brown's (genuine) Japan. Use in small 
quantities. Hardening Gloss for Inks. — Gum arable dissolved in alcohol or 
a weak dilution of oxalic acid. Use in small quantities, and mix with the 
ink as the latter is consumed. 

To Give Dark Inks a Bronze or Changeable Hue. — Dissolve IJ 
lbs. gum sliellac in 1 gal. 65 per cent, alcoliol or cologne spirits for 24 houi-s. 
Then add 14 oz. aniline red. Let it stand a few hours longer, when it will 
be ready for use. Add this to good blue, black, or other dark ink, as need- 
ed in quantities to suit, when if carefully done they will be found to have 
a rich bronze or changeable hue. 

On Wood Cuts and New Wood Type. — Wood cuts should never be 
washed witli lye or water, benzine or camphine only should be used. Large 
Avood letters, when new, should be soaked in a mixture of turpentine and 
thin boiled linseed oil over night, and taken out of the bath in the morn- 
ing, and then wiped clean. Let them stand awhile to absorb what oil, etc., 
may not have been removed by wiping, then ink them well. After they 
stand a few hours wash them with benzine. 

To Marble Books or Paper. — Provide a wooden trough 2 inches deep 
and the length and width of any desired slieet; boil in a brass or copper 
pan any quantity of linseed and water until a thick mucilage is formed ; 
strain it into the trough, and let cool ; then grind on a marble slab any of 
the following colors in small beer. For Blue. — Prussian blue or indigo. 
Red. — Rose-pink, vermilion, or drop lake. YpIIow. — King's yellow, yellow 
ochre, &c. White. — Flake white. Black. — Burnt ivory or lamp black. 
Broivn. — Umber, burnt do., terra di sienna, burnt do. Black, mixed with 
yellow or red, also makes brown. Green. — Blue and yellow mixed. Orange. 
— Red and yellow mixed. Purple. — Red and blue mixed. For each color 
j'ou must have two cups, one for the color after grinding, the other to mix 
it with ox-gall, which must be used to thin the colors at discretion. If too 
much gall is used, the colors will spread ; when they keep their place on 
the surface of the trough, when moved with a quill, they are fit for use. 
All things in readiness, the colors are successively sprinkled on the surfac^e 
of the mucilage in the trough with a brush, and are waved or drawn about 
with a quill or a stick, according to taste. When the design is just formed, 
the book, tied tightly between cutting boards of the same size is lightly 
pressed with its edge on tlie surface of the liquid pattern, and then with- 
drawn and dried. The covers may be marbled in the same way only let- 
ting the liquid colors run over them. In marbling paper the side of the 
paper is gently applied to the colors in the trough. The film of color in 
the trough may be as thin as possible, and if any remains after the marbling 
it may be taken off by applying paper to it before you prepare for marbling 
again. To diversify the effect.s, colors are often mixed with a little sweet 
oil before sprinkling them on, by which means a light halo or circle ap- 
pears around each spot. 

Bookbinders' Varnish. — Shellac, 8 parts ; gum benzoin, 3 parts ; gum 
mastic, 2 parts ; bruise, and digest in alcohol, 48 parts ; oil of lavender, ^ 
part. Or, digest shellac, 4 parts ; gum mastic, 2 parts ; gum dammer and 
white turpentine, of each, 1 y»art ; with alcohol (95 per cent.), 28 parts. 

Red Sprinkle for Bookbinders' Use. — Brazilwood (ground), 4 parts; 
alum, 1 part; vinegar, 4 parts; water, 4 parts. Boil until reduced to 7 



PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING. .]70 

parts, tlien add a quantity of loaf sugar and gum ; bottle for use. Blue.— 
Strong sulphuric acid, 8 oz. ; Spanish indigo, powdered, 2 oz. ; mix witii a 
bottle that will hold a quart, and place it in a warm bath to promote solu- 
tion. For use, dilute a little to the required color in a tea-cup. Black. — 
No better black can be procured than that made by the receipt for edge 
blacking, in this work, which see. Orange color. — Ground Brazilwood, 16 
parts ; annatto, 4 parts; alum, sugar, and gum arable, each 1 part ; water, 
70 parts, boil, strain and bottle. Purple. — Logwood chips ; 4 parts, pow- 
dered alum, 1 part ; soft water, 24 parts ; boil until reduced to 16 parts, and 
bottle for use. Green. — French berries, 1 part ; soft water, 8 parts. Boil, 
and add a little powdered alum, then bring it to the required shade of 
green, by adding liquid blue. Brown. — Logwood chips, 1 part ; annatto, 1 
part, boil in water, 6 parts ; if too light add a piece of copperas the size of 
a pea. 

Tree-Makble. — A marble in the form of trees maybe done by bending 
the boards a little pn the centre, using the same method as the common 
marble, having the covers previously prepared. The end of a candle may 
be rubbed on different parts of the board to form knots. Rice-M<irhle. — 
Color the cover with spirits of wine and turmeric, then place on rice in a 
regular manner, throw on a very fine sprinkle of copperas water till the 
cover is nearlj' black, and let it remain till dry. The cover may be spotted 
with the red liquid or potash-water, very freely, before the rice is thrown 
off the boards. Spotted Marble for Books, etc. — After the fore-edge of the 
book is cut, let it remain in the press, and throw on linseeds in a regular 
manner, sprinkle the edge with any dark color till the paper is covered, 
then shake off the seeds. Various colors may be used ; the edge may be 
colored with j-ellow or red before throwing on the seeds, and sprinkling 
with blue. The seeds will make a fine fancy edge when placed very tliick 
on different parts, with a few slightly thrown on the spaces between. 
Japan Coloring for Leather Book-covers, etc, — After the book is covered and 
dry, color the cover with potash-water mixed with a little paste : give 2 
good coats of Brazil wash, and glaze it ; put the book between the hands, 
allowing the boards to slope a little ; dash on copperas-water, then, with 
a sponge full of red liquid, press out, on the back and on different parts, 
large drops, which will run down each board and make a fine shaded red ; 
when the cover is dry, wash it over 2 or 3 times with Brazil wash to give it 
a brighter color. (See the imrious dyes for leather.) 

Gold Sprinkle for Books. — Put in a marble mortar h, oz. pure honey 
and one book of gold leaf, rub them well together until they are very fine, 
add \ pint clear water, and mix well together; when the water clears, pour 
it off, and put in more till the honey is all extracted, and nothing remains 
but the gold ; mix one grain of corrosive sublimate in a teaspoonful of 
spirits of wine, and when dissolved, put the same, together with a little gnm 
water, to the gold, and bottle for use. The edges of the book may l)e 
sprinkled or colored very dark, with green, blue, or purple, and lastly with 
the gold liquid in small or large spots, very regular, shaking the bottle 
before using. Burnish the edges when dry, and cover them witli paper to 
prevent the dust falling thereon. This sprinkle will have a most beautiful 
appearance on extra work. 

To Gild the Edges op Books. — Armenian bole, 4 parts ; sugar candy, 
1 part ; white of egg to mix. Apply this composition to the edge of the 
leaves, previously firmly screwed in the cutting-press ; when nearly dry, 
smooth the surface with the burnisher ; then take a damp sponge and pass 
over it, and with a piece of cotton wool take the leaf from the cushion and 
apply it to the work ; when quite dry, burnish, observing to place a piece 
of silver or India paper between the gold and the agate. 

Chinese Edge for Books. — Color the edge with light liquid blue 
and dry ; then take a sponge charged with vermilion and dab on spots ac 
wording to fancy ; next throw on rice, and finish the edge with dark Uquifl 
blue. 



480 



PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING. 



Quick Drter for Inks used on Bookbinders' Cases. — Beeswax, 1 
oz., gum arable (dissolved In sufficient acetic acid to make a thin mucilage), 
J oz., Brown Japan, i oz. Incorporate with 1 lb. of good Cut ink. To 
Renew a Hard Boiler. — Wasli the roller carefully with lye, cover the surface 
with a thin layer of molasses and lay it aside till the next morning, then 
wash it with water, and let it hang till dry enough for using. 

The terms folio, quarto, octavo, duodecimo, etc., indicate the number ol 
leaves into whicli a sheet of paper is folded. 

A sheet folded in 2 leaves is called a folio. 



A sheet folded in 4 leaves 
A sheet folded in 8 leaves 
A sheet folded in 12 leaves 
A sheet folded in 16 leaves 
A sheet folded in 18 leaves 
A sheet folded in 24 leaves 
A sheet folded in 82 leaves 



a quarto, or 4to. 

an octavo, or Svo. 

a 12nio. 

a IGrao. 

an 18mo. 

a 24mo. 

a 32mo. 




PAINTERS, P APER H ANGERS, &C. 

Useful Hints to House, Sign, Carriage and Fresco - 
Painters, Mixing Colors, Filling Compositions, Grain- 
ing, Staining, &c. 

Paint. — A composition used for coating wood, stones, and metal witli, 
for tlie purpose of protecting tliem against the effects of the atmospliere, 
and the ravages of time. The composition of paint is varied, according 
to the purpose to wliich it is put. White huuse-paint maj^ be made as 
follows :— Two quarts of skim-milk, 8 ozs. of fresh slaked ' lime, 6 ozs. of 
linseed oil, 2 ozs. of white Burgundy pitch, 3 lbs. of Spanish white. The 
lime must be slaked in water, exposed to the air, mixed in about i of 
the milk; the oil in which the pitch is previously dissolved must 
be added gradually, then the rest of the milk, and afterwards the Span- 
ish wliite. This quantity is sufficient for 27 square yards, and the 
expense will not exceed a shilling. To make a cheap paint impervious to the 
weather :— Dissolve eight pounds of glue in boiling water, and witli this 
slake a bushel of quicklime until it becomes of the usual consistence of paint. 
Lay on 3 coats of this mixture with a painter's brush, taking care that each 
coat is dry before it is succeeded by another ; over the third dust sand or 
grey-stone dust from a dredger. By mixing ochre with the wash, any- 
color desired may be obtained. It may be made green by mixing common 
blue and yellow ochre, and applying them hot. For a green paint for garden 
stands, i^-c. .• — Mix a quantity of mineral green and white lead, ground in tur- 
pentine, with a small portion of turpentine varnish for the first coat ; for 
the second, put as much varnish in the color as will produce a good gloss. 
To obtain a substitute for oil-paint: — Pour a gallon of boiling water upon a 
pound of quicklime and 2 ozs. of sugar of lead. When the lime has become 
completely slaked, the mixture is to be stirred, and it is tiien fit for use. If 
required thicker, less water must be used. Coloring ingredients may be 
added at will. This composition is about one-twelfth less in cost than that 
of oil-paint, and possesses almost equal efficacy and beauty. When expos- 
ed to the weather, it requires one coat or foil to protect it. 

Painting Houses, Best Season for.— The outsides of houses should be 
painted during autumn or winter. Hot weather injures the paint by drying 
in the oil too quickly, and causing the paint to come off easily. But when 
the paint is laid on during cold weather, it hardens in drying, and is firmly 
set. The painting of the interior of houses should be regulated by the con- 
venience of the occupants. If possible, they should endeavor to escape 
the annoyance by going out of town ; but if that is not practicable, the 
painting should be done at such a season as will allow them to be a good 
deal out of doors, so as to escape the unpleasant consequences as much as 
possible. It is hardly necessary to say that while the painting is proceeding 
the furniture of the rooms should be carefully covered up. Birds, rabbits, 
and other domestic pets should also be removed from its influence, as, in 
many instances, the smell, to these animals, is sufficient to occasion disease 
and even death. If the interior of a house is properly painted in the 

21 481 



482 PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 

first instance, it will last for very many years, and obviate the necessity of 
repainting during a moderately long tenancy. 

Window Painting. — Tlie windows of a house may he verj' appropriately 
decorated, with the aid of a recent invention, termed diaphanie, wliich is 
a beautiful and inexpensive art, combining economy witii jierfect results. 
In carrying out tliis process, a peculiar kind of paper is rendered perfectly 
transparent, upon wliicli designs are painted in glass colors, wliich will not 
cliange with tiie iiglit. The paper is api)lied to tlie glass witli clear white 
varnisli, and wlien dry, a preparation is finally applied, wliich increases the 
transparency and adds tenfold brilliancy to the effect. There is another 
design, painted in imitation of half-ligiit ; this is used principally for a ground 
covering the whole surface witii glass, within which (the neccessary spaces 
having been cut out before it is stuck on the glass) are placed medallion 
f;entres of Watteau figures, perfectly transparent, which derive increased 
ijrilliancy from the semi-transparency of the surrounding ground. This is 
'oy far the cheapest method, though involving extra trouble. To ascertain 
the number of designs required, measure the glass carefully, and then calcu- 
late how many sheets of the transparent designs it will take. The sheets 
are arrange so that they can be joined together continously, or cut to any 
size or shape. Choose a fine day for the operation, as the glass should be 
perfectly dry and unaffected by the iiuniidity of the atmosphere. If possi- 
ble, it is more convenient to work upon the glass before it is fixed in the frame. 
If you are operating on a piece of unattached glass, lay it on a flat table, or 
marble slab, over which must be previously laid a piece of baize, or cloth 
to keep the glass steady. The glass being thus fixed, clean and polish the 
surface on which you intend to operate (on windows this is the inner side), 
then with the brush lay on it a thick and even coat of the prepared varnish ; 
let this dry for an hour, more or less, according to the state of the atmos- 
phere and the thickness of the coat of varnisli. Meantime, cut out and 
trim tl'.e designs carefully to fit the glass ; then lay on a piece of paper, face 
lownwards, and damp the back of it with a sponge, applied several times,to 
equalize the moisture. In this operation, arrange the time, so tiiat the de- 
signs may be left finally to dry for a quarter of an hour before application 
to the glass, the varnish on which will have become sticky, and in a proper 
state to receive the designs. Apply the painted side next to the glass with- 
out pressure ; endeavor to let the sheet fall perfectly level and smooth on the 
glass, so that you may avoid leaving creases, which would spoil the wiiole. 
Take now your palette, lay it flat on the design, and press out all the air 
bubbles, comn.iencing in the centre, and working them out from the sides. 
An ivory stick will be found useful in removing the creases. The work is 
now to be left to dry, and after 24 hours, ajiply a slight coat of liqueur dia- 
jihane, leaving it for another day, when, if dry, apply a second coat of the 
same kind as the first, which must be left undisturbed for several daj's ; 
finally apply a coat of varnish over all. If these directions are carefully 
followed, the glass will not be affected, either bj' time or the variations of 
weather; and it can be washed in the same manner as ordinary stained 
glass, to which in some respects it is superior. The materials used in the 
practice of this art may be obtained of any artists' colorman. 

Painted Glass, to Preserve. — As painted glass is generally protected 
by grating, it cannot be cleaned on the outside ; in consequence of which, 
long continued damp produces a diminutive moss or lichen, which absolute- 
ly decomposes the substance of the glass. This evil would be in a great 
measure prevented by removing the grating annually, and carefully wiping 
away the mouldy moss when it begins to ajipear. It is remarkable that this 
disease prevails in some situations more than others. Painted glass has 
been known to remain in a dr}' situation for centuries uninjured, but on 
being removed into a moist and foggy atmosphere has lost almost all its 
beauty in 20 or 30 j'ears. 

Paint, to Remove the Smell OF.^Tlie smell of paint, besides being very 
disagreeable, is liable to produce headache, sickness, &c.. and sometimes 



PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 483 

occasion even more serious maladies. To remove tlie smell of paint from 
rooms, &c., both of the following methods will be found efficacious : — Place 
a vessel filled with lighted charcoal in the middle of the room, and throw on 
it 2 or 3 iiandfuls of juniper-berries, close tiie windows, chimney, and the 
door; 24 hours afterwards the room may be opened, wlien it will be found 
that tlie sickly implcasant smell is entirely gone. The smoke of the juni- 
per-berry possesses the advantage of leaving uninjured the tapestry, cur- 
tains, and other furniture of the room. Or fill 3 or 4 new tubs witli about 
8 gallons of water, and an ounce of vitriolic acid, and place them in the 
newly painted room, near the wainscot; the water will absorb and retain 
the efiluvia from the paint in three days, but the water should be renewed 
each day during that time. — 

Useful Hints to Painters. — Painters' Colic. To 2^ gals, spruce or 
table beer add 1 drachm of sulphuric acid, mij( well and let it stand 3 hours. 
A tiunbler full 2 or 3 times per day is said to be very beneficial in cases of 
lead colic. Sweet oil and milk are also good, but acid, fruits, spirituous 
liquors, and vinegar should be avoided in every illness caused by paint. 
Avoid inhaling the dust when handling dry colors, or drinking water 
which has stood long in a painted room or paint shop. Never eat or 
sleep without wasliing the hands and face, and rinsing the mouth, cleaning 
well out under the nails. Eathe the whole body every few days, av(nd 
spattering your clothes, and eitiier wear overalls or change your garments 
every week, well airing tho.se you put off. Keep your paint shop clean, 
well ventilated, and avoid sleeping in it at any time. To Remove Paint 
from Clothing. Saturate the spots with equal parts turpentine and spirits 
of ammonia until they become soft, then wash out with soapsuds. To dis- 
solve Paint Skins, Cleaninys of Pots, Brusltes, ^-c. Save them carefully, and 
dissolve them by boiling them in oil. To Clean Brushes. Use turpentine 
first, then wash in warm soapsuds. To Clean Paint Pails, ^-c. Use strong 
lye, hot. Sanding. The jierforated sprinkler of a watering pot attached 
to the nozzle of a pair of bellows, is a first-rate contrivance for applying 
sand to painted work. Apply on the fourth or fifth coat, with another coat 
on the sand. To remove old putty, apply nitric or muriatic acid. 

House Painting. — Priming, apply as thick as the paint will spread 
easily, rubbing out well with the brush. Use litharge as a dryer. After 
sandpapering and dusting, putty up all the nail heads and cracks with a 
putty -knife. Outside second Coat. Mix your paint with raw oil, using it as 
thick as possible, consistent witii easy spreading. After it is applied, cross- 
smooth the work until it is level and even, then finish lengthwise with long 
lightsweeps of the brush. Outside third Coat. Make a little thinner than tlie 
last, rub out well, cross-smooth and finish very lightly with the tip of tlie 
brush. Inside second Coat. Mix your paint as tliick as you can work it, 
using equal parts of raw oil and turpentine, rub this out well and carefully 
with the brush, cross-smooth and finish even and nice. Inside third Coat. 
Mix with 3 parts turpentine and 1 part of raw oil, rub out well and smooth 
off with great care. Fourth Cont Flatting. Mix with turpentine alone tliin 
enough to admit of spreading before it sets. Apply quiidily without cross- 
smoothing, and finisii lengthwise with light touches of the tip of the brush, 
losing no time, as it sets rapidly. Drawn Flatting. Ground white lead is 
mixed with turpentine almost as thin as the last-named mixture. The 
lead will soon settle and the oil and turpentine rise to the top, pour it off, 
and repeat the mixture until what rises to the top is clear turpentine. The 
oil being all withdrawn by this process, the lead is mixed with turpentine, 
and applied thickly and evenly with great care. This is used as a fourth 
coat, and the room must be kept shut and free from draught, as the color 
sets as fast as it is put on. See Porcelain Finish for Parlors. Plastered 
Walls. Give them a coat of glue size before painting in oil. Killing Smoky 
Walls or Ceilinijs. Wash over the smoky or greasy walls with nitre, soda, 
or thin lime whitewash, the last is tlie best. 

Hard Drying Paint. — Grind Venetian red or any other color you 



48 i painters; paper hangers, &c. 

wish, in boiled oil; tlien thin it with black japan. It will dry very hard 
for counter tops, &c. 

Paste for Paper Hangings, Books, Paper Boxes, &c. — Good wheat 
flour, sifted, 4 lbs., make it into a stiff batter witii cold water in a pail, beat 
it well to break the lumps, then add pulverized alum, 2 ozs. Into this pour 
boiling water, hissing hot from the fire, stirring tlie batter tlioroughly all 
the time. As it CQ/)ks it swells and loses its white color, and when cold, will 
make about ^ (>f a pail of thick paste. Thin witli cold water to adapt 
it for eas}' use" with the brush. For painted or varnished walls, add 
J oz., pulverized resin to each 2 qts. paste, and reduce the mass witii thin 
gum arable or glue water. A little pulverized corrosive sublimate will 
enhance the keeping qualities of paste, but alum used as above Mill do very 
well. 

To Remove Old Paint. — Sal soda, 2 lbs. ; lime, I lb. ; hot Avater, 1 gal. ; 
riunmage all together and apply to the old paint while warm. It will soon 
loosen tlie paint so that you can easily remove it. Anotlier simple method 
is to sponge over yoiir old paint with benzine, set it on fire, and you 
can tlien flake off tlie paint as quick as you like. Do not attempt to go 
over too nmch surface at a time otherwise you might get more to do than 
you can attend to. 

Refuse Paint and Paint Skins. — Dissolve sal soda, ^ lb., in rain water, 
1 gal. ; cover the refuse paint for 2 days, then heat it, adding oil to reduce 
it to a proper consistence for painting and straining. 

To Use Smalts. — For a gold lettered sign, lay out on a lead color or 
white surface tlie line of letters, and rougidy size the shape of each letter 
with Jut oil size. Tiiis must be allowed at least 12 hours to get tacky and 
ready for gilding. After the gold leaf is laid and perfectly dry, mix up 
(for blue smalts) Prussian blue and keg lead with oil, adding a little dryer. 
Outline carefully around the letters, and fill up all the outside with blue 
paint ; then with a small sieve sift on the smalts, allowing the sign to lay 
horizontally. Cover every part with plenty of smalts, and allow it to 
remain unmolested until the paint is dry. Then carefully shake off the 
surplus smalts, and tlie work is done. 

To Harden Whitewash. — To | pail common whitewash add ^ pint of 
flour. Pour on boiling water in quantity to thicken it. Then add 6 gals. 
of the lime water, and stir well. 

Whitewash that will not Rub Off. — Mix up half a pailful of lime 
and water, ready to put on the wall ; then take ^ pt. flour, mix it up with 
water ; then pour on it boiling water, a sufficient quantity to thicken it ; 
then pour it while hot into the whitewash, stir all well together, and it 
is ready for use. 

Whitewash. — The best method of making a whitewash for outside 
exposure is to slake ^ bushel of lime in a barrel, add 1 lb. of common salt, 
^ lb. of the sulphate of zinc, and a gallon of sweet milk. Any desired color 
may be imparted to whitewash by adding coloring matter to suit. See 
Comjjotmd Colors. 

For Knotting. — One pint of vegetable naphtha, 1 tablespoonful of red 
lead, ^ pint of japanners' gold size, 7 ozs. of orange shellac, mix all togetlier 
set in a warm place to dissolve, and frequently shake. Another. — Mix white 
lead, or red lead powder, in strong glue size, and apply it warm. 

White Lead. — The most usual method of manufacturing white lead is 
that known as the Dutch method. It consists in exposing lead, cast in thin 
gratings, to the combined action of acetic acid, moist air and carbonic acid 
gas. The gratings are supported a little above the bottom of earthen pots, 
similar to flower pots, in each of which a small quantity of weak acetic acid 
is placed. The pots are built up in alternate layers with spent tanners' 
bark, until a stack is formed, each layer of ]>ots being covered with a 
board. Fermentation soon takes place in tlie tan, and serves the double 
place of generating heat and sii]»plying carbonic acid. After the lapse of 
six or eight weeks, the metallic lead is found converted into while masses 



PAINTtlRS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 485 

of carbonic mixed with liydrated oxide. It is then levigated, washed, dried, 
and groimd witli oil. 

To Cure Damp Walls. — Boil 2 ozs. of grease with 2 quarts of tar, for 
nearly twenty minutes, in an iron vessel, and have ready pounded glass, 1 
lb., slaked lime, 2 lbs., well dried in an iron pot and sifted through a 
flour sieve ; add some of tlie lime to tlie tar and glass, to make it the thick- 
ness of thin paste, sufficient to cover a square foot at a time, as it hardens 
so quick. Apjily it about an eighth of an inch tliick. 

To Protect Wood and Brick avork from Damp Weather. — Take 3 
pecks of lime, slaked in the air, 2 pecks of wood-ashes, and 1 peck of 
white sand. Sift tliem fine, and add linseed oil sufficient to use with a paint 
brush: thin the first coat ; use it as thick as it will work for the second 
coat, grind it fine, or beat it in a trough, and it is a good composition. 

Putty for Repairing Broken AValls. — The best putty for walls is 
composed of equal parts, of whiting and plaster of j)aris, as it quickly harde»is. 
Tiie walls may be immediately colored upon it. Some painters use whiting 
with size; but this is not good, as it rises above the surface of the walls, and 
shows the patches when the work is finished. Lime must not be used as putty 
to repair walls, as it will destroy almost every color it comes in contact with. 

Transparent Painting on Window Shades. — The muslin is spread on 
a frame and secured tiglitly witii tacks, then sized with a mixture of fine 
flour paste, white glue, and and white bar soap ; the soap renders the 
n)uslin pliable and soft. A tliin coat is applied, which is nearly invisible 
when dry. A coat of pure linseed oil, diluted with spirits of turpentine, is 
then a]iplied, to tlie whole, or part, as desired, lay it on quickly and smoothly, 
to insure an even transparent surface. The colors used are, ivory black, 
ultramarine, Paris green, sienna uml)er, verdigris, asphaltum, or other suit- 
able colors. An outline of the design is drawn witli a small pencil with black 
or umber, after which tlie colors may be applied, more or less diluted, as 
more or less transparency is desired. In general, the brightest colors sliould 
be applied first, and tlie darker sliades over them. These colors must be 
laid evenly and smootiily witli soft brushes, and should any part be made 
too dark, the best way is to scrape off with a stick before tlie color gets too 
dry. The best designs for shades consists of landscape views, and should 
alwa3's be designed to acconmiodale the form and position of the ground 
on which they are drawn. Stencils will be found useful on this work, in 
making ciorners of stripes for borders. 

To Paint Magic Lantern Slides. — Transparent colors only are used 
for this work, such as lakes, sap-green, ultramarine, verdigris, gamboge, 
asphaltum, &c., mixed in oil, and tempered with light colored varnish 
(white Demar). Draw on the paper tlie design desired, and stick it to the 
glass with water or gum ; then with a fine pencil put the outlines on the 
opposite side of the glass with the ])roper colors; then shade or till up with 
black or Vandyke brown, as you lind best. 

Marine Paint for Metals in Salt Water. — Red lead, 55 parts ; 
quicksilver, 80 parts ; thick turpentine, 7 parts. Mix with boiled linseed 
oil to the proper consistency. The quicksilver must be thoroughly amal- 
gamated with the thick turpentine by grinding or rubbing, and this mixture 
must be ground with red lead and more boiled oil. As little oil as is neces- 
sary to make the paint la}' well must be used. To make the paint adhere 
more firmly, a previous coat of oxide of iron paint may be used. 

Crystal Varnish, for Maps, &c. — Canada balsam, 1 oz. ; spirits. of 
turpentine, 2 oz. ; mi.x together. Before ajiplying this varnish to a draw- 
ing or colored print, the jinper should l)e placed on a stretcher, and sized 
with a thin solution of isinglass in water, and dried. Apply with a soft 
camel's hair brush. 

Best Wash for Barns and Houses. — Water lime, 1 peck; freshly 
slacked lime, 1 peck ; yellow ochre in ])o\vder, 4 lbs. ; burnt umber, 4 lbs. 
To be dissolved in hot water, and applied with a brush. 

Durable Outside Paint. — Take 2 parts (in bulk) of water lime. 



486 PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, AC 

ground fine ; 1 part (in bulk) of white lead, in oil. Mix them thorough]}', 
by adding best boiled linseed oil, enough to pre{)are it to pass througii a 
paint-mill ; after wiiich, temper witli oil till it can bo applied witii a com- 
mon paint brush. Make any color to suit. It will last 3 times as long as 
lead paint. It is Superior. 

Farmers' Paint. — Farmers will find the following ])rofitable for house 
or fence paint: skim milk, two quarts, fresh slaked lime, 8 oz. ; linseed 
oil, 6 oz. ; white Burgundy pitch, 2 oz. ; Spanisli white, 3 lbs. The lime is 
to be slaked in water, exposed to the air, and then mixed with about one- 
fourth of milk; tjie oil in wliich the pitch is dissolved to be added a little 
at a time, then the rest of the milk, and afterwards the Spanish white. 
This is sufficient for twenty-seven yards, 2 coats. This is for wiiite paint. 
If desirable, any other color may be produced ; tims, if a cream color is 
desired, in place of part of the Spanisli white use the other alone. 

To Paint Banners, etc., on Cloth or Silk. — Stretcli the fabric upon 
a frame, and finish your design and lettering. Use a size made of bleached 
siiellac dissolved in alcohol, thinned to the proper consistence, go over 
such parts as are to be gilded or j)ainted, overrunning the outlines slightly, 
to prevent the color from spreading. For inside work the wliite of an egg 
nifikes a good size ; lay the gold while the size is still wet, when dry dust off 
the surplus gold, and proceed with the shading, painting, &c. A little honey, 
combined witii thick glue, is another good size. 

Japanned Tin Signs. — Draw your letters on paper to suit your piece of 
tin, having first cleaned it with diluted alcohol and a piece of cotton. This 
will remove any grease or other matter that might hold the gold. Then 
take some whiting and rub it over the back of the paper upon which your 
design is made and lay it upon the japanned tin. Next place a weight upon 
the four corners of the paper, or otlierwise fix it securely to the tin ; then, 
with a fine pointed piece of wood, trace the design carefully, bearing upon 
the paper with the point just hard enough to cause the whiting on the under 
side of the jiaper to adhere to the tin, and after going carefully over the 
whole, you will have transferred the entire design in fine white outline to 
the tin you are to finish it upon. Now size with oil size, and, and when dry 
enough for gilding lay on the gold leaf and dab it down thoroughly, 
afterwards brushing off the loose gold with your flat camel-hair brush or 
cotton. 

Changeable Signs. — Make a wooden sign in the usual manner, and have 
a projecting moulding around it. Now cut thin grooves into the moulding, 
an inch apart, allowing each cut to reach to the surface of the sign. In each 
of these grooves .insert strips of tin one inch wide ; and long enough to reach 
quite across the sign board. When all are fitted, take out the tin strips, and 
j)lacing them edge to edge on a level table, paint any desired words on tlieir 
unitetl surface ; when dry reverse them and paint other words on the oppo- 
site side. Now finish your lettering as usual on the wooden sign board, and 
when dry, insert the painted tin strips in correct order in the grooves. This 
will present the curious novelty of three signs in one, as viewed from differ- 
ent positions. 

Transparent Cloth. — Dissolve together white resin, pulverized, 8 oz. ; 
bleached linseed, G oz ; white beeswax, 1^ ozs. ; add the turpentine while 
liot. Apply to both sides of the cloth while it is stretched tight. A good 
vehicle for mixing colors for painting on cloth or paper is gum shellac dis- 
solved in alcohol. 

Tinselled Letter Glass Signs. — Paint the ground-work of your sign 
on glass, any desired color, but be careful to leave the lettering or design 
naked, after it is dry, take any of the fancy colored copper or tin foils, 
crumple them in your hand and apply them over the black lettering, &c., 
after partially straightening them out. 

To Incrust Window Glass with Jewels. — Dissolve dextrine in a con- 
centrated solution of sulphate of magnesia, sulphate of zinc, sulphate of copper 
or other metallic salts, strain the liquid and brush a thin coat of it over the 



PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, AC. 487 

glass and dry slowly at tlie ordinarj^ temperature, keeping tlie glass level. 
For protection it may he variiislied. Tlie effect produced is that of an in- 
crustation of diamonds, sapphires, &.C., according to the color of the salt 
used. 

To Paint in Imitation of Ground Glass. — Grind and mix white lead 
in three-fourths of boiled oil and one-fourth spirits of turpentine, and to give 
the mixture a very drying quality, add sufficient quantities of burnt white 
vitriol and sugar of lead. The color must be exceedingly thin, and put on 
the panes of glass with a large sized paint brush in as even a manner as pos- 
sible. When a number of the panes are thus painted, take a dry duster, 
quite new, dab the ends of the bristles on the glass in quick succession, till 
you give it a utiiform appearance. Repeat this operation till the work ap- 
pears very soft, and it will then appear like ground glass. When glass 
requires fresh painting, get tlie old coat off, first by using strong pearl-asli 
water. Another Method. — Spirits of salts, 2 oz.; oil of vitriol, 2 oz. ; sulpliate 
of copper, 1 oz. ; gum arable, 1 oz. ; mix well together and dab on the glass 
with a brusli. Another. — Dab your squares regularly over with putty ; when 
dry go over them again. The imitation will be complete. 

Pencils fou Wbiting on Glass. — Stearic acid, 4 pts. ; mutton-suet, 3 
pts. ; wax, 2 pts. ; melt together and add 6 parts of red lead, and 1 pt. puri- 
fied carbonate of potassa', previously triturated together ; set aside for an 
Jiour in a warm situation, stirring frequently ; then pour into glass tubes or 
hollow reeds. 

French Putty. — Seven lbs. linseed oil, and 4 lbs. brown umber are 
boiled for two hours, and 62 grammes wax stirred in. After removal from 
the fire 5^ lbs. fine chalk and 11 lbs. white lead are added and thoroughly 
incorporated ; said to be very hard and permanent. 

Japan Drier, Best Quality. — Take linseed oil, 1 gal. ; put into it gum 
sliellac, ^ lb. ; litharge and burned Turkey umber, each ^ 11). ; red lead, i 
lb. ; sugar of lead, 9 oz. Boil in the oil till all are dissolved, which will 
require about 4 hours ; remove from the fire, and stir in spirits of turpen- 
tine, 1 gal., and it is done. 2. Linseed oil, 5 gals. ; add red lead and litharge, 
each Z\ lbs.; raw umber, li lbs, ; sugar of lead and sulphate of zinc, each, 
2 lb. ; pulverize all the articles together, and boil in the oil till dissolved ; 
when a little cool, thin with turpentine, 6 gals. 3. Linseed oil, 4 gals, red 
lead and umber, of each 8 oz. ; sulphate of zinc, 4 ozs. ; sugar of lead, 4 ozs. 
Boil until it will scorch a feather, when it is readj' for use. 4. Nut or lin- 
seed oil, 1 gal. ; litharge, 12 ozs. ; sugar of lead and white vitriol, of each, 1 
oz. ; simmer and skim until a pellicle forms ; cool, and, when settled, 
decant the clear. 5. Oil, 1 gal.; litharge, 12 to 10 oz. ; as last. 6. Old nut 
or linseed oil, 1 pint ; litharge, 3 oz. Mi.x ; agitate occasionally for 10 days ; 
then decant the clear. 7. Nut oil and water, of each, 2 lbs. ; white vitriol, 2 
ozs. ; boil to dryness. 8. Mix oil with powdered snow or ice, and keep it for 
2 months without thawing. 

To Reduce Oil Paint with Water. — Take 8 lbs. of pure unslaked lime, 
add 12 qts/ water, stir it and let it settle, turn it off gently and bottle it ; 
keep it corked till used. This will mix with oil, and in proportion of half 
will render paint more durable. 

Oil Paint. — To Reduce with Water. — Gum shellac, 1 lb. ; sal-soda, ^ 
lb. ; water, 3 parts ; boil all together in a kettle, stirring till dissolved. If 
it does not all dissolve, add a little more sal-soda; when cool, bottle for use; 
mix up 2 quarts of oil paint as usual, any color desired, using no turpentine ; 
put 1 pint of the gum shellac mixture with the oil paint when it becomes 
thick ; it can then be reduced with water to a proper thickness to lay on 
with a brush. 

Another Method. — Soft water, 1 gal. ; dissolve it in pearl-ash, 3 ozs. ; 
bring to a boil, and slowly add shellac, 1 lb. ; when cool it is ready to be 
added to oil paint in equal proportions. 

Flexible Paint for Canvas. — Yellow soap, 2^ lbs.; boiling water, 1^ 
gals. ; dissolve , grind the solution while hot with good oil pain' 1^ cwt. 



488 PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 

Painters' Cream. — Pale nut oil, 6 ozs. ; mastic, 1 oz. ; dissolve ; add of 
sugar of lead, ^ oz., previously ground in the least possible quantity of oil ; 
then add of water q. s. gradually, until it acquires the consistency of cream, 
working it well all tiie time. Used to cover the unfinished work of painters. 
It will wash off witii water. 

Smalt. — Roast cobalt ore to drive off tlie arsenic ; make the residuum 
into a paste with oil of vitriol, and heat it to redness for an hour; powder, 
dissolve in water, and precipitate the oxide of iron by carbonate of potash, 
gradually added until a rose-colored powder begins to fall ; then decant the 
clear, and precipitate by a solution of silicate of potash, prepared by fusing 
together for 5 liours a mixture of 10 parts of potash, 15 parts of finely-ground 
flints, and 1 part ciiarcoal. The precipitate, when dry, may be fused and 
])Owdered very fine. It is much tiie cheapest way to buy smalts ready 
made. 

Factitious Linseed Oil. — Fish or vegetable oil, 100 gallons ; acetate of 
lead, 7 lbs.; litharge, 7 lbs. ; dissolve in vinegar, 2 gallons. Well mixed 
with heat, then add boiled oil, 7 gallons ; turpentine, 1 gallon. Again well 
mix. 

Substitute for White Lead. — Sulpliate of barytes ground in oil and 
applied like paint. It can also be used to reduce wldte lead to any desired 
extent. 

Paint fo,r Black Boards in Schools. — Common glue, 4 ozs. ; flour of 
emery, 3 ozs. ; and just lampblack enough to give an inky color to the prep- 
aration Dissolve Ihe glue in ^ qt. of warm water, put in the lamp l)lack 
and emery, stir till there are no lumps, then apply to tiie board with a wool- 
len rag smootldy roiled. Tliree coats are amply sufficient. 

Compound Iron Paint. — Finely pulverized iron filings, 1 part ; brick 
dust, 1 part ; and ashes, 1 part. Pour over tliem glue-water or size, set the 
wliole near tlie fire, and, when warm, stir tiiem well togetiier. With this 
paint cover all tlie wood work which may be in danger; when dry, give a 
second coat, and the wood will be rendered incombustible. 

Filling Compositions — 12 kinds. — 1. Work finished in oil should re- 
ceive a substantial filling consisting of equal parts by weight of whiting, 
plaster of Paris, pumice-stone, and litharge, to which may be added a little 
Frencli yellow, asphaltuni, Vandyke brown, and terra di sienna. Mix with 
1 part japan, 2 of boiled oil, and 4 of turpentine. Grind fine in a mill. Lay 
tlie filling on with a brush, rub it in well, let it set 20 minutes, then rub off 
clean. Let it harden for some time, rub smooth, and if required, repeat the 
process. When the filling is all right, finish with linseed oil, applying with 
a brush, wipe off, and rub to a polish with fine cotton, and finish with any fine 
fabric. Some fill with rye flour, wheat flour, corn starch, Paris white, &c., 
ground fine in oil and turiientine, but when work is to be varnished, such 
filling should jireviously receive one or two good coats of shellac. 2. Boiled 
linseed oil, 1 qt. ; turpentine, 3 qts. ; corn starch, 5 lbs. ; japan, 1 qt. ; cal- 
cined magnesia, 2 ozs. Mix thoroughly. 3. Whiting, 6 ozs. ; japan, \ pt.; 
boiled linseed oil, | pt. ; turpentine, I pt. ; corn starch, 1 oz. : mix well 
together and apply to the wood. On walnut wood add a little burnt 
umber; on cherry a little Venetian red, to the above mixture. 4. On fur- 
niture apply a coat of boiled linseed oil, then immediately sprinkle dry 
whiting upon it, and rub it in well with your hand or a stiff brush, all over 
the surface; the whiting absorbs the oil, and fills the pores of the wood 
completely. For black walnut, add a little burnt umber to the whiting; 
for cherry, a little Venetian red, &c.. according to the color of the wood. 
Turned work can liave it a])plied while in motion in the lathe. Furniture 
can afterwards be finished with only one coat of varnish. 5. Terra nlba is 
a very good and very cheap filling. Many painters have been most shame- 
fully imposed on by parties selling the stuff at a high price. 6. Furniture 
Fakes. — Beeswax, spts. turpentine and linseed oil, equal parts ; melt and 
cool. 7. Beeswax, 4 ozs. ; turpentine, 10 ozs. ; alkanet root to color ; melt 
and strain. 8. Beeswax, 1 lb. ; linseed oil, 5 ozs. ; alkanet root, \ oz. ; melt 



PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 489 

and add 5 ozs. turpentine, strain and cool. 9. Beeswax, 4 ozs. ; resin, 1 oz.; 
oil of turpentine, 2 ozs. ; digest until sufficiently colored, then add 
resin till dissolved, then add beeswax scraped small, 4 ozs.; put the ves- 
sel into hot water, and stir till dissolved. If wanted pn/e the alkanet root 
should lie omitted. 10. (White.) Wiiite wax, 1 lb.; liquor of potassa, ^ 
gal. ; boil to a proper consistenc}'. 11. Beeswax, 1 lb. ; soap, J lb. ; pearl- 
asii, 3 ozs., dissolved in water, J gal. ; strain and boil as tlie last. 12. Yel- 
low wax, 18 parts ; resin, 1 part ; alkanet root, 1 part ; turpentine, 6 parts ; 
linseed oil, 6 parts. First steep the alkanet in oil with heat, and, when well 
colored, pour otf the clear on the other ingredients, and again heat till all 
are dissolved. 13. Furniture Cream. — Beeswa.x, 1 lb. ; soap, 4 ozs. ; pearl- 
ash, 2 ozs. ; soft water, 1 gal. : boil together until mixed. 

Polishes — 15 kinds. — 1. Carvers Polish. — White resin, 2 ozs.; seedlac, 
2 ozs. ; spirits of wine, 1 pt. Dissolve. It should be laid on warm. Avoid 
moisture and dampness when used. 2. French Polish. — Gum shellac, 1 oz. ; 
gum arable, I oz. ; gum copal, J oz. Powder, and sift through apiece of mus- 
lin ; put them in a closely corked bottle with 1 pt. spirits of wine, in a very 
warm situation, shaking every (/«j/ till the gums are dissolved ; then strain 
through muslin, andcorkfor use. 3. Polish for Dark-colored Woods. — Seedlac, 1 
oz.; gum guaiacum, 2 drs. ; dragon's blood, 2 drs. ; gum mastic, 2 drs. ; put in 
a bottle with 1 pt. spirits of wine, cork close, expose to a moderate heat till 
the gums are dissolved ; strain into a bottle for use, with \ gill of linseed 
oil ; shake together. 4. Waterproof Polish. — Gum benjamin, 2 ozs. ; gum 
sandarac, | oz. ; gum anima, ^ oz. ; spirits of wine, 1 pt. ; mix in a closely 
stopped bottle, and place either in a sand bath or in hot water till the gums 
are dissolved, then strain off the mixture, shake it up with ^ gill of the 
best clear poppy oil, and put it by for use. 5. Finishimj Polish. — Gum shel- 
lac, 2 drs. ; gum benjamin, 2 drs. ; put into \ pt. best rectified spirits of 
wine in a bottle closely corked ; keep in warm place, shaking frequently 
till the gums are dissolved. Wlien cold, shake up with it two teasjxionfuls 
of the best clear poppy oil. 6. Polish for Removing Stains, Spots, and Mildew 
from Furniture. — Take of 98 per cent, alcohol, ^ pint; pulverized resin an 1 
gum shellac, of each J oz. Let these cut in tlie alcohol ; then add linsee I 
oil, h pt. ; shake well, and apply with a sponge, brush, or cotton flannel, or 
an old newspaper, rubbing it well after the application, which gives a 
nice polish. 7. Polish for Reviving Old Furniture. — Take alcohol, 1| oz. ; 
spirits of salts (muriatic acid), \ oz. ; linseed oil, 8 ozs. ; best vinegar, \ pt.; 
and butter of antimony, \\ oz. ; mix, putting in the vinegar last. 8. Jet or 
Polish for Wood or Leather, Black, Red or Blue. — Alcohol (98 per cent.), 1 pt.; 
sealing wax, the color desired, 8 sticks ; dissolve by heat and have it warm 
when applied. A s.ponge is the best to apply it with. 9. Polish forTurners' Work. 
Dissolve sandarac, 1 oz., in spirit of wine, 3 pt. ; next shave beeswax, 1 oz.; 
and dissolve it in a sufficient quantity of spirits of turpentine to make it in- 
to a paste, add the former mixture by degrees to it, then with a woollen 
cloth apply it to the work while it is in motion in the lathe, and with a soft 
linen rag polish it. It will appear as if highly varnished. 20. Furniture 
Polish. — Beeswax, ^ lb., and ^ of an oz. of alkanet root; melt together in 
a pipkin until the former is well colored. Then add linseed oil and spirits 
of turpentine, of each half a gill ; strain through apiece of coarse muslin. 11. 
French Polishes. — 1. Shellac, 3 lbs.; wood naphtha, 3 pts.; dissolve. 2. Sliel- 
lac, 2 lbs. ; powdered mastic and sandarac, of each 1 oz. ; copal varnish, ^ 
pint; spirits of wine, 1 gal. Digest in the cold till dissolved. 12. Black 
Walnut Polish. — Take pulverized asphaltum ; put it in a jar or bottle, pour 
over it about twice its bulk of turpentine or benzole, put in a warm place, 
and shake occasionally ; when dissolved, strain, and appl}' it to the wood 
with a cloth or stiff brush ; should it prove too dark, dilute with turpentine 
or benzole. If desired to bring out the grain still more, appl,y a mixture of 
boiled oil and turpentine ; this is better than oil alone. Wiien the oil is 
dr}'-, the wood can be polished with the following: shellac varnish, 2 parts, 
boiled oil, 1 part ; shake it well before using. Apply with a cloth, rubbing 

21* 



490 PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 

briskly. 13. To Polish Wood. — Take. a piece of pumice-stone and water, 
and pass repeatedly over tlie work until tlie rising of the grain is cut down. 
Then take powdered tripoli and boiled lin.seed oil, and polish the work to a 
bright surface. 14. Clock Case and Picture Frame Finish. — Copal varnish 2 
lbs.; linseed oil varnish, ^ oz. : mi.x well, shako often, and place in a warm spot. 
The wood to be varnished is prepared with a thin coat of glue-water, and 
rubbed down with fine pumice-stone or something equivalent. In ligiit-col- 
ored wood, a light pigment, such as chalk, is added to the glue-water; in 
dark wood, a dark pigment is added. When ready, the articles are varnish- 
ed with the mixture, and, after drying, rubbed with a solution of wax in 
ether, therebj- receiving a high polish. 16. White Polish for White Woods. 
White bleached shellac, 3 ozs. ; white gum benzoin, 1 oz. ; gum sandarac, 
^ oz. ; spirits of wine or naphtha, 1 pt. Dissolve. 

Oil Finishes. — 1. Linseed oil, 16 ozs. ; black resin, 4 ozs. ; vinegar, 4 
ozs.; rectified spirits, 3 ozs.; butter of antimony, 10 ozs. ; spirit of salts, 2 
ozs. ; melt tiie rosin, add the oil, take it off the fire, and stir in the vinegar ; 
let it boil for a few minutes, stirring it ; when cool, put it into a bottle, add 
the other ingredients, shaking all together. 2. Linseed oil, 1 pt. ; oil of 
turpentine, I pt. ; rectified spirits, 4 ozs. ; powdered resin, 1| oz. ; rose pink, 
^ oz. ; nnx. " 3. Acetic acid, 2 drs. ; oil of lavender, J dr. ; rectified spirits, 
1 dr. ; linseed oil, 4 ozs. 4. Linseed oil, 1 pt. ; alkanet root, 2 ozs. ; heat, 
strain, and add lac varnish, 1 oz. 5. Linseed oil, 1 pt. ; rectified spirits, 2 
ozs. ; Ibutter of antimony, 4 ozs. 6. Linseed oil, 1 gal. ; alkanet root, 3 ozs.; 
rose pink, 1 oz. Boil them together ten minutes, and strain so that the oil 
be quite clear. 

Porcelain Finish, Very Fine for Parlors. — To prepare the wood for 
the finish, if it be pine, give one or two coats of transparent varnish, which 
prevents the pitch from oozing out, causing the finish to turn yellow ; next, 
give the room at least four coats of pure zinc, which maybe ground in only 
sufficient oil to enable it to grind properly; then mix to a proper consis- 
tence with turpentine or naphtha. Give each time to dry. When it is dry 
and hard, sandpaper it to a perfectly smooth surface, when it is ready to 
receive the finish, which consists of two coats of French zinc ground in, 
and thinned with Demar varnish, until it works properly under the brush. 

Silver Polish Kalsomine. — Take 7 lbs. of Paris white and | lb. of 
light-colored glue. Set the glue in a tin vessel containing 3 pts. of water, 
let it stand over night to soak, then put it in a kettle of boiling water over 
the fire, stirring till it is well dissolved and quite thin. Then, after putting 
the Paris white into a Large water pail, pour on iiot water and stir it till it 
appears like thick milk. Now mingle the glue liquid with the whiting, 
stir it thoroughly" and apply with a whitewash brush, or a large paint 
brush. 

Prussian Blue. — Take nitric acid, any quantity, and as much iron 
shavings from the lathe as the acid will dissolve ; heat the iron as hot as 
can be handled with the hand ; then add it to the acid in small quantities 
as long as the acid will dissolve it; then slowly add double the quantity of 
soft water that there was of acid, and put in iron again as long as the acid 
will dissolve it. 2d. Take prussiate of potash, dissolve it in the hot water 
to make a strong solution, and make sufficient of it with the first to give 
the depth of tint desired, and the blue is made. Another method. — A very 
passable Prussian blue is made by taking sulphate of iron (copperas) and 
prussiate of potash, equal parts of each; and dissolving each separately in 
water, then mixing the two waters. 

Chrome Yellow. — 1st. Take sugar of lead and Paris white, of each 5 
lbs.; dissolve them in hot water. 2d. Take bichromate of potash, 64^ oz. ; 
and dissolve it in hot water also ; eacli article to be dissolved separately ; 
then mix all together, putting in the bicliromate last. Let stand 24 hours. 

Chrome Green. — Take Paris white, G^ lbs. ; sugar of lead and blue 
vitriol, of each 3i lbs. ; alum, 10^ oz. ; best soft Prussian blue, and chrome 
yellow, of each 3| lbs. Mix thorougiily while in fine powder, and add water 



PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 491 

1 gal., stirring well, and let stand 3 or 4 hours. Another Green, durable and 
clieap. — Take spruce yellow, and color it witli a solution of chrome jellow 
and Prussian hlue, until you give it the shade you wisli. AnothrrMcihod. — 
Blue vitriol, 5 lbs. ; sugar of lead, 6-i lbs.; arsenic, 2| lbs. ; bicliromate of 
potasli, 1^ oz. ; mix them thoroughly in fine powder, and add water 3 parts, 
mixing well again and let stand 3 or 4 hours 

Pea Broavn. — 1st. Take sulpliate of cop[)er any quantity and dissolve it 
in hot water. 2d. Take prussiate of jiotasli, dissolve it in hot water to make 
a strong solution ; mix the two solutions, as in the blue, and tlie color is 
made. 

Rose Pink. — Take Brazil wood 1 lb., and boil it for 2 hours, having 1 gal. 
of water at tlie end ; then strain it, and boil alum, 1 lb., in the water until dis 
solved ; when sufficiently cool to admit the hand, add muriate of tin, ^ oz. 
Now have Paris white, 12^ lbs. ; moisten up to a salvy consistence, and 
when the first is cool, stir tliein thorouglily together. Let stand 24 hours. 

Patent Yellow. — Common salt, 100 lbs., and litharge, 400 lbs., an; 
ground together witii water, and for some time in a gentle lieat, water being 
added to supply the loss by evaporation ; tlie carbonate of soda is then 
wa'slied out with more water, and the white residuum heated till it acquires 
a fine yellow color. 

Naples Yellow. — No. 1. Metallic antimony, 12 lbs. ; red lead, 8 lbs. ; 
oxide of zinc, 4 lbs. Mix, calcine, triturate well together, and fuse in a 
crucible ; the fused mass must be ground and elutriated to a fine powder. 

Cheap Yellow Paint. — Wliiting, 3 cwt. ; ochre, 2 cwt. ; ground white 
lead, 25 lbs. Factitious linseed oil to grind. 

Stone Color Paint. — Road-dust sifted, 2 cwt. ; ground white lead, ^ 
cwt.; whiting, 1 cwt.; ground umber, 14 lbs.; lime water, G gals. Fac- 
titious linseed oil to grind. 

Glazier's Putty. — Wliiting, 70 lbs.; boiled oil, 20 lbs. Mix; if too 
thin, add more whiting ; if too thick, add more oil. 

To Imitate Brown Freestone, — First make a pretty thick oil paint 
of the same color as the stone to be imitated, which may be done in differ- 
ent ways ; the basis is white lead or zinc white, colored with umber and 
mars red, or any other pigments which suit you ; put it on as usual, and 
while yet sticky throw common white sand against it ; this will not affect 
the color, and will make a rough, sandy coat, imitating the surface of the 
stone. 

German Carmine. — Cochineal, 1 lb. ; water, 7 gals. ; boil for 5 minutes, 
then add alum, 1 oz. Boil for 5 minutes more, filter and set aside the de- 
coction in glass or porcelain vessels for 3 days, then decant the liquor and 
dry the carmine in the shade. The remaining liquor will still deposit an 
inferior qualit}' by standing. 

Stain for Floors. — To strong lye of wood-ashes add enough copperas 
for the required oak shade. Put this on with a mop and varnish afterwards. 

Lead Color for Iron. — Take litharge and place it over a fire in a 
ladle ; sprinkle over it flour of brimstone to turn it dark ; grind it in oil. It 
dries quick and stands well in any weather. 

A Good Imitation of Gold. — Mix white lead, chrome yellow and 
burnt sienna until the proper shade is obtained. 

Beautiful White Paint — For inside work, which ceases to smell, and 
dries in a few hours. Add 1 lb. of frankincense to 2 qts. turpentine ; dis- 
solve it over a clear fire, strain it, and bottle it for use ; then add 1 pt. of 
this mixture to 4 pts. bleached linseed oil, shake tliem well together, grind 
white lead in spirits of turpentine, and strain it; then add sutiiciont of tlie 
lead to make it proper for painting ; if too tliick in using, thin with turpen- 
tine, it being suitable for the best internal work on account of its superiority 
and expense. 

For a Pure White Paint.— Nut oil is the best ; if linseed oil is used, 
add one-third of turpentine. 

To Mix Common White Paint. — Mix or grind white lead in linseed 



492 PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 

oil to the consistencj' of paste ; add turpentine in the proportion of 1 quart 
to the gallon of oil ; but these proportions must be varied according to cir- 
cumstances. Rememl)er to strain your color for the better sorts of work. 
If the work is exposed to the sun, use more turpentine for the ground- 
color, to prevent its blistering. 

To Give Ltjstke to a Light Blue Gbound. — After the letters are 
written and dry, paint tlie groinid over again, i)et\vcen tlie letters, witli the 
same color, and while wet take pulverized Prussian blue and sift over the 
surface ; glass, frost, or smalts may be used instead of, or with the blue. 
When dry, brush off the loose particles. 

Invisible Gkeen for Outside Work. — Mix lampblack and French 
yellow witli burnt wjiite vitriol. These colors mix in boiled oil. Burnt 
vitriol is the best drier for greens, as it is powerful and colorless, and, con- 
sequently, will not injure tlie color. 

Bright Varnish Green, for Inside Blinds, Fenders, &c. — The work 
must firi^t be painted over with a liglit lead color, and, when dry, grind 
some white lead in spirits of turpentine ; afterwards take about one-third in 
bulk of verdigris, which has been ground stiff in linseed oil ; then mix them 
both together, and put into a little resin varnish, stifficient only to bind the 
color. When this is hard, which will be tlie case in 15 minutes, pour into 
the color some resin to give it a good gloss. Then go over the work a second 
time, and, if required, a third time. Thus you will liave a cheap and beau- 
tiful green, with a high polish. It possesses a very drying quality, as the 
work may be completed in a few hours. The tint may l)e varied according 
to taste, lay substituting mineral green for verdigris ; and if a bright grass- 
green is required, add a little Dutch pink to the mixture. N.B. — This 
color must be used when quite warm, to give the varnish a uniform ex- 
tension. 

Compound Greens. — This is a mixture of whiting, indigo and Dutch 
pink, the intensity of which may be increased or diminished by the addition 
of blue or yellow. These mixtures will not admit of any fixed rules in regard 
to the quantities of the matters used in tlieir composition. Tliey must de- 
pend on the taste of the artist and the tone he is desirous of giving to tlie 
color. 

Pea Green. — Take 1 lb. of genuine mineral green, 1 lb. of tlie precipi- 
tate of copper, Ih lbs. of blue verditer, 3 lbs. of white lead, 3 oz. of sugar of 
lead, and 3 oz. of burnt white vitriol. Mix the whole of these ingredients in 
linseed oil, and grind them quite fine. It will produce a bright mineral pea- 
green paint, preserve a blue tint, and keep any length of time in any cli- 
mate, without injury, by putting water over it. To use this color for house 
or ship painting, take 1 lb. of the green paint with some pale boiled oil, 
mix them well together, and this will produce a strong pea-green paint. 
The tint may be altered at pleasure, by adding a proportionate quantity of 
white lead to the green, which may be ground in linseed oil, and thinned 
with spirits of turpentine for use. It may also be used for painting Vene- 
tian window blinds, by adding white lead and mixing the color with boiled 
oil. For all the aforesaid preparations it will retain a blue tint, which is 
very desirable. 

Vermilion. — To prevent vermilion from fading, add to tlie dry color, 
before mixing, one-eighth part of flour of sulphur. Light Englisli vermilion 
is used for striping, ornamenting, or lettering ; the deep vermilion having 
less body, will not cover good. English vermilion gives the best color on 
carriage work when mixed with rubbing varnish and oil. American ver- 
milion should not be ground, as the process would change it to an orange 
color ; while green, Indian red, chrome yellow, and all heavy body colors, 
are all the better for being ground as fine as possible. Eaw oil is preferable 
to boiled, as it is more volatile, and penetrates and fills the pores of the 
■wood better. 

Compound Colors — 62 Tints — B/ue. — Grind Prussian blue in turps, 
otiier blue, very fine in linseed oil ; mix with white paint to the color re- 



PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 493 

quired. Strmv. — A mixture of chrome yellow and white lead, oil and turps. 
Steel. — Mix ceruse, Prussian blue, fine lac, and vermilion, with oil and turps. 
Pnrple. — White lead, Prussian blue and vermilion, with oil and turps. French 
Greij. — White lead and Prussian blue tinged with vermilion, and for the last 
coat substitute carmine or lake for vermilion. Drub. — White lead with a 
little Prussian blue and French yellow, linseed oil and turps. Another Drab,~ 
White lead with a little Prussian Idue and lampblack, linseetl oil and turps. 
Dark Red, for common purposes. — Mix English Venetian red, in boiled oil, 
with a little red lead and litharge, to give a drying quality. Lighter ikd. — 
Mix together equal parts of Venetian red, and red lead in boiled oil and 
turps. Imitation of Vermilion. — Grind together, in oil, red lead and rose 
pink. Deep Red. — Mix in oil vermilion with a dust of Venetian red, or red 
lead. Unfading Orange. — This is a mixture of orange lead (orpiment) and 
French or stone yellow, oil and turps. Bright Yellow, for floors. — White lead 
and linseed oil, mixed with some French yellow, and a little chrome yellow 
to heighten it, some red lead, burnt white vitriol and litharge, added to give 
it a drying quality. This color mixed with equal parts of boiled oil and 
turpentine, and used very thin. Dark Yellow. — Mix French yellow iii boiled 
oil, adding to it a little red lead or litharge to give the paint a drying 
quality. Light Yellow. — This is a mixture of French yellow and white lead, 
with oil and turpentine. Another. — French yellow, white lead and red lead. 
Another. — This is a mixture of Prussian blue, French yellow, a small portion 
of Turkey umber, and a little burnt vitriol. Ground the same way. 
Another, in oil. — Mix Prussian blue and chrome 3'ellow. Ground the same. 
Another Shade. — A mixture of Prussian blue and French yellow, with a small 
quantity of wliite lead and Turkey umber ; add burnt vitriol, ground tiie 
same. Another, light. — White mixed with verdigris. A variety of shades 
may be obtained by using blue and yellow with wliite lead. Another, Olive. — 
Black and blue mixed with yellow, in such quantities as to obtain tlie colors 
or shades required. For distemper, use indigo and yellow pink mixed with 
whiting or white lead powder. Freestone Color. — A mixture of red lead, 
Venetian red, French yellow, and lampblack (varying the shade according 
to taste,) with linseed oil and turpentine. Olive Green. — Grind, separately, 
Prussian blue and French yellow, in boiled oil, then mix to the tints required 
with a little burnt white vitriol to act as a dryer. A cheap and handsome 
color for outside work, such as doors, carts, wagons, railings, &c. fJght 
Greg is made by mixing white lead with lampblack, using more or less of 
each material as you wish to ol)tain a lighter or a darker shade. Bujf is 
made from yellow ochre and white lead. Silver or Pearl Greg. — Mix white 
lead, Prussian blue, and a very slight portion of black, regulating the quan- 
tities you wish to obtain. Flaxen Greg is obtained by a mixture of wiiite 
lead and Prussian blue, with a small quantity of lake. Brick color. — Yellow 
ochre and red lead, with a little white. Oak Wood Color. — | white lead and 
J part umber and yellow ochre, proportions of the last two ingredients being 
determined by the desired tints. Walmit-tree Color. — | white lead, and | 
red ochre, yellow ochre, and umber, mixed according to the shade sought. 
If veining is required, use different shades of the same mixture, and for tiie 
deepest places, black. Jonquil. — Yellow, pink, and white lead. This color 
is only proper for distemper. Lemon Yellow. — Realgar and orpiment. The 
same color can be obtained by mixing yellow pink with Naples yellow ; but 
it is then only fit for distemper. Orange Color. — Red lead and yellow ochre. 
Violet Color. — Vermilion, or red lead, mixed with black or blue, and a small 
portion of white. Vermilion is preferable to red lead in mixing this color. 
Purple. — Dark red mixed with violet color. Carnation. — Lake and white. 
Gold Color. — Massicot, or Naples yellow, with a small quantity of realgar, 
and a very little Spanish white. Olive Color may be obtained by l)lack and 
a little blue, mixed with yellow. Yellow-pink, with a little verdigris and 
lampblack ; also ochre and a small quantity of white will produce an olive 
color. For distemper, indigo and yellow-pink, mixed with white lead or 
Spanish white, must be used. If veined, it must be done with umber. Chestnut 



494 PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 

Color. — Red ochre and black, for a d9,rk chcstjiut. To make it lighter, em- 
ploy a mixture of yellow ochre. Light Iviiber Color. — Spruce ochre, white, 
;m(l a little umber. Flesh Color. — Lake, white lead, and a little vermilion. 
Liijht )Villow Green. — Wliite, mixed with verdigris. Grass Green. — Yellow- 
pink mixed with verdigris. Stone Color. — Wiiite, with a little spruce oclire. 
Dark Lead Color. — Black and white, with, a little Prussian blue. Fawn 
Color. — White lead, stone ochre, witli a little vermilion. Chocolate Color. — 
Lampblack and Spanish brown. On account of tlie fatness of lampblack, 
mix some litliarge and red lead. Portland Stone Color. — Umber, yellow 
oclire, and white lead. Rose Color. — "White lead and carmine or lake. 
Salmon Color. — White lead and blue, yellow, and red. Pearl Color. — Wiiite 
lead, Prussian blue, and red. Sl<ite Color. — White lead, black, rv.Hl, and 
blue. Pea Green. — White lead and Chrome, or Paris green. Cream Color. — 
White lead, yellow and red. Straw Color. — White lead and yellow. Peach 
Blossom Color. — White lead and vermilion. Brown. — Venetian red and 
lampblack. Dark Green. — Lampblack and chrome green. Olive Color.-^ 
lied, green, or black, yellow and red. Snuff Color. — Yellow, sienna, and 
red. 

Spirit Graining for Oak. — Two pounds of whiting, quarter of a pound 
of gold size, thinned down with spirits of turpentine ; then tinge your whit- 
ing with Vandyke brown and raw sienna, ground fine. Strike out your 
lights vvith a fitch dipped in turpentine, tinged with a little color to show 
the lights. If your lights do not appear clear, add a little more turpentine. 
Turpentine varnisli is a good substitute for the above mentioned. This 
kind of graining must be brushed over with beer, with a clean brush, 
before varnishing. Strong beer must be used for glazing up top-graining 
and shading. 

Oil for Graining Oak. — Grind Vandyke brown in turpentine, and as 
much gold size as will set, and as much soft soap as will make it stand the 
comb. Should it set too quickly, add a little boiled oil. Put a teaspoonful 
of gold size to half a pint of turpentine, and as much soap as will lie on a 
twenty-five cent piece, then take a little soda mixed with water and take 
out the veins. 

To Prepare The Ground for Oak Rollers. — Stain your white lead 
with raw sienna and red lead, or with chrome yellow and Venetian red ; 
thin it with oil and turps, and strain for use. When the ground work is 
dry, grind in beer, Vandyke brown, whiting and a little burnt sienna, for 
the graining color; or you may use raw sienna with a little whiting, 
umbers, &c. 

To Imitate Old Oak. — To make an exceedingly rich color for the 
imitation of old' oak, the ground is a composition of stone ochre, or orange 
chrome, and burnt sienna ; tlie graining color is burnt umber or Vandyke 
brown, to darken it a little. Observe that the above colors must be used 
whetlier the imitation is in oil or distemper. When dry, varnish. 

To Imitate Old Oak, in Oil. — Grind Vandyke and whiting in turpen- 
tine, add a bit of common soap to make it stand the comb, and thin it with 
boiled oil. 

To Imitate Pollard Oak. — The ground color is prepared with a mix- 
ture of chrome yellow, vermilion, and white lead, to a rich light buff. The 
graining colors are Vandyke brown and small portions of raw and burnt 
sienna and lake ground in ale or beer. Fill a large tool with color, spread 
over the surface to be grained, and soften with the badger hair brush. 
Take a moistened sponge between the tlmnib and finger, and dapple round 
and round in kind of knobs, then soften very lightly ; then draw a softener 
from one set of knobs to the other wliile wet, to form a multiplicity of 
grains, and finish the knots with a hair pencil, in some places in thicker 
clusters than otliers. Wlien dry put the top grain on in a variety of direc- 
tions, and varnish with turps and gold size ; then glaze up with Vandyke 
and strong ale. To finish, varnish with copaL 

To Imitate Mottled Mahogany. — The ground is prepared with the 



PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 495 

best English Venetian red, red lead, and a small portion of wliite lead. 
The graining colors are burnt sienna, ground in ale, witii a small portion of 
Vandyke brown, sufficient to take away tlie fiery appearance of the sienna, 
cover the surface to be grained, soften with the badger liair brnsli, and 
wiiile wet take a mottling-roller and go over tlie liglits a second time, in 
order to give a variety of shade, tlien blend tlie wiiole of tlie work with the 
badger softener. Put the top grain on witli tlie same color. Wlien dry 
varnish. 

To Imttate Rosewood. — Mix vermilion and a small quantity of wliite 
lead for tlie ground. Take rose pink, tinged with a little lampblack, or 
Vandyke brown, and grind very fine in oil, then take a flat graining brush, 
with the hairs cut away at unequal distances, and cut down the grain as if 
wending round a knot. When nearly dry, take a graining comb that is 
used for oak, and draw down the grain. This will give it the appearance 
of nature. When dry, varnish. Another. — The ground color is prepared 
with vermilion and small quantities of white lead and crimson lake. When 
the ground is dry and made very smooth, take Vandyke brown, ground in 
oil, and with a small tool spread the color over the surface in different 
directions forming kind of knots. Before the work is dry, take a piece 
of leather, and with great freedom strike out the light veins having pre- 
viously prepared the darkest tint of Vandyke brown, or gum asphaltum, 
immediately take the flat graining brush with few hairs in it, draw the 
grain over the work and soften. When varnished the imitation will be 
excellent. 

Another Rosewood Imitation in Size. — Mix Venetian red, white 
lead powder, vermilion and common size, the consistency of which, when 
cold, must be that of a weak trembling jelly. With this composition paint 
the work twice over. When the ground is dry, take some lampblack, 
finely ground in beer, and beat the white of an egg into it ; take the flat 
graining brush, dipped in the black, and put on the grain. When dry, 
stain the first coat of varnish with rose pink, finely ground in turpentine, 
and finish the work by giving it a coat of clear varnish. 

To Imitate Bird's eye Maple. — Tlie ground is a light buff, prepared 
with white lead, chrome yellow, and a little vermilion or English Venetian 
red, to take off the rawness of the yellow. The graining color is equal 
parts of raw umber and sienna ground in oil to the proper consistency. 
Spread the surface of the work with this color, and, having some of the 
same prepared a little thicker, iminediately take a sash tool or sponge, and 
put on the dark shades, and soften with the badger's-hair brush before the 
color is dry, put on the eyes by dabbing the dotting machine on the work. 
When dry, put on the grain with the camel's-hair pencil on the prominent 
parts, to imitate the small hearts of the wood. When dry, varnish. 

To Imitate Curled Maple. — Prepare a light yellow for the ground, 
by mixing chrome yellow and white lead, tinged with Venetian red. The 
graining color is a mixture of equal portions of raw sienna and Vandyke, 
ground in ale ; spread the surface to be grained in an even manner ; then 
with a piece of cork rub across the work to and fro, to form the grains 
which run across the wood. When dry, varnish. 

CoRLED Maple in Oil for Odtside Work. — Prepare a rich ground 
by mixing chrome yellow, white lead and burnt sienna. For the graining 
color, grind equal parts of raw sienna and umber with a little burnt cop- 
peras in turpentine, and mix with a small quantity of grainer's cream. 
Thin the color with boiled oil ; then fill a tool and spread the surface even, 
and rub on the lights with the sharp edge of a piece of buff leather, which 
must now and then be wiped to keep it clean ; soften the edges of the work 
very lightly, and when dry, put on the top grain with burnt umber and raw 
sienna, ground in ale, with the white of an egg beat into it. When dry, 
varnish. 

Satinwood. — This ground is prepared with white lead, stone ochre, and 
small quantities of chrome yellow and burnt sienna. The graining color is 



496 PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 

one-tliird of raw sienna and wliiting, ground in pale ale, very thin ; then 
spread the color over the surface to be grained. While wet, soften, and 
have ready a wet roller or mottling brush, in order to take out tiie lights ; 
blend tlie whole with a badger's-hair briisli. Wlien the work is dry, take 
the flat brush, and with the same color, put on the top again. Wiieii dry, 
varnish. 

To Imitate Yew-Tree. — Tlie ground is a reddish buff. For tlie grain- 
ing color grind in ale equal portions of Vandyke brown and burnt sienna, 
with a small quantity of raw sienna. When the ground is dry, spread tlie 
surface even with the color, and soften ; then with a piece of cork with a 
sharp edge, rub the work cross and cross in order to form the fine grain. 
When dry, dip the tip of your fingers in the graining color to form the 
eyes or knots, and put in the small touches with a camel's-hair pencil. 
When dry, put on the top grain, and when this is dry, varnish. 

To Imitate Black and Gold Marble. — This description of marble is 
now in great demand. The ground is a deep jet black, or a dead color, in 
gold size, drop black and turps : second coat, black japan. Commence 
veining; mix white and yellow ochre wilh a small quantity of vermilion to 
give a gold tinge ; dip the pencil in this color, and dab on the ground with 
great freedom some large patches, from which small threads must be drawn 
in various directions. In the deepest parts of the black, a white vein is 
sometimes seen running with a great number of small veins attached to it; 
but care must be taken that these threads are connected with, and run in 
some degree in the same direction with the thicker veins. If durability is 
not an object and the work is required in it short time, it may be executed 
very quick in distemper colors, and when varnished, it will look well. 

Red Marble. — For the ground, put on a white tinged with lake or 
vermilion ; then apply deep rich reds in patches, filling up the intermediate 
spaces with brown and white mixed in oil; then blend them together; if 
in quick drying colors, use about half turps and gold size. When dry, 
varnish ; and while tlie varnish is wet, put in a multitude of the fine white 
tlu'eads, crossing the whole work in all directions, as the wet varnish brings 
the pencil to a fine point. 

Jasper Marble. — Put on a white ground lightly tinged with blue ; then 
put on patches of rich reds or rose pink, leaving spaces of the white 
grounds ; then partly cover those spaces with various browns to form 
fossils, in places running veins ; then put in a few spots of white in the 
centre of some of the red patches, and leaving in places masses nearly all 
white. When dry, use the clearest varnish. 

Blue and Gold Marble. — For the ground put on a light blue ; then 
lake blue, witli a small piece of white lead and some dark common blue, 
and dab on the ground in patches, leaving portions of the ground to shine 
between ; then blend the edges together with duster or softener ; after- 
wards draw on some white veins in every direction, leaving large open 
spaces to be filled up with a pale yellow or gold-paint ; finish with some 
fine white running threads, and a coat of varnish at last. 

To Imitate Granite. — For the ground color, stain j'our white lead to 
a light lead color, with lampblack and a little rose pink. Throw on black 
spots, with a graniting machine, a pale red, and fill up with white before 
the ground is dry. 

Another. — A black ground ;^ when half dry, throw in vermilion, a deep 
yellow and white spots. 

To Imitate Hair Wood. — For the ground color, take white lead and 
thin it with turpentine, and slightly stain it with equal quantities of Prus- 
sian blue and lampblack. For the graining color, grind in ale a mixture of 
Prussian blue and raw sienna; wlien the ground is dry, spread a transparent 
coat of the graining color on the surface of the work, and soften ; then 
with the cork, mottle by rubbing it to and fro across the work, to form the 
fine long grain or mottle. When this is done, soften and top grain in wavy 
but perpendicular directions ; varnish when dry. 



PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 497 

Inlaid Mothee-of-Pearl "Work, on sewing machines and other fancy 
work, is performed by selecting the thin scales of the shell and cementing 
them to tlie surface of the material ; the rest of the surface is covered with 
successive coats of Japan varnish, general!}' blacky being subjected to a 
baking process after eacli application. When the varnisli is as thick as the 
shell, it is polisheil, the gilding and painting added and a flowing coat of 
varnish put over the wliole. 

Another Method. — Prepare the job with a heavy coat of black Japan, 
then, before it is dry, procure flakes of pearl and la}' them on the black sur- 
face, pressing tliem into the Japan until they are level with the surface ; 
then with colors form vines and flowers, allowing the pearl to form the 
body of tlie flower leaf, and shade up all nicely. 

To Imitate Tortoise Shell. — Paint a ground of salmon color; then 
•when dry and smoothed off, coat it over with rose pink, mixed in varnish 
and turpentine ; then with a flat piece of glass, press on the surface, and 
remove tlie glass quickly, being careful not to push it over the paint so as 
to disturb the curious figures which the pressure will form thereon. 
Varnish when dry, and you will find you have a beautiful imitation of tor- 
toise shell. 

Fancy Figures on Wood. — Slake some lime in stale urine. Dip a 
brush in it, and form, on the wood, figures to suit your fancy. When dry, 
rub it well with a rind of pork. 

Stains for Wood. — 1. Cheap Black Walnut Stain. — Burnt umber, 2 parts ; 
rose pink, 1 part ; glue, 1 part ; water sufficient ; heat all together and 
dissolve completelj', apply to the work first with a sponge, then go over it 
with a brush, and varnish over with shellac. 2. Ehomj Stain. — Drop black, 
2 parts ; rose pink, 1 part ; turpentine, a sufficient quantitj'. 3 Briyht 
Yellow Stain. — 1. Brush over with the tincture of turmeric. 4. Warm the work 
and brush it over with weak aqua-fortis ; varnish or oil as usual. 5. A very 
small bit of aloes put into the varnish will give a rich yellow color to the 
wood. 6. Extra Black Stain for Wood. — Pour 2 quarts boiling water over 
1 oz. of powdered extract of logwood, and, when the solution is effected, 1 
dr. of yellow chromate of potash is added, and the whole well stirred. It 
is then ready for use as a wood-stain, or for writing ink. When rubbed on 
wood it produces a pure black. Repeat with 2, 3, or 4 applications till a 
deep black is produced. 7. Imitation of Mahogany. — Let the first coat of 
painting be white lead, the second orange, and the last burnt umber or 
sienna : imitating the veins according to your taste and practice. 8. To 
Imitate Wain.scot. — Let the first coat be white ; the second, half white and 
yellow ochre ; and the third yellow ochre only ; shadow with umber or sienna. 
9. To Imitate Satin Wood. — Take white for 3'our first coating, light blue 
for tlie second, and dark blue or dark green for the third. 10. Rosewood Stain, 
very bright shade — Used Cold. — Take alcohol, 1 gal. ; camwood, 2 oz. ; set 
them in a warm place 24 hours ; then add extract of logwood, 3 oz. ; 
aquafortis, 1 oz. ; and when dissolved it is ready for use ; it makes a very 
bright ground like the most beautiful rosewood ; 1, 2 or more coats as you 
desire. 11. Cherry Stain. — Rain water, 3 qts ; annatto, 4 oz. ; boil in a cop- 
per kettle till the annatto is dissolved, then put in a piece of potash the size 
of a walnut ; keep it on the fire about half an hour longer, and it is ready to 
bottle for use. 12. Rosewood Stain, very bright shade. — Equal parts of log- 
wood and redwood chips, boil well in water sufficient to make a strong stain ; 
apply it to the furniture while hot; 2 or 3 coats according to the depth of 
color desired. 13. Ilose Pink Stain, and Varnish. — Put 1 oz. of potash in 1 
qt. of water, with red sanders, 1^ ozs. ; extract the color from the wood and 
strain : then add gum shellac, -J lb., dissolve it by a brisk fire. Used upon 
logwood stain for rosewood imitation. 14. Blue Slain for ]Vood. — 1. Dis- 
solve copper filings in aquafortis, brush the wood with it, and then go over 
the work with a hot solution of pearlasli (2 oz. to 1 pt. of water) till it 
assumes a perfectly blue color. 15. Boil 2 ozs. of indigo, 2 lbs. wood, 
and 1 oz. alum, in 1 gal. water, brush well over until thoroughly stained. 



498 PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 

16. Imitation of Botany- Bai/ Wood. -^-BoW i lb. Frencli berries (tlie uiiriiio 
berries of tlie jRhanimis infectorius) in 2 qts. water till of a deep 3'ello\v, ainl 
while boiling liot, give 2 or 3 coats to the work. If a deeper color is desired, 
give a coat of logwood decoction over the yellow. When neiirly drj', form 
the grain with No. 8 black stain, nsed hot, and, when dr}-, rust and varnish. 

17. Mahogany color. — Dark. — 1. Boil ^ lb. of madder and 2 ozs. of logwood 
chips in a gallon of water, and brush well over while hot; when dry go over 
tlie whole with pearlash solution, 2 drs. to the quart. 2. Put 2 ozs. dragon's 
blood, bruised, into a quart of oil of turpentine ; let the bottle stand in a 
warm place, shake frequentl}', and, when dissolved, steep the work in tlie 
mixture. 18. Box-wood Broicn Stain. — Hold 3'our work to the fire, that it 
may receive a gentle warmth; then take aquafortis, and, with a featlier, 
pass it over the work till you find it change to a fine brown (always keep- 
ing it near the fire), you may then varnish or polish it. 19. Light Red 
Brown. — Boil -J lb. madder and J lb. fustic in 1 gal. water; brush over the 
work, when boiling hot, until properly stained. 20. The surface of the work 
being quite smooth, brush over with a weak solution of aqua-fortis, -J oz. to 
the pint ; tlien finish with the following : — Put 4^ ozs. dragon's blood, and 
1 oz. soda, both well bruised, to 3 pts. spirits of wine, let it stand in a warm 
place, shake frequently, strain and lay on with a soft brush, repeating 
until of a proper color, polish with linseed oil or varnish. 21. Purple — Brush 
the work several times with the logwood decoction used for No. 6 black; 
and, when dry give a coat of pearl-ash solution, 1 dr. to a quart; lay it on 
evenly. 22. Red. — 1. Boil 1 lb. Brazil wood and 1 oz. pearlasli in a gal. of 
water; and while hot, brush over tlie work until of a proper color. Dis- 
solve 2 ozs. alum in 1 qt. water, and brush the solution over the work 
before it dries. 23. Take a gallon of the above stain, add 2 ozs. more pearl- 
ash ; use hot, and brush over with the alum solution. 24. Use a cold 
solution of archil, and brush over with the pearl-ash solution for No. 1 Dark 
Mahogany. 25. Mahogany Stain on Wood. — Take nitric acid, dilute with 10 
parts of water, and wash the wood with it. To produce rosewood finish, 
glaze the same with carmine of Munich lake. Asphaltum thinned with 
turpentine, forms an excellent mahogany color on new work. 26. Mahogany 
Stain on Maple. — Dragon's blood, ^ oz. ; alkanet, ^ oz. ; aloes, 1 dr. ; spirits 
of wine, 16 ozs. ; apply it with a sponge or brush. 27. Crimson Stain for 
Musical Instruments. — Ground Brazil wood, 1 lb. ; water, three qts. ; cochi- 
neal, I ounce , boil the Brazil with the water for an hour, strain, add the 
cochineal ; boil gently for half an hour, when it will be fit for use. If j-ou 
wish a scarlet tint, boil an ounce of salTron in a quart of water, and pass 
over the work before you stain it. 28 Purple Stain. — Chipped logwood 1 
lb. ; water, 3 qts. ; pearlash, 4 ozs. ; powdered indigo, 2 ounces. Boil the 
logwood in the water half an hour, add the pearlash and indigo, and when 
dissolved, you will have a beautiful purple. 29. Green Stain. — Strong 
vinegar, 3 pts. ; best verdigris, 4 ounces, ground fine ; sap green, i ounce ; 
mix together. 

Black Stains for Wood. — 1. Drop a little sulphuric acid into a small 
quantity of water; brush over the wood and hold it to the fire; it will be a 
fine black and receive a good polish. 2. For a beautiful black on wood, 
nothing can exceed the black Japan mentioned under Tinsmith's Depart- 
ment. Apply two coats ; after which, varnish and polish it. 3. To 1 gal. 
vinegar, add a quarter of a pound of iron rust; let it stand for a week; 
then add a pound of dry lampblack, and three-quarters of a pound copperas; 
stir it up for a couple of da3's. Lay on five or six coats with a sponge, 
allowing it to dry between each ; polish with linseed oil and a soft woollen 
rag, and it will look like ebony. Incomparable for iron work, ships' guns, 
shot, &c. 4. Vinegar, -J- gal. ; drj' lampblack, -J- lb.; iron-rust sifted, 3 lbs. ; 
mix and let stand for a week. Lay three coats of this on hot, and then 
rub with linseed oil and you will have a fine deep black. 5. Add to the 
above stain, nut-galls, 1 oz. ; logwood chips, ^ lb. ; cojjperas, ^ lb. ; lay on 
three coats ; oil well, and you will have a black stain that will stand any 



PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C 499 

kind of weather, and is well adapted for sliips' combings, &c. 6. Logwood 
chips, I lb. ; Brazil wood, ^ lb. ; boil for li liours in 1 gal. water. Brush 
the wood with this decoction while hot ; make a decoction of nut-galls, by 
gently simmering, for three or four days, a quarter of a pound of the galls 
in 3 qts. water ; give the wood three coats, and, while wet, lay on a solu- 
tion of sulphate of iron (2 ozs. to a quart), and when dry, oil or varnish. 7. 
Give tliree coats with a solution of copper fillings in aqua-fortis, and repeat- 
edly' brush over with the logwood decoction until the greenness of the copper 
is destroyed. 8. Boil -J lb. logwood chips in 2 quarts of water ; add an ounce 
of pearlash, and apply hot with a brush. Then take 2 qts. of the logwood 
decoction, and ^ oz. of verdigris, and the same of copperas ; strain and throw 
in i lb. of iron-rust. Brusli the work well with this and oil. 

Black Walnut Stain. — Spirits of turpentine, 1 gal. ; pulverized 
asphaltum, 2 lbs. ; dissolve in an iron kettle on a stove, stirring constantly. 
Can be used over a red stain to imitate rosewood. To make a perfect black 
add a little lamp-black. The addition of a little varnish with the turpentine 
improves it. 

Miscellaneous Stains. — Yellow is produced by diluted nitric acid. 
Red is produced by a solution of dragon's blood in spirits of wine. Black, 
is produced by a strong solution of nitric acid. Green is produced by a solu- 
tion of verdigris in nitric acid ; then dipped in a hot solution, pearl-ash pro- 
duces a Blue stain. Purple is produced by a solution of sal-ammoniac in 
nitric acid. 

To Improve the Color of Stains. — ^Nitric acid, 1 oz. ; muriatic acid, 
\ teaspoonful ; grain tin, ^ oz. ; rain water, 2 oz. Mix it at least 2 days 
before using, and keep your bottle well corked. 

To Ebonize Wood. — Mix up a strong stain of copperas and logwood 
to which add powdered nut-gall. Stain your wood with this solution, dry- 
rub down well, oil, then use French polish made tolerably dark with indigo 
or finely powdered stone blue. 

Etching on Glass. — Druggists' bottles, bar-tumblers, signs, and glassware 
of every description, can be lettered in a beautiful style of art, by simply 
giving the article to be engraved, or etched, a thin coat of the engraver's 
varnish (see next receipt), and the application of fluoric acid. Before doing 
so, the glass must be thoroughly cleaned and heated, so that it can hardly be 
held. The varnish is tlien to be applied lightly over, and made smooth by 
dabbing it with a small ball of silk, filled with cotton. When dry and 
even, the lines may be traced on it by a sharp steel, cutting clear tlirough 
the varnish to tlie glass. The varnish must be removed clean from each 
letter, otherwise it will be an imperfect job. When all is ready, pour on or 
apply the fluoric acid witli a feather, filling each letter. Let it remain 
until it etches to the required depth, then wash off with water, and remove 
the varnish. 

Etching Varnish. — Take of virgin wax and asphaltum, each 2 oz. ; 
of black pitch and Burgundy pitch, each \ oz.; melt the wax and pitch in a 
new earthenware glazed pot, and add to them, by degrees, the asphaltum, 
finely powdered. Let the whole boil, simmering gradually, till such time as, 
taking a drop upon a plate, it will break when it is cold, or bending it 
double two or three times betwixt the fingers. The varnish, being then 
boiled enough, must be taken off the fire, and, after it cools a little, must 
be poured into warm water that it may work the more easily with the 
hands, so as to be formed into balls, which must be kneaded, and put into a 
piece of taffety for use. The sand blast is now in extensive use for orna- 
menting on glass. 

Fluoric Acid, to Make for Etching Purposes. — You can make your 
own fluoric (sometimes called hydro-fluoric) acid, by getting the fluor or 
Derbyshire spar, pulverizing it, and putting all of it into sulphuric acid which 
the acid will cut or dissolve. Inasmuch as fluoric acid is destructive to glass, 
it cannot be kept in common bottles, but must be kept in lead or gutta 
percha bottles. 



500 PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 

Glass-Grinding for Signs, Shades, &c. — After you have etched a 
name or other design upon uncolored glass, and wisli to have it sliow off to 
better advantage by permitting tlie liglit to pass only througli the letters, 
you can do so by taking a piece of flat brass sufficiently large not to dip 
into the letters, but pass over them when gilding upon the surface of the 
glass ; then, with flour of emery, and keeping it wet, you can grind tiie whole 
surface very quickly, to look like the ground-glass globes often seen upon 
lamps, except the letter, which is eaten below the general surface. 

To Drill and Ornament Glass. — Glass can be easily drilled by a steel 
drill, hardened but not drawn, and driven at a high velocity. Holes of any 
size, from the 16th of an inch, upwards, can be drilled, by using spirits of 
turpentine as a dirp ; and, easier still, by using camphor with the turpen- 
tine. Do not press the glass ver^' hard against the drill. If you require to 
ornament glass by turning in a latlie, use a good mill file and the turpen- 
tine and camphor drip and you will find it an easy matter to produce any 
shape you choose. 

Gilding Glass Signs, &c. — Cut a piece of thin paper to the size of your 
glass, draw out your design correctly in black lead-pencil on the paper, then 
prick through the outline of the letters with a fine needle ; tie up a little dry 
white lead in a piece of rag; this is a pounce-bag. Place your design upon 
the glass, right side up, dust it with the pounce-bag ; and, after taking the 
paper off, the design will appear in white dots upon the glass ; these will 
guide you in laying on the gold on the oposite side, which must be well 
cleaned preparatory to laying on the gold. Preparing the size. — Boil perfectly 
clean water in an enamelled saucepan, and while boiling, add 2 or 3 shreds of 
best selected isinglass, after a few minutes strain it through a clean linen rag; 
when cool, it is ready for use. Clean the glass perfectlij. — When this is 
done, use a flat camel's-liair brush for laj'ing on the size ; and let it drain off 
when you put the gold on. When the gold is laid on perfectly dry, take a 
ball of the finest cotton wool and gently rub or polish the gold ; you can lay 
on another coat of gold if desirable, it is now ready for writing. In doing this, 
mix a little of the best vegetable black with black japan ; thin with turpen- 
tine to proper working consistency ; apply this when thorougldy dry ; wash 
off the superfluous gold, and shade as in sign writing. 

Glass Gilding, Another Method. — Clean and dry the glass thorough- 
ly, then lay out the lines for letters with a piece of hard scented soap, tiien 
paint the letters on the right side of the glass with lampblack mixed with 
oil, in order to form a guide for the work, then on the inside lay on a coat of 
the size mentioned in the preceding receipt, using a camel's-hair brush, cov- 
ering the whole, of the letters ; next lay on the gold leaf with a tip, until 
every part of the letter is covered well. Let the leaf remain until the size 
is dry, when you will find that the letters on the front side can be easily 
seen and traced. This is done with quick drying black, mixed with a little 
varnish. Paint over the whole directly over the gold ; allow it to dry ; 
tlien wipe off with soap and water the lampblack letters from the front 
side ; with pure cold water and a clean sponge, wash the superfluous 
gold leaf and size fr(mi the back, and you will have a splendid gold letter on 
the glass ; next, shade your letter to suit the taste, always remembering to 
shade to the edge of the gold, for then you have only one edge to make 
straight. The other edge may be left rough, and when dry may be straight- 
ened by scraping with a knife. 

Ornamental Designs on Glass. — In making scrolls, eagles, etc., on 
glass, some painters put on the outlines and shades first, and then lay the 
gold leaf over all ; another good way is to scratch the sliades on to the gold 
leaf after it is dry, and put the colors on tlie back of the gold. Silver leaf 
may be used in the same manner as gold, but it will not wear as well. A 
very pretty letter may be made by incorporating silver with gold ; take 
paper and cut any fancy design to fit the jjarts of the letter ; stick it on the 
size before la_ving the leaf, allowing it to dry and wash off as before ; then 
with a penknife raise the paper figure, and the exact shape or form of the 



PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 501 

figure will be found cut out of the gold letter ; clean off nicely, apply more 
size, and lay silver leaf to cover the vacant spots ; wash off when dry, and 
a very handsome letter will be the result. Colors may be used instead of 
silver, if desired, or a silver letter edged or " cut up" with gold, will look well. 

Glass and Porcelain Gilding. — Dissolve in linseed oil an equal weight 
either of copal or amber ; add as much oil of turpentine as will enable you 
to apply the compound or size thus formed, as tliin as ])ossible, to the parts 
of the glass intended to be gilt. The glass is to be placed in a stove till it 
will almost burn the fingers when handled ; at this temperature the size be- 
comes adhesive, and a piece of gold leaf, applied in the usual way, will im- 
mediately stick. Sweep off the superfluous portions of the leaf, and when 
quite cool it may be burnished ; taking care to interpose a piece of India 
paper between the gold and the burnisher. 

Drilling China, Glass, &c. — To drill china use a copper drill and 
emery, moistened with spirits of turpentine. To drill glass, use a steel drill, 
tempered as hard as possible and camphor and water as a lubricant. 

Gold Lustre for Stoneware, China, &c. — Gold, 6 parts ; aqua-regia, 36 
parts. Dissolve, then add tin, 1 part ; next add balsam of sulphur, 3 ])arts ; 
oil of turpentine, 1 part. Mix gradually into a mortar, and rub it until the 
mixture becomes hard ; then add oil of turpentine, 4 parts. It is then to be 
applied to a ground prepared for the purpose. 

Gilding China and Glass. — Powdered gold is mixed with borax and 
gum-water, and the solution applied with a camel's-hair pencil. Heat is 
then applied by a stove until the borax fuses, when the gold is fixed and 
afterwards burnished. 

Painting on Glass. — Take clear resin, 1 oz. ; melt in an iron vessel. 
When it is melted, let it cool a little, but not harden ; then add oil of tur- 
pentine sufficient to keep it in an liquid state. When cold, use it with colors 
ground in oil. 

Instructions for Sign Writing, with Colors to be used for 
Ground and Letters. — On an oak ground, ornamental letters, in ultra- 
marine blue, filled in with gold and silver leaf, blocked up and shaded 
with burnt sienna. Another. — Gold letters on a white marble ground, 
blocked up and shaded with a transparent brown or burnt sienna. On glass. 
— Gold letters, shaded with burnt sienna. Another. — Gold letters, shaded 
with black, on a scarlet or chocolate ground. On a rich blue ground, 
gold letters, double shaded, black and white. Wiiite letters on a blue 
ground, shaded with black, look very well. On a purple ground, pink 
letters, shaded witli white. Mix ultramarine and vermilion for a ground 
color, white letters shaded with a light grey. Vermilion ground, chrome 
yellow, stained witli vermilion and lake, for the letters, shaded black. A 
substitute for the above colors : Rose pink and red lead ; and for the letters, 
stone yellow, white lead and Venetian red. A good substitute for gold is ob- 
tained by grinding white lead, chrome yellow, and a dust of vermilion 
together. Mix your colors for writing in boiled oil, and use for drier gold 
size. Other good grounds* for gold letters are : blues, vermilion, lake, and 
Saxon. When your sign is ready for gilding, follow tlie directions given 
mider the head of " To Gild Letters on Wood. " 

To Gild Letters on Wood, &c. — When your sign is prepared as 
smooth as possible, go over it with a sizing made by wliite of an egg dis- 
solved in about four times its weight in cold water, adding a small quantity 
of fuller's earth,this is to prevent the gold sticking to any part but the letters. 
When dry, set out the letters and commence writing, laying on the size as 
thinly as possible, with a sable pencil. Let it stand till you can barely feel 
a slight stickiness, then go to work with your gold leaf, knife, and cushion, 
and gild the letters. Take a leaf up on the point of your knife, after giving 
it a shght puff into the back part of your cusliion, and spread it on the 
front part of the cushion as straight as possible, giving it another slight 
puff with your mouth to flatten it out. Now cut it into the proper size, 
cutting with the heel of your knife forwards. Now rub the tip lightly on 



502 PAINTERS^ PAPER HANGERS, &C. 

your hair ; take up the gold on the point, and place it neatly on the letters 
when they are all covered get some very fine cotton wool, and gently rub 
the gold until it is smooth and hright. Then wasli tlie sign witli clean water 
to take off the egg size. See Gilding on Wood. 

Gilding on Wood. — To gild in oil, the wood, after heing properly pre- 
pared, is covered witli a coat of gold size, made of drying linseed oil mixed 
with yellow oclire ; when this lias hecome so dry as to adliere to the fiiigers 
witliout soiling them, tlie gold leaf is laid on with great care and dexterity, 
and pressed down with cotton wool ; places that have heen missed are cov- 
ered with small pieces of gold leaf, and when the wliole is dry, the rngged 
bits are rubbed off with tlie cotton. This is by far the easiest mode of 
gilding ; any other metallic leaves may be applied in similar manner. Pale 
/ec(/ ^oW has a greenish yellow color, and is an alloy of gold and silver. 
Dutch gold leaf is only copper leaf colored with the fumes of zinc ; being 
mucdi cheaper than true gold leaf, it is very useful when large quantities of 
gilding are required in places where it can be defended from the weather, 
as it changes color if exposed to moisture ; and it should be covered with 
varnish. Silver leaf is prepared every way the same as gold leaf ; but when 
applied, should be kept well covered with varnish, otherwise it is liable to 
tarnish ; a transparent yellow varnish will give it the appearance of gold. 
Whenever gold is fixed by means of linseed oil, it will bear washing off, 
which burnished gold will not. 

Superfine Size for Gilding. — Good drying oil, 2 lbs.; pure gum animi, 
powdered, 4 ozs.; bring the oil almost to the boiling point in a covered metal 
pot, add j'our gum gradually and cautiously to the oil, stirring all the time 
to dissolve completely. Boil to a tarrj' consistency and strain while warm 
through silk into a warm bottle with a wide mouth ; keep it well corked ; use 
as required, thinning with turpentine. This is the celebrated Birmingham 
" secret size," and is unequalled for tenacity and durability. Size to Jix the 
Pearl on Glass Signs. 1. Copal varnish, 1 part; Canada balsam, 2 parts. 2. 
Pure mastic varnish. 3. Pale, quick-drying copal varnish. 

GiLDEK.s' Gold Size. — Drying or boiled linseed oil, thickened with yel- 
low ochre, or calcined oclire, and carefully reduced to the utmost smooth- 
ness by grinding. Thin with oil of turpentine. 

French Burnished Gilding. — Encollnge, or glue coat. — To a decoction 
of wormwood and garlic in water, strained through a cloth ; a little common 
salt and some vinegar are added, then mixed with as much good glue ; and 
the mixture spread in a hot state with a brush of boar's hair. When plas- 
ter or marble is, gilded, leave out the salt. The first glue coating is made 
thinner than the second. 2. White preparation consists in covering the above 
surface with 8, 10 or 12 coats of Spanish white, mixed up with strong size; 
each well worked on with the brush. 3. Stop up the pores witii thick whit- 
ing and glue, and smooth the surface with dog-skin. 4. Polish the surface 
with pumice stone and very cold water. 5. Retouch the vvliole in a skilful 
manner. 6. Cleanse with a damp linen rag, and tlien a soft sponge. 7. Rub 
with a horse's tail (shave-grass) the parts to be yellowed, to make them soft- 
er. 8. Yellow with yellow ochre carefull}- ground in water, and mixed with 
transparent colorless size. Use the thinner part of the mixture with a fine 
brush. 9. Next rub the work with shave-grass to remove any granular ap- 
pearance. 10. Gold water size consists of Armenian bole, 1 lb.; bloodstone 
(iiematite), 2 oz.; and as much galena ; each separately ground in water. 
Then mix altogether with a spoonful of olive oil. This is tempered with a 
white sheejiskin glue, clear and well strained. Heat, and apply three coats 
with a fine long-haired brush. 11. Rub with a clean dry linen cloth excejit 
the parts to be burnished, which are to receive other 2 coats of the gold 
size, tempered with glue. 12. The surface damped with cold water (iced in 
summer), has then t\\e gold /ea/' applied to it. Gild the hollow ground before 
the more prominent jiarts ; water being dexterously apjilied by a soft brush, 
immediately behind the gold leaf, before laying it down ; removing an ex- 
cess of water with a drv brush. 13. Burnish with bloodstone. 14. Next 



PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 503 

pass a tliin coat of glue, slightly warmed, over the parts that are not to be 
burnished. 15. Next moisten any broken points with a briisli, and apply 
bits of gold leaf to them. 16. Apply the vermeil coat very lightly over the 
gold leaf with a soft brush. It gives lustre and fire to the gold, and is maile 
as follows ; annatto, 2 oz. ; gamboge, 1 oz. ; vermilion, 1 oz. ; dragon's blood, 
^ oz. ; salt of tartar, 2 oz. ; saffron, 18 grs. ; boil in 2 Englisii pints of watei', 
over a slow fire, till it is reduced to a fourth ; then pass tlie whole tlirouglia 
silk or muslin sieve. 17. Next pass over tiie dead surfaces a second coat of 
deadening glue, hotter than the first. This finishes the work, and gives it 
strength. 

Bronzing or Gilding Wood. — Pipeclay, 2 oz. ; Prussian blue, patent 
yellow, raw umber, lampblack, of each, 1 oz. ; grind separately witli water 
on a stone and as mucli of tliem as will make a good color put into a small 
vessel ){ full of size. Tlie wood, being previously cleaned and smoothed, and 
coated with a mixture of clean size and lampblack, receives a new 
coating twice successively with the above compound, having allowed the 
first to dry. Afterwards the bronze powder is to be laid on with a pencil, 
and the whole burnislied or cleaned anew, observing to repair the parts 
which may be injured by this operation; next the work must be coated over 
with a thin layer of Castile soap, which will take the glare off the burnish- 
ing, and afterwards be carefully rubbed with a woollen cloth. The super- 
fluous powder may be rubbed off when dry. 

Mosaic Gold Powdkr for Bronzing, «S;c. — Melt 1 lb. tin in a crucible, 
add i lb. of purified quicksilver to it ; when this is cold, it is reduced to pow- 
der, and groimd, with | lb. sal-ammoniac and 7 oz. flour of sulphur, till the 
whole is thoroughly mixed. They are then calcined in a matrass ; and the 
sublimation of tlie other ingredients leaves the tin converted into the mo- 
saic gold powder which is found at the bottom of the glass. Remove any 
black or discolored particles. The sal-ammoniac must be very white and 
clear, and the mercury of the utmost i)urity. Wlien a deeper red is required, 
grind a very small quantity of red lead with the above materials. True 
Gold Powder. — Put some gold leaf, with a little honey, or thick gum water 
made with gum arable, into an earthen mortar, and pound the mixture till 
the gold is reduced to very small particles ; then wash out the honey or gum 
repeatedly with warm water, and the gold in powder will be left behind. 
When dry it is fit for use. Dutch Gold Powder is made from Dutch gold 
leaf, which is sold in books at a very low price. Treat in the manner de- 
scribed above for true gold powder. When this inferior powder is used, 
cover the gilding with a coat of clear varnish, otherwise it will soon lose 
its bright appearance. Copper Powder is prepared by dissolving filings or 
slips of copper with nitrous acid in a receiver. When the acid is saturated, 
the slips are to be removed ; or, if filings be employed, the solution is to 
be potired off from what remains undissolved. Small bars are then put in, 
which will precipitate the copper powder from the saturated acid ; and 
the liquid being poured from the powder, this is to be washed clean off 
the crystals by repeated waters. 

Bronze Powder of apale gold color is produced from an alloy of l-SJ 
parts of copper and 2f parts zinc, of a crimson metallic lustre from copper, 
of apale color, and a very little zinc, (jreen bronze with a proportion of ver- 
digris, of a fine orange color, b}' 14~3- parts copper and Ij parts zinc ; another 
orange color, 13f parts copper and 2 % parts zinc. The alloy is laminated 
into very fine leaves with careful annealing, and these are levigated into im- 
palpable powders, along with a film of fine oil, to prevent oxidizement, and 
to flavor the levigation. 

General Directions for Bronzing.-— The choice of the above pow- 
ders is of course determined by the degree of brilliancy you wish to obtain. 
The powder is mixed with strong gum water or isinglass, and laid on with 
a brush or pencil; and, not so dry as to have still a certain clamminess, a 
piece of soft leather wrapped round the finger is dipped in the powder, and 
rubbed over the work. When the work lias been all covered with the 



504 PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 

bronze, it must be left to dry, and any loose powder then cleared away by 
a hair-pencil. 

Bronzing Iron. — The subject should be heated to a greater degree than 
the hand can bear, and German gold mixed with a small quantity of spirit of 
wine varnish, spread over it with a pencil ; should the iron be already polish- 
ed, you must heat it well, and moisten it with a linen rag dipped in vinegar. 

Dyes for Veneers. — A fine Black. — Put 6 lbs. of logwood chips into 
your copper, with as many veneers as it will hold without pressing too 
tight, fill it with water, let it boil slowly for about 3 hours, then add \ lb. of 
jiowdered verdigris, ^ lb. copperas, bruised gall-nuts, 4 ozs. ; fill the copper 
up with vinegar as the water evaporates ; let it boil gently 2 hours each 
day till the wood is dyed through. A fine Blue. — Put oil of vitriol, 1 lb., 
and 4 ozs. of the best powdered indigo in a glass bottle. Set it in a glazed 
earthen pan, as it will ferment. Now put your veneers into a copper or 
stone trough ; fill it rather more than one-third with water, and add as much 
of the vitriol and indigo (stirring it about) as will make fine blue, testing it 
with a piece of white jjaper or wood. Let the veneers remain till the dye 
has struck through. Keep the solution of indigo a few weeks before using 
it ; this improves the color. Fine Yellow. — Reduce 4 lbs. of the root of bar- 
berry to dust by sawing, which put in a copper or brass trough ; add tur- 
meric, 4 ozs. ; water, 4 gals. ; then put in as many white holly veneers as 
the liquor will cover. Boil them together 3 hours, often turning them. 
When cool, add aquafortis, 2 ozs., and the dye will strike through much 
sooner. Bright Green. — Proceed as in the previous recipe to produce a 
yellow ; but, instead of aquafortis, add as much of the vitriolated indigo 
(see above, under blue dye) as will produce the desired color. Bright Red. 
— Brazil dust, 2 lbs.; add water, 4 gals. Put in as many veneers as the 
liquid will cover ; boil them for 3 hours, then add alum, 2 ozs., aqua-fortis, 2 
ozs. ; and keep it luke-warm until it has struck through. Purple. — To 2 lbs. 
of chip logwood and \ lb. Brazil dust, add 4 gals, of water ; and after put- 
ting in your veneers, boil for 3 hours ; then add pearlash, 9 ozs., and 
alum, 2 oz. ; let them boil for 2 or 3 hours every day till the color has struck 
through. Orange. — Take the veneers out of the above yellovr dye, while 
still wet and saturated, transfer them to the bright red dye till the color 
penetrates throughout. 

Strong Glue for Inlaying or Veneering. — Select the best light 
brown glue, free from clouds and streaks. Dissolve this in water, and to 
every pint add half a gill of the best vinegar and ^ oz. of isinglass. For 
other glues see Engineers' Department. 

Beautiful Varnish for Violins, &c. — Rectified spirits of wine, igal.; 
add 6 oz. gum sandarac, 3 oz. gum mastic, and -J- pint turpentine varnish ; 
put the above in a tin can by the stove, frequently shaking till well dis- 
solved : strain and keep for use. If you find it harder than you wish, thin 
with more turpentine varnish. 

Another. — Heat together at a low temperature 2 qts. of alcohol, ^ pint 
turpentine varnish, and 1 lb. clean gum mastic ; when the latter is thor- 
oughly dissolved, strain through a cloth. 

Varnish for Frames, etc. — Lay the frames over with tin or silver foil 
by means of plaster of Paris, glue or cement of some kind, that the foil may 
be perfectly adherent to the wood ; then apply your gold lacquer varnish, 
which is made as follows : Ground turmeric, 1 lb. ; powdered gamboge, 1^ 
ounces ; powdered sandarac, 3^ lbs. ; powdered shellac, ^ lbs. ; spirits of 
wine, 2 gals. ; dissolve and strain; then add turpentine varnish, 1 pint; and 
it is ready for use. 

Banner Painting. — Lay out the letters very accurately with charcoal 
or crayon, then saturate the cloth with water to render the painting easj'. 
On large work a stencil will be found useful. Take a piece of tin, lay the 
straight edge to the mark, brush over with a sash tool, and by this means 
j'ou will make a very clean-edged letter. Use stiff bristle pencils in paint- 
ing on canvas. 



PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 505 

Oil Cloth Painting. — To paint canvas for floors, the cnnvas should 
first be saturated with ghie-water or flour paste, and allowed to dry first, 
then paint it with any color desired. To ])ut in the figures, cut out de- 
signs in tin plates or stiff paper, and stencil them on in various colors. 

To Imitate Marble. — For white marble, get up a pure white ground, 
then hokl a lighted candle near the surface, and allow the smoke to form 
the shades and various tints desired. This will make a very handsome imi- 
tation. Black marble imitation is made by streaking a black surface with 
colors, using a feather and pencil. Another plan is to get up a smooth black 
surface : then take the colors, green, yellow, red, wliite, &c., ground thick 
in gold size, and streak the surface with a stick or pencil. Allow it to drj', 
and apply a lieavy coat of lampblack and yellow ochre, mixed with rough 
stuff. When all is hard, rub down to a level surface with lump pumice- 
stone, varnish, and a beautiful variegated marble will be the result. 

To Repair the Silvering of Mirrors. — Pour upon a sheet of tin foil 
3 drs. of quicksilver to the square foot of foil. Rub smartly' with a piece of 
buckskin until the foil becomes brilliant. Lay tlie glass upon a flat table, 
face downwards, place the foil upon the damaged portion of the glass, lay 
a sheet of paper over the foil, and place upon it a block of wood or a piece 
of marble with a perfectly flat surface; put upon it sufficient weight to 
press it down tight ; let it remain in this position a few hours. The foil will 
adhere to the glass. 

To Silver Looking Glasses. — A sheet of tin-foil corresponding to tlie 
size of the plate of glass is evenly spread on a perfectly smooth and solid 
marble table, and every wrinkle on its surface is carefully rubbed down 
with a brush : a portion of mercury is then poured on, and rubbed over the 
foil with a clean piece of soft woollen stuff, after which, two rules are ap- 
plied to the edges, and mercury poured on to the depth of a crown piece ; 
when any oxide on the surface is carefully removed, and the sheet of glass, 
perfectly clean and dry, is slid along over the surface of the liquid metal 
so that no air, dirt, or oxide can possibly either remain or get between 
them. When the glass has arrived at its proper position, gentle pressure 
is applied, and the table sloped a little to carry off the waste mercury ; 
after winch it is covered with flannel, and loaded with heavy weights ; in 
twenty-four hours it is removed to another table, and further slanted, and 
this position is progressively increased during a month, till it becomes per- 
pendicular. 

To attach Glass or Metal Letters to Plate Glass. — Copal var- 
nish, 15 parts; drying oil, 5 parts ; turpentine, 3 parts; oil of turpentine, 2 
parts ; liquefied glue, 5 parts. Melt in a water bath and add 10 parts of 
slaked lime. 

Varnishes. — Common Oil Varnish. — Resin, 4 lbs. ; beeswax, Jib. ; boiled 
oil, 1 gallon ; mix with heat ; then add spirits of turpentine, 2 quarts. 
Chinese Varnish. — Mastic, 2 oz. ; sandarac, 2 oz. ; rectified spirits, 1 pt. ; close 
the matrass with bladder, with a pinhole for the escape of vapor ; heat to 
boiling in a sand or water bath, and when dissolved, strain through linen. 
Metallic Varnish for Coach Bodies. — Asphaltum, 56 lbs. ; melt, then add lith- 
arge, 9 lbs. ; red lead, 7 lbs. Boil, then add boiled oil 12 gals. ; yellow resin, 
12 lbs. Again boil until, in cooling, the mixture may be rolled into pWls ; 
then add spts. of turpentine, 30 gals. ; lampblack, 7 lbs. Mix well. Mastic 
Varnish. — Mastic, 1 lb. ; white wax, 1 oz. ; spirits turpentine, 1 gallon ; re- 
duce the gums small ; then digest it with heat in a close vessel till dissolved. 
Turpentine Varnish. — Resin, 1 lb. ; boiled oil, 1 lb. ; melt ; then add turpen- 
tine, 2 lbs. Mix well. Pale Varnish. — Pale African copal, 1 part ; fuse. 
Then add hot pale oil, 2 parts. Boil the mixture till it is stringy ; then cool 
a little, and add spirits of turpentine, 3 parts. Lacquer Varnish. — A good 
lacquer is made by coloring lac varnish with turmeric and annatto. Add 
as much of these two coloring substances to the varnish as will give the 
proper color ; then squeeze the varnish, through a cotton clotli when it forms 
lacquer. Gold Varnish. — Digest shellac, sixteen parts, gum sandarac, nias- 

22 



506 PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 

tic, of each three parts ; crocus, one part ; gum gamboge, two parts ; all 
brui&ed, witli alcohol, one hundred and forty-four parts. Or, digest seed lac, 
sandarac, mastic, of each eight parts ; gamboge, two parts ; dragon's 
blood, one part ; white turpentine, six parts ; turmeric, four parts ; bruised 
witli alcohol, one hundred and twenty parts. Deep Gold- Colored Lacquer.^ 
Seed lac, 3 oz. ; turmeric, 1 oz. ; dragon's blood, one-fourth ounce ; alcohol, 
1 pt. ; digest for a week, frequently shaking; decant, and filter. Lacquers 
are used upon polished metals and wood to impart the appearatice of gold. 
If 3'ellow is required, use turmeric, aloes, saffron or gamboge ; for red, use 
annatto, or dragon's blood, to color. Turmeric, gamboge, and dragon's 
blood generally afford a sufficient range of colors. Gold Lacquer. — Put into 
a clean 4 gal. tin, 1 lb. of ground turmeric, \\ oz. of gamboge, r,\ lbs. pow- 
dered gum sandarac, | pound of shellac, and 2 gals, of spirits of wine. 
When shaken, dissolved, and strained, add 1 pint of turpentine varnish, well 
mixed. Varnish for Tools. — Take taHow, 2 ozs. ; resin, 1 oz. ; and melt to- 
gether. Strain while hot, to get rid of specks wliich are in the resin ; apply 
a slight coat on your tools with a brush, and it will keep off rust for any 
length of time. Gold Vm-nish. — Turmeric, 1 drachm ; gamboge, 1 drachm ; tur- 
pentine, 2 pints ; shellac, 5 ozs. ; dragon's blood, 8 drachms ; thin mastic 
varnish, 8 oz. ; digest with occasional agitation for 14 days ; then set aside to 
fine, and pour off the clear. Beautiful Pale Amber Varnish. — Amber, pale 
and transparent, 6 lbs. ; fuse ; add hot clarified linseed oil, 2 gals. ; boil till 
it strings strongly, cool a little, and add oil of turpentine, 4 gals. This soon 
becomes very hard and is the most durable of oil-varnishes. When wanted 
to dry quicker, drying oil may be substituted for linseed, or " driers" may 
be added during tlie cooling. Black Coach Varnish. — Amber, 1 lb. ; fuse ; 
add hot drying oil, J pt. ; powdered black resin and Naples asphaltum, of 
each 3 ozs. When properly incorporated and considerably cooled, add oil of 
turpentine, 1 pt. Bodi^ Varnish. — Finest African copal, 8 lbs. ; fuse care- 
fully ; add clarified oil, 2 gals. ; boil gently for 4^ hours, or until quite 
stringy ; cool a little, and thin with oil of turpentine, 3^ gals. Dries slowly. 
Carriage Varnish. — Sandarac, 19 ozs. ; pale shellac, 9^ ozs. ; very pale trans- 
parent resin, 12^ oz. ; turpentine, 18 oz. ; 85 per cent, alcohol, 5 pts. ; dissolve. 
Used for the internal parts of carriage, &c. Dries in ten minutes. Cabinet- 
makers' Varnish. — Very pale shellac, 6 lbs. ; mastic, 7 ozs. ; alcohol, 90 per 
cent., 5 or 6 pts. ; dissolve in the cold with frequent stirring. Used for French 
polisliing, &c. Japanners' Copal Varnish. — Pale African copal, 7 lbs. ; fuse ; 
add clarified linseed oil, ^ gal. ; boil five minutes, remove it into the open 
air, add boiling oil of turpentine, 2 gals. ; mix well, strain it into the cistern, 
and cover it up immediately. Used to varnish furniture, and by japanners, 
coach-makers, &c. Copal Varnish. — Pale. hard copal, 8 lbs.; add hot and 
pale drying oil, 2 gals. ; boil till it strings strongly, cool a little, and thin 
with hot rectified oil of turpentine, 3 gals. ; and strain immediately into the 
store can. Very fine. Gold Varnish of Watin, for Gilded Articles. — Gum 
lac in grains, gamboge, dragon's blood, and annatto, of each \2^ oz. ; saffron, 
Z\ oz. Each resin must be dissolved separate!}^ in 5 pts. of 90 per cent, 
alcohol, and 2 separate tinctures must be made with the dragon's blood and 
annatto in a like quantity of. spirits ; and a proper proportion of each mixed 
together to produce the required sliade. Transparent Varnish for Ploughs, 
&c. — Best alcohol, 1 gal. ; gum sandarac, 2 lbs. ; gum mastic, \ lb. ; place 
all in a tin can which admits of being corked ; cork tight, shake it frequent- 
ly, occasionally placing the can in hot water. When dissolved, it is read.v 
for use. Fine Black Varnish for Coaches. — -Melt in an iron pot, amber, 32 
ozs. ; resin, 6 ozs. ; asphaltum, 6 ozs. ; drying linseed oil, 1 pt. ; when partly 
cooled, add oil of tur{)entine, warmed, Ipint. Mordant Varnish. — Dissolve 1 
oz. mastic, 1 oz. sandarac, | oz. gum gamboge, and \ oz. turpentine in 6 ozs. 
spirits turpentine. One of the simplest mordants is that procured by dis- 
solving a little honey in thick glue. It has the effect of greatly heightening 
the color of the gold, and the leaf sticks extremely well. Changing Varnish. 
— To imitate Gold or Silver, Sj-c. Put ^ oz. best gum gamboge into 32 oz. 



PAINTERS, PAPER HAKGERS, &C. 507 

spirits of turpentine ; 4 oz. dragon's blood into 3 ozs. spirits of turpentine ; 
and 1 oz. of annatto into 8 ozs. spirits of turpentine, nialiing tiie 3 mixtures 
in different vessels. Keep them in a warm place, exposed to the sun as 
mucli as possible, for about 2 weeks, when the}' will be fit for use. Add 
together such quantities of each liquor as the nature of the color you are 
desirous of obtaining will point out. Transparent Varnish, for Wood. — Best 
alcohol, 1 gal. ; nice gum sliellac, 2^ lbs. Place the jug or bottle in a situa- 
tion to keep it just a little warm, and it will dissolve quicker than if hot, or 
left cold. Patent Varnish/or Wood or Canvas. — Take spirits of turpentine, 
1 gal. ; asphaltum, 2J lbs. ; put them into an iron kettle which will fit upon 
a stove, and dissolve the gum by heat. When dissolved and a little cool 
add copal varnish, 1 pt. ; and boiled linseed oil, 1 pt. ; wlien cold, it is ready 
for use. Perhaps a little lampblack would make it a more perfect black. 

Black Varnish for Coal Buckets. — Asphaltum, 1 lb.; lampblack, J 
lb.; resin, ^ lb. ; spirits of turpentine, 1 qt. Dissolve the asphaltum and 
resin in the turpentine, then rub up the lampblack with linseed oil, only 
BufBcient to form a paste, and mix with the other. Apply witli a brush. 

Varnish for Iron. — Asphaltum, 8 lbs. ; melt in an iron kettle, slowly 
adding boiled linseed oil, 5 gals. ; litliarge, 1 lb. ; and sulphateof zinc, ^ lb. ; 
continuing to boil for 3 hours ; then add dark gum amber, 1^ lbs. ; continue 
to boil for 2 hours longer. When cool, reduce to a proper consistence to 
apply with ji brush, with spirits of turpentine. 

Varnish for smooth moulding Patterns. — Alcohol, 1 gal. ; shellac, 1 
lb. ; lamp or ivor^- l)lack, sufficient to color it. 

Varnish for Boilers. — Asphaltum dissolved in turpentine. 

Varnish for Baskets. — Take either red, black, or white sealing-wax, 
whichever color you wish to make ; to every two ounces of sealing-wax, add 
one ounce of spirit of wine, pound the wax fine, then sift it through a fine 
lawn sieve, till you have made it extremely fine, put it into a large pliial 
with spirits of wine, siiake it, let it stand near the fire forty-eight hours, 
shaking it often ; then with a little brush, rub your baskets all over with it, 
let them dry, and do them over a second time. 

Varnish for Cardwork. — Before varnishing cardwork, it must receive 
two or three coats of size, to prevent the absorption of the varnish and any 
injury to the design. Tlie size may be made by dissolving a little isin- 
glass in hot water, or by boiling some parchment cuttings until dissolved. 
In either case the solution must be strained througli a piece of clean muslin, 
and for very nice purposes should be clarified with a little white of egg. A 
small clean brush, called by painters a sash tool, is the best for applying the 
size, as well as the varnish. A light delicate touch must be adopted especi- 
ally for the first coat, lest the ink or color be started or smothered. 

Varnish for Drawings. — Boil some parchment in clear water, in a glaz- 
ed pipkin, until it becomes a fine clear size ; strain and keep it for use ; give 
your work two coats, observing to do it quickly and lightly. When dry, 
apply the varnish. 

Varnish for Grates. — Melt four pounds of common asphaltum, and add 
two pints of linseed oil, and one gallon of oil of turpentine. This is usually 
put up in stoneware bottles for sale, and is used with a paint brush. If .too 
thick, more turpentine may be added. 

Varnish for Paper Hangings. — The clieapest kind is ordinary turpen- 
tine varnish, which can be bought for three shillings a gallon. Another 
kind is paper or crystal varnish, the price of which is six shillings per gal- 
lon, but owing to the great proportion of turpentine which these contain, 
they are not to be depended on for use. 

Milk Paint, for Barns, any Color. — Mix water lime with skim milk, 
to a proper consistence to apply with a brush, and it is readj- to use. It will 
adhere well to wood, whetlier smooth or rough, to brick, mortar, or stone, 
where oil has not been used (in which case it cleaves to some extent), and 
forms a very hard substance, as durable as the best oil paint. It is too 
cheap to estimate, and any one can put it on who can use a brush. Any 



508 PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 

color may be given to it, by using colors of tlie tinge desired. If a red is 
preferred, mix Venetian red with milk, not using any lime. It looks well 
for fifteen years. 

Paint. — To Make without Lead or Oil. — Whiting, 5 lbs. ; skimmed 
milk, 2 qts. ; fresh slaked lime, 2ozs. Put the lime into a stoneware vessel, 
pour upon it a sufficient quantity of tlie milk to make a mixture resembling 
cream ; the balance of the milk is then to be added ; and lastly, the whiting 
is to be crumbled upon the surface of the fluid, in which it gradually sinks. 
At this period it must be well stirred in or ground, as you would other paint, 
and it is fit for use. 

Paris Green. — Take unslaked lime of the best quality, slake it with hot 
water ; then take the finest part of the powder, and add alum water as 
strong as it can be made, sufficient to form a thick paste ; then color it with 
bichromate of potash and sulphate of copper until the color suits j^our 
fancy, and dry it for use. N.B. — The sulphate of copper gives a blue tinge ; 
the bichromate of potash, a yellow. Observe tins, and you will get it right. 

Beautiful Green Paint for Walls. — Take 4 lbs. Roman vitriol, and 
pour on it a teakettleful of boiling water. When dissolved, add 2 lbs. 
pearlash, and stir the mixture well with a stick until the effervescence 
ceases ; then add^ lb. pulverized yellow arsenic, and stir the whole togetlier. 
Lay it on with a paint brush ; and if the wall has not been painted before, 
2 or even 3 coats will be requisite. If a pea-green is required, put in less, 
if an apple-green, more, of the yellow arsenic. This paint does not cost the 
quarter of oil paint, and looks better. 

Blue Color for Ceilings, &c. — Boil slowly for 8 hours 1 lb. blue vitriol 
and ^ lb. of the best whiting in about 3 qts. water ; stir it frequently while 
boiling, and also on taking it off the fire. When it has stood till quite cold, 
pour off the blue liquid, then mix the cake of color with good size, and 
use it with a plasterer's brush in the same manner as whitewash, either 
for walls or ceilings. 

Painting in Milk. — Skimmed milk, J gallon ; newly slaked lime, 6 oz. ; 
and 4 oz. of poppy, linseed, or nut oil ; and 3 lbs. Spanish white. Put the 
lime into an earthen vessel or clean bucket ; and having poured on it a 
sufficient quantity of milk to make it about the thickness of cream, add the 
oil in small quantities a little at a time, stirring the mixture well. Then put 
in tlie rest of the milk, afterwards the Spanish white finely powdered, or 
any other desired color. For out-door work add 2 oz. each more of oil and 
slaked lime, and 2 oz. of Burgundy pitch dissolved in the oil by a gen- 
tle lieat. 

Premium Paint without Oil or Lead. — Slake stone-lime with boiling 
water in a tub'or barrel to keep in the steam ; then pass 6 quarts through a 
fine sieve. Now to this quantity add 1 quart of coarse salt, and a gallon of 
water; boil the mixture, and skim it clear. To every five gallons of this 
skimmed mixture, add 1 lb. alum ; ^ lb. copperas ; and by slow degrees ^ 
lb. potash, and 4 quarts sifted ashes or fine sand ; add any coloring desired. 
A more durable paint was never made. 

Green Paint for Garden Stands, Blinds, &c. — Take mineral green, 
and white lead ground in turpentine, mix up the quantity you wish with a 
small quantity of turpentine varnish. This serves for the first coat. For 
the second, put as much varnish in your mixture as will produce a good 
gloss. If you desire a brighter green, add a little Prussian blue, which will 
much improve the color. 

To Bleach Oil. — Pour as much linseed oil into a shallow earthen vessel 
as will stand one inch deep, then pour in 6 inches of water, cover with a 
fine cloth, and let the whole stand in the sun for a few weeks until the 
liquid becomes thick, when it should be poured into a phial and submitted 
to a gentle heat ; after which the clear is to be poured off and strained 
through a flannel cloth. 

Mixture to Remove old Paint. — Dissolve 1 lb. potash in 3 pts. water 
over the fire, then add yellow ochre or some common dry paint until it is as 



PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 509 

thick as rough stuff ; spread this over your old paint, and after a little it 
will come otf quite easily, then wash the wood with soap and water to re- 
move all the potash, dry off and sand-paper, then give a coat of clean raw 
oil. Another method is to heat a heavy piece of iron and apply to the 
paint, which will cause it to become loose and soft, so that it may be scraped 
off with a knife. Still another method is to direct the flame of a spirit 
lamp (which may be constructed for the purpose) on the old paint, scrap- 
ing it off as it softens. 

Porcelain Colors. — The following are some of the colors used in the 
celebrated porcelain manufactory of Sevres, and the proportions in which 
they are compounded. Though intended for porcelain painting, nearly all 
are applicable to painting on glass. Flux No. 1. Minum or red lead, 3 parts; 
white sand, washed, 1 part. This mixture is melted, by which it is con- 
verted into a greenish-colored glass. Flux No. 2. Grey flux. — Of No. 1, 8 
?arts ; fused borax in powder, 1 part. This mixture is melted. Flux No. 3. 
''or carmines and Green. — Melt together fused borax, 5 parts; calcined flints, 

3 parts ; pure minum, 1 part. No. 1. Indiyo blue. — Oxide of cobalt, 1 part; 
flux No. 3, 2 parts. Deep azure blue. — Oxide of cobalt, 1 part ; oxide of zinc, 
2 parts ; flux No. 3, 5 parts. No. 2. Emerald Green. — Oxide of copper, 1 part ; 
antimonic acid, 10 parts ; flux No. 1, 30 parts. Pulverize together, and melt. 
No. 3. Grass green. — Green oxide of chromium, 1 part ; flu.x No. 3, 3 parts. 
Triturate and melt. No. 4. Yellow. — Antimonic acid, 1 part ; subsulpbate 
of the peroxide of iron, 8 parts ; oxide of zinc, 4 parts ; flux No. 1, 36 parts. 
Rub up together and melt. If tiiis color is too deep the salt of iron is dimin- 
ished. No. 5. Fixfd yellow for touches. — No. 4, 1 part ; white enamel of com- 
merce, 2 parts. Melt and pour out ; if not sutiiciently fixed, a little sand 
maybe added. No. 6. Deep Nankin yellow. — Subsulpbate of iron, 1 part; 
oxide of zinc, 2 parts ; flux No. 2, 8 parts. Triturate witliout melting. 
No. 7. Deep Red. — Subsulpbate of iron, calcined in a muffle until it becomes 
of a beautiful capucine red, 1 part ; flux No. 2, 3 parts. Mix without melting. 
No. 8. Liver Brown. — Oxide of iron made of a red brown, and mixed with 
three times its weight of flux No. 2. A tenth of sieima earth is added to it, 
if it is not deep enough. No. 9. White. — The white enamel of commerce in 
cakes. No. 10. Deep Black. — Oxide of cobalt, 2 parts ; copper, 2 parts ; oxide 
of manganese, 1 part ; flux No. 1, 6 parts ; fused borax, J4 p-irt. Melt, and 
add oxide of manganese, 1 part ; oxide of copper, 2 parts. Triturate with- 
out melting. The application. — Follow the general directions given in another 
part of this work, in relation to staining glass. 

How TO Write on Glass in the Sun. — Dissolve chalk in aqua-fortis to 
the consistency of milk, and add to that a strong dissolution of silver. Keep 
this in a glass decanter well stopped. Then cut out from a paper the letters 
you will have appear, and paste the paper on the decanter or jar, which you 
are to place in tlie sun in such a manner that its rays may pass through the 
spaces cut out of the paper, and fall on the surface of the liquor. The part 
of the glass through which the rays pass will turn black, whilst that under 
the paper will remain white. Do not shake the bottle during the operation. 
Used in lettering jars. 

Colored Potter's Glazings. — White: prepare an intimate mixture of 

4 parts of massicot, 2 of tin ashes, 3 fragments of crystal glass, and ^ part 
of sea salt. The mixture is suffered to melt in earthenware vessels, when the 
liquid flux may be used. Yellow : take equal parts of massicot, red lead, and 
sulphuret of antimony, calcine the mixture, and reduce it again to powder, 
add then 2 parts of pure sand, and 1^ parts of salt ; melt the whole. Green : 
2 parts of sand, 3 parts massicot, 1 part of salt and copper scales, according 
to the shade to be produced ; melt and use. Violet : 1 part massicot, 3 parts 
sand, 1 of smalt, y^ part of black oxide of manganese; melt. Blue: white 
sand and massicot, equal parts; blue smalt, }i part; melt. Black: black 
oxide of manganese, 2 parts ; smalt, ^ part ; burned quartz, 1 i)art; massi- 
cot, 1^ parts ; melt. Brown : green bottle glass, 1 part ; manganese, 1 part ; 
lead, 2 parts ; melt. 



510 PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 

Useful Hints For Carriage Painters. — It is usual to apply three 
coats of oil paint as a priming to commence witli, and it is safe to use, say 
% drying oil and | turpentine, witli a little fine litharge ground in, about 2 
ozs. to every 20 lbs. of paint. Tliis hardens the priming better tlian patent 
dryer, and works better under the sand-paper, Wlien the first coating is 
hard and dry, rub down with your sand-paper and be sure to make perfectly 
level work among tlie irregularities, deficiencies and ridges on the surface of 
your work. 

Next dust your work carefully, and with your putty knife go over the 
whole surface and putty up every crevice, split, crack or knot-liole with the 
hard drying putty iiereafter mentioned. Be very careful not to overlook the 
slightest flaw, but bring every spot to a true and perfect level. Now dust 
off the work again, preparatory to a second coating. Tliin your color with 
turpentine, if too stout or tliick, but do not use thin color, for it neitlier 
covers well, nor rubs down well. For dark colors, use a dark lead color for 
the oil coats, but, for prepariug for such a color as light green, let the color 
be light lead color, if for a yellow, begin with white, or slightly tinted with 
chrome yellow. 

Be careful with your second coat, to lay it fair, regular, and equal, over 
each and every part of the work, and when it is thoroughly dry, rub down 
witli a finer quality of sand-paper tlian the last, being careful to make the 
surface perfectly smooth and even. Now commence to give the third coat, 
(after dusting off), putting on the paint not too lavishly, but rub it out 
well. 

The ne.xt step, when the last is hard and dry, is to apply the filling up 
coats. For a good composition see receipt for " Rough Stuff" for carriage 
work. Anotlier good filling consists of dry French yellow, a small quantity 
of white lead, the same amount of whiting, a little red lead, about one-six- 
teentli of litharge, and of drying Japan enough to nearl}' mix it, put in a 
very little drying oil, and turpentine to thin to a suitable thickness to make 
it spread like a stiff coat of paint. Thin so that it can be applied easily, and 
flow on full and free. Applj' tliis composition, giving the body, shafts, 
wheels, springs, &c., a good coat, levelling off any hollows &c., existing in 
the parts, and when this coat becomes perfectly hard give it another. The 
next step, after this last coat dries hard, is to rub it down with lump pumice- 
stone, first rubbing the pumice flat upon a stone before commencing to use 
it. In rubbing down with lump pumice use plenty of water, freely supplied 
from the sponge in your left hand ; be very cautious to avoid cutting 
through, and feel the parts frequently as the work progresses, to ascertain 
when all is sufficiently smooth and hard, then with 3'our sponge wash off the 
work nicely, and with your wash leather wrung out, dry it off clean and 
smooth. 

The next step is to paint the carriage. See to it that your colors are 
freshly ground, your paint mill, pots, tins, brushes, &c., perfectly clean. Apply 
your color the proper thickness, expeditiously and neatly, so tliat the work 
will present a good clean appearance. The following directions will be 
found useful in mixing tlie designated colors. Dark Green, OliveShade. Take 
deep chrome yellow and powdered drop black, mix in a pot with tlie drying 
Japan, and a little turjientine, grind all together, test to be sure that the 
color is rigiit, if wished lighter, add more chrome yellow, if darker, more 
drop black, grade the color to the proper thickness, and apply at once. Two 
coats will be required. Ultramarine blue. For your ground color, grind 
good Prussian blue in oil, and add to white lead as much of the blue as will 
make it sufficiently dark to form aground for the ultramarine blue, two coats 
of this will be required. When hard and dry, grind some of the best ultra- 
marine blue on the stone with a quantity of varnish, add enough of this to 
3'our body flowing varnish to impart the right color. Two good coats of 
this beautiful color- will be necessary' ; use sugar of lead as a dryer. Before 
giving tlie second coat rub down with ground pumice and water, using a 
cloth ; the next coat will flow all the better for this treatment. After a few 



PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 511 

day8Tub down again with ground pumice and water, wash, and dry with 
your clianiois skin, wlien tlie work will be ready for picking out and striping. 
CUiretor Lake. Vermilion and rose pink, in oil, same as the last, for first coat. 
When hardened dry, give anotlier light coat, previously rubbing down with 
ground pumice and water, as directed for blue. For a rich light claret be 
sparing of your rose pink in the ground color ; for dark claret, use more rose 
pink. For darker shades use more rose pink in the ground color, then use 
the best crimson lake, same way as for the liglit claret, two good coats will 
do. For a purple shade of claret use vermilion, rose pink, a spice of ultra- 
marine blue, for a ground color. Then add the proper quantity of ground 
purple lake to body flowing varnish, and applv two coats. Japan Brown. 
Grind drop black in Japan, using enough vermilion to be visible. Chrome 
Greens. Grind your greens in Japan, or use greens composed of chrome 3'el- 
low and Prussian blue. Carmine Color on Fire Engines, Sfc. Cheap Method. 
For a ground, use the best English vermilion, then add pure carmine, grqund 
in a little drj-ing oil, to your body flowing varnish, and appl}' two coats care- 
fully. This method extends the precious color so tliat an ounce will suffice 
for a carriage or machine. Oxford Brown. Use a little chrome yellow, India 
red, best ochre, white lead, burnt umber, just white enougli to be seen ; 
yellow is tlie leading color ; red to warm it, and umber to impart the brown 
shade. Rich Purple. Vermilion and Prussian blue, with a little wlute, a 
very cheap, nice color. Fairn Color. Use yellow, red, a little black, a little 
terra de sienna, or burnt umber may be added to obtain the right shade. 
Drab Color. White ^nd raw umber form a cool drab which may be varied 
with chrome, or red, as may be desired. Plum Brown. Drop black and ver- 
milion makes a very good color at a cheap rate. 

To Copy AN Ornament. — Place the paper or other article containing the 
ornament against a pane of glass ; then laying a sheet of thin paper over it, 
you can copy it exactly with a lead pencil. 

Ornaments, in the shape of decalcomanie or other gilded pictures may be 
easily transferred to carriages or coaches by following the directions given 
in transferring pictures. See furtlier on. 

Striping or " Picking out," for Carriage Work. — Great care is re- 
quired in this part of the work to carry a steady hand so that the lines may 
be drawn equidistant, clean and neat. For fine lines, grind the color in dry- 
ing oil, as it makes the best work. Japan color will do for broad or coarse 
lines, on blue ground. If a large carriage, with heavy wheels, draw lines with 
Frankfort-black, Japan mixed color from three-quarter inch to one inch 
broad, on all parts of the carriage wheels, springs, spokes, hubs, &c., then 
draw fine lines of light orange or light primrose color, about three-eighths or 
a quarter inch from the broad black line, with one fine line around the edges 
of the black nuts and bolt heads. On superior work, pure white, gold, or 
deep orange lines may be drawn down the middle of tlie black lines produc- 
ing a very fine effect ; on cjreens, pick out with black, if a light green, black 
lines will be sufficient, if desired better, run up the centre of the black lines 
with white, not too fine. On dark green, pick out with black, running very 
fine lines on each side of the black three-eigliths of an inch off the black. 
This also sets off a very bright green to good advantage. On Clarets, pick 
out with black, with vermilion, or rich orange fine side lines, or light orange 
side lines with vermilion line run up the centre of the black ; or light gold 
line up tlie centre of one large black line. On Oxford Brown, pick out with 
black, fine line with vermilion or medium tint of chrome yellow with slight 
tint of red in it ; or part the black line with white, down the centre. On 
Fawn Colors, pick out with broad black, fine line with white on each edge, 
or brown drab shade. On Japan or Plum Browns, vermilion line has the best 
appearance. On Olives or Quakers' Greens, pick out with black, with white 
for fine lines, or orange or light green. On Drabs, pick out with black, fine 
line with vermilion, or high colored orange, or wliite centre line for extra 
finish. On Purple, pick out with black, fine line with a bright tint of orange 
or vermilion. 



512 PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 

Varnishing of Coaches and Carriages. — In this, as well as in the 
painting department, absolute cleanliness is indispensable, as regards 
brushes, pots, freedom from dust, &c., When your work is ready, if it is 
tlie under carriage, apply a good full coat of carriage varnish, and when 
through with this part of the process, go over it again, tliis time using body 
varnish. After it is liard and dry proceed to "flat" the work by lightly 
removing the gloss with ground pumice, water, and a woollen cloth, being 
careful not to cut into the lines or ground ; then clean away all the pumice, 
and dry off nicely with the chamois leather slightly wet. If you have cut 
through in any part, repair with Japan color previous to second coating. 
Let your second coat be very full and well laid on, but be careful that it 
does not run. A very superior gloss will be obtained on the wheels, if 
after the application of a good coat you spin them until the varnish is 
nearly set. 

If the second coat is not satisfactory, repeat the flattening process with 
your pumice, cloth and water, clean off as before and varnish again. 

In more costly polished work, commence with the very finest ground 
pumice or Tripoli, rub until you bring the work to a very smooth state, 
then wash off very clean and nice, dry and dust well. Use every precau- 
tion against dust, by sweeping and sprinkling your floor in every stage of 
polishing and varnishing. The next step in polishing is to use a fine cloth 
for a rubber, rotten-stone sifted fine through muslin, and mixed with olive 
oil ; rub with this until the gloss is restored, occasionally examining the 
progress of the work. This step being finished, wipe off with a perfectly 
clean cotton cloth, with a piece of the finest flax full of fine wheat flour or 
putty powder to go over the work, rubbing well to polisli it still farther, and 
remove every particle of the oil and rotten-stone previously used. Finish 
off by rubbing the work briskly with an old silk handkerchief, wliich will 
induce a beautiful fine gloss. In every instance when a polish and varnish 
finish is required, do not omit to lay on an extra coat of varnish, as it will 
greatly enhance the appearance of tlie work. ' 

Gilding and Ornamenting Carriages. — English gold size Is the best 
for this purpose. If you cannot get it ready prepared, make a substitute by 
using English varnish and Japan in equal parts. If the gilding is for strip- 
ing, you should mix a little chrome yellow with it, to be able to see the 
lines the better, but for lettering no coloring is required. Rub your job down 
smoothly, take a piece of muslin and tie up in it a little whitening to form a 
"pounce bag ;" with this dust over every part of the work where the gold 
leaf is to be put, to prevent the leaf sticking to the surface not covered by the 
size, or wash the job over with starch water, or rub it over with the raw 
surface of a potato cut in halves ; the juice of the potato soon dries, and 
leaves a tliin film to which the gold will not adhere. Either of the above 
metliods will do, and the coating will wash off when the gilding is dry. The 
surface prepared, take the size and put on the stripes, figures, or ornaments, 
and allow it to dry just enough to enable you to pass your finger over it 
without sticking, but if it is " tacky " when you place your finger upon it, it 
is ready for the gold leaf, which is to be applied in the way directed for gild- 
ing letters on wood. The gold letters may be shaded with ultramarine, car- 
mine, asplialtum, lake, Paris green, verdigris, &c., to suit the taste. 

Bronzing. — Gold bronze is used on carriage parts for striping and orna- 
menting, using the same size as that used for gold leaf. For taking up and 
applying the bronze, take a piece of plush or velvet and make a " pounce 
bag," by tying up a wad of cotton, rubbing the bronze gently over the size. 
To vary the appearance, a mixture of copper, gold, ancl silver bronze may 
be applied. For fancy work in bronze, cut out any desired pattern on thin 
sheet brass, pasteboard, or paper, and apply it to any nearly dry varnished 
surface ; rub the bronze on through the a()ertures in the pattern. 

Good Colors for Business Wagons. — No. 1. Bodij. — Chrome green ; 
frame or ribs black, striped with white or cream color. Running gear. — Cream 
color striped with red, blue or dark green, or black, and red fine line. No. 2. 



PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 513 

Body. — Yellow ; frame black, striped with blue or white. Rimning gear. — 
Light vermilion, striped with black and white. No. 3. Body. — Carmine ghize 
over Indian red. Running gear. — Vermilion. No. 4. Body. — Deep vermilion. 
Running gear. — Ligiit vermilion. • 

Priming for Carriage Work. — First coat of lead. Mix white lead with 
raw oil, 2 parts, Japan, 1 part, to make it proper for a thick coat, adding a 
very little turpentine to make it work easily. For carriage parts add a little 
Indian black, but not for bodies. Second coat of lead. — Mix white lead with 
1 part raw oil and 2 parts Japan, and a little turpentine, as before, adding 
lampblack for carriage i)arts, but none for the bodj'. — Third and fourth coat. 
Mix white lead into a tiiick paste with turpentine, add a little oil, Japan and 
rubbing varnish to bind the paint well ; add, for the carriage parts, a little 
lampblack and a little red lead. 

Hard Drying Putty. — For carriage loorJc. Mix dry white lead with 
Japan and rubbing varnisli, equal parts, to tlie proper consistency, beating it 
with a small mallet to bruise the lumps. Keep it, when not in use, in water, 
to prevent it drying. 

Rough Stuff. — For carriage work. Take 3 parts of English filling 
(ground state), 2 parts dry wlnte lead, 1 part white lead in oil. Mix with 
Japan, 2 parts ; rubbing varnish, 1 part. Mix and crush thoroughly by run- 
ning all tlirough the mill together. 

Facing Lead for Carriage Work. — Mix dry white lead with 2 parts 
Japan, 1 part rubbing varnisli, and tiiin witii spirits of turpentine, adding a 
little lampblack to make a clean lead color, and run all through the mill. 

Coach Painting — The panels of such work are generally painted in 
color, wliile tiie pillars, top strip, quarters, deck, &c., are always black ; 
umber colors, lakes, greens, and blues, are some of tlie best colors used on 
this work. To prepare the body for any of these colors, a ground color is 
used in the place of lampblack on black work. The following are a few 
approved grounds. Lake. — Indian red and vermilion mixed to a dark brown, 
but some prefer a black ground for lake. Ultramarine. — Mix a medium blue 
with white lead and Prussian blue. Vermilion. — A ligiit pink color is gener- 
ally used as a ground for vermilion. Green. — Green and all heavy-bodied 
colors will cover well on the lead colors without any ground color. Victoria 
lake and black Japan makes a fine color for carriages. 

Prepared Oil for Carriages, &c. — To 1 gal. linseed oil add 2 lbs. gum 
shellac ; litliarge, ^ lb. ; red lead, | lb. ; umber, 1 oz. Boil slowly as usual 
until the gums are dissolved ; grind your paints in this (any color), and 
reduce witii tur])entine. 

Rules For Measuring Painter's Work. — In regard to measuring work, 
it is generally understood that the measurer's judgment must be exercised 
to a great extent. Hence, all work that may not come under any of these 
heads, must be left entirely to liim. 

The following rules are given as sort of landmarks, and are intended to 
aid the painter, not only in the measurement after the work is finished, but 
in making out bills and propositions for work, and they will also enable him 
to guess at the value of a job. The price, however, or the amount of deduc- 
tion on this full bill, may be made according to tiie prices of material and 
wages ; for at some seasons both wages and material, as also living, are 
much cheaper than others, consequently a per cent, on or off the bill may 
sometimes be necessarv. 



Prices per Square Yard. 

Common Cheap Colors, — 

First coat 10 cents. 

Second coat, ....... 5 cents. 

Third coat, ........ 4 cents. 

Fourth coat, 4 cents. 

22* 



514 PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 

Blues, Chrome Yellow, Light Green, — 

First coat, . . .' 14 cents. 

Second coat, 10 cents, 

• Third coat, 7 cents. 

Fourth coat, 7 cents. 

Dark Green, Emerald, and other Costly Colors, — 

First coat 16 cents. 

Second coat, 14 cents. 

Third coat, 9 cents. 

Fourth coat, 8 cents. 

Sanding, — 8 cents. 

One coat over the sand, 14 cents. 

Second coat over the sand, 9 cents. 

Oiling brick, 6 cents. 

Pencilling brick, 12 cents. 

Painting on Brick, — 

First coat, 18 cents. 

Second coat, 10 cents. 

Third coat, 8 cents. 

Fourth coat, 8 cents. 

Other costly colors, per yard, extra, from 8 to 15 cents, according to the 
cost of the color and roughness of tlie work. 

Graining, per square yard, for fair jobs, $1.00; varying, however, 
according to the amount and quality of labor, adding or deducting 50 
cents. 

Polishing, per square yard, 60 cents. 
Puttying, for all work, add 5 per cent. 
Sand-papering and cleaning, 5 per cent. 

Girthing ok Measuring. 

Plain cornices, boxing, &c., girth once and a half, or one-half its measure- 
ment added. 

Block and dentile, or other equivalent ornament, once, twice, or three times 
its measurement added, according to the difficulty of the labor. 

All otlier ornament, difficult to paint or to get at, measure from once to 
five times its real girth. 

Barge boards, water spouts, gutters, &c., measure three times. 

Paling and railed gates, measure and a half, that is, three heights, besides 
girthing tlie. rails and posts of the railing, if done with one color ; but if the 
pales are topped witli another color, 1 foot extra. 

All stone facias, window and door arches, and sills, double. 

Window and door frames, in and outside, double. 

Venetian shutters, double tlie measure of plain work. 

Post and railed fences to be girthed both post and rails, and one half 
more added to tiie girth. 

"Window bars shall be measured square. Window sash the same, if done 
with one color ; but if done witli two, they shall be double measure. 

Corner strips on frame houses, if painted with a different color from the 
weatlier-boards, to girth double. 

Rougli weatlier-lxiardiiig and old roofs, double measure. 

Oiling and pencilling on brick work sliall be measured square, and on 
dead walls, from oTie-fifth to one-tliird added to the measurement. 

Balusters (either inside or outside), to be measured tliree sides; if the 
hand rail is capped with a different color, one foot more to be added. 

Corner strips, corner beads, and single architraves, double ; double archi- 
traves, girth three times. 

Pilasters, two or three times. 

String boards to girth twice. 



PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 515 

Wash boards, base boards, &c., double ; capped with another color, six 
inches added. 

Mouldings, measure twice or three times, according to work. 

Base, or staircase, twice and a half. 

Panels to be allowed two inclies in height and breadth for each panel; 
but if the panels are done with one color and stiles of another, measure and 
half ; if the mouldings are done witiLanother color, double measure. 

Edges of plain shelves, three iRches girth ; beaded or otherwise, from 
three to six inches girth. 

Painting on plastering shall be measured square, and the openings de- 
ducted ; making suitable allowance for cutting edges, and one-tliird added 
to tiie measurement. 

Sizing the walls of plastering, three cents per square yard. 

All beads or grooves too narrow to measure, one inch added for each. 

All picked out work, to be valued according to trouble. 

All work not herein expressed, to be measured according to the judg- 
ment of the measurer. 

Rules for Me.\sdrin(j Brick Work. — All painting on brick shall be 
measured square, and tiie openings deducted, that is to say, the actual open- 
ing which the sash or door occupies, allowing the thickness of the door or 
window-frames to make up for the reveals ; if the frames or reveals are of 
an uncommon thickness or depth, a proper allowance shall be made by the 
measurer. If the stone or brick caps or arches are or are not painted the 
same color as the wall, there shall be no change from the above rule ; but 
if tiiey are painted with a different color, they shall be called from one to 
two feet girth, the price to be according to color, and number of coats of that 
color. If the stone sills are done with a different or with the same color as 
the wall, they shall be called from one to two feet girth, according to color 
and number of coats. Stone or brick facias and water-tables, if done with 
the same color as the wall, they sliall be measured in witii it; but if paint- 
ed with a different color, they shall be measured the same as stone sills, &c. 

N. B. No reference is to be had to the above rules for measuring stone 
facias, &c., where the walls are not painted. 

Prices for Glazing. 

Prices for glazing new sash, and furnishing the putty, — 

8 by 10, per light, 4 cents. 

9 or 10 by 12, per light, 6^ cents. 

10 by 14 or 15, per light, 8 cents. 

11 by 15, per light, 9 cents. 

11 by 16, per light 10 cents. 

12 by 16 or 18, per light, .... 12| cents. 

14 by 20, per light, 16 cents. 

16 by 22, per light, 20 cents. 

When the glazier furnishes the glass, the usual retail prices shall be 
charged. If there is a percentage taken off the bill, the charge for the glass 
shall not be subject to it. 

When the glass is bedded, the glazing shall be doubled. If back-puttied, 
price and a half. 

Prices for glazing old sash, and furnishing the glass and putty, — 
8 by 10, per light, . . . . . . 12 J cents. 

9 or 10 by 12. per light, 18| cents. 

10 by 14 or 16, per light, . . . .25 cents. 

11 by 15, per light, 31J cents. 

11 by 16, per light, 37| cents. 

12 by 16 or 18, per light, .... 50 cents. 
14 by 20, per Ught, $1.00 

16 by 22, per light, $1.25 

When the glass is furnished, the usual retail prices shall be deducted 



516 PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 

from the above. If there is a per centage taken' off the bill, the charge for 
the glass shall not be subject to if. 

Prices of Sign Painting. — Lettering is measured running measure, meas- 
uring the length of each line of letters, without regard to their heights. 

Plain letters, per foot, 30 cents. 

One sliade, add 10 cents. 

Double shade, add 20 cents. 

Gold letters, per foot, $1.00 

Shading the same as other letters. 

Other fancy and ornamental letters and shading, shading on the surface 
of the gold, add according to labor, being guided by the standard. 

Japanned tin, in gold, running measure, per inch, 7 cents. 

Siiading, per inch, 2 cents. 

Lettering on glass, running measure, per inch, 7 cents. 

Colored letters on glass, tin, stone, or other columns, and all small boards, 
running measure, per inch, 3 cents. 

Dashes and other plain ornaments, measured as letters. 

Gold borders, per square inch, 3 cents. 

In gilding plain surfaces, the labor is equal to the cost of the gold. Or- 
naments in proportion to the labor. 

These rules will serve as a guide in proportioning the prices to the 
amount of labor. It would take a volume to adapt a full list of prices to 
meet every variety of lettering and ornamenting : and these prices may be 
considered as a standard, subject to being modified to suit the amount of 
cost and labor. 

Fresco Painting. — Steep good glue over night in water to soften, then 
melt in a suitable pot or kettle, applying the heat cautiously, so as not tp 
boil, as boiling will render it unfit for use. Then take as much Paris whit- 
ing as you think you will use for your first coat, beat it up thick with water 
to a perfect pulp to get rid of lumps, &c. Now put in a pail as much of 
this whiting mixture as will be required for your work and proceed to mix 
in the colors required to produce the desired shade. The colors, previously 
ground in water, should be cautiously mixed with the hand, and tiie shade 
tested by drying a little on a shingle or wliite paper ; if too dark, add more 
whiting, if too light, more color. Now add enough of your melted glue to 
bind or fix the color very hard so as not to rise or wash up witli your sec- 
ond coat, and test this on paper or wood also, otherwise you may ruin your 
work. For Yellow, ciirome yellow or different tints may be used. Buff or 
Drab can be got by a mixture of yellow ochre, red, blue, or black, and some- 
times umber is intermixed with good effect. Buff or drab colors may be 
produced by y.ellow ochre, chrome yellow, or raw sienna, intermixed with 
Turkey umber. For Green, mineral or Paris green are first class. Any 
good chrome green will suit very well. For Blue, use cobalt ultramarine 
blue, Prussian blue and verditer. For Gret/, use composition of white, blue, 
red and black. For lied use vermilion, Indian red, Venetian red, lake, 
carmine. For Pink or Hose tints, use a mixture of red witli wlnte, if 
not wanted bright, use Indian red, if a strong rich color is desired, use 
carmine, lake, Venetian red, or vermilion. For Black, use blue black and 
the Frankfort, or pure ivory black. For Browns for shadinr/, tf-c, use burnt 
sienna, burnt ochre, purple brown, colcother, burnt umber, Vandyke brown. 
For other tints, see Compound Colors. French Size for Gilding Ornmnents, 
Ceilinfjs, ^-c. Mix thick glue to the proper consistence, witli a little pure 
honey, this imparts a beautiful color to tlie gold, and gives a splendid effect 
to the work. Previous to using the distemper colors, give the walls and ceil- 
ings, if new and clean, a good coat of paint, which should be mixed about 
§ turpentine and J linseed oil, using as much Japan dryer as will dry it liard ; 
be careful of adding too much oil, as it will spoil tlie subsequent work. 

In preparing vestibules, halls, &c., to stand washing, go over the walls 
with oil paint for the first coat, but for the last coat no oil should be used, 
only spirits of turpentine. A harder surface will be given to the wall by 



PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, AC 517 

adding 1 tablespoonful of good pale copal varnish to each 25 lbs. of paint, 
used for the last coat. Previous to the wall receiving tiie last two coats, 
let the design or panelling be all correctly laid out. 

To prepare old walls or ceilings ; if there are any stains or cracks in the 
plaster, repair with size putty, if small, or use plaster of Paris and a little 
putty lime if the cracks are large, damping the places with a bruslj and 
water, then applying the plaster with a small trowel, afterwards smootliing 
off neatly. When all is dry and hard prepare tiie walls or ceilings with a 
coat of paint prepared as before directed, or with a preparation coat in size 
made of wiiiting with an extra quantity of melted glue containing a small 
quantity of alum. Give the walls a good coat of this, let it harden well, then 
apply another ; this ought to be sufficient if good flowing coats are applied. 
Now mix tiie colors to the proper tints (in oil), lay in the panels first; 
then the stiles, and when dry, put on the flat or last coat (spirit color). 
When the work is dry for panelling, use the following for mixing the fin- 
ishing colors : Turpentine, a little mastic varnish, a little white wax, and 
a little pale daraar. Varnish, use but little varnish, else too mucii gloss 
will be produced, the only use being to cause the color to set quickly to 
permit rapid work. 

Tlie fresco painter will find continued use for a book of designs to illus- 
trate the different orders of architecture, pillars, columns, scrolls, borders, 
&o. and should make a particular study in the line of sketching anything 
and everytliing calculated to assist him in the business. ' 

Paper-Hangings, Choice of. — The aspect, size, and general ap- 
pearance of an apartment, is materially influenced by tiie paper on its walls ; 
and the choice may be judiciously regulated by the following general rules : 
Avoid paper having a variety of colors, or a large showy figure, as no fur- 
niture can appear to advantage with such. Large figured paper diminishes 
the extent of a large room, and makes a small one appear smaller. Choose 
nothing that appears extravagant or unnatural. Have regard to the uses 
of an apartment ; the drawing-room should be light and cheerful, the par- 
lor warm and comfortable, without being gloomy or sombre ; bed-rooms 
cool and quiet with neat small patterns. It is also worth while to consider 
the decorations of tlie wall ; gilt frames show best on a dark ground, and 
dark frames, such as oak or gutta-percha, on a light ground. As regards 
color, pale tints will be generally found the best. Rooms hung with scar- 
let are rich but dismal and oppressive, they require also to be illuminated 
more, and at an earlier hour in the evening than lighter colors. 

Paper-Hangings, to Clean. — Cut into eight half-quarters, a quar- 
tern loaf, two days old; it must not be either newer or staler. Blow off all 
the dust from the paper by means of a pair of bellows ; take one of the 
pieces of bread, and holding the crust of the bread in the hand, wipe light- 
ly downward with the crumb, about half a yard at each stroke, till the up- 
per portion of the paper is completely cleaned all round. Tlien go round 
again, with the like sweeping stroke downwards ; always comraen<;e each 
successive course a little higher than the upper stroke had extended, till 
the lower part be finished. This operation, if carefully performed, will 
make every old paper look almost equal to new. Great «;aution must be 
used not to rub the paper hard, nor to attempt cleansing it the cross or 
horizontal way. The soiled part of the bread must be each time cut away, 
and the pieces removed as soon as it may become necessary. 

Tools for Paper Hanging. — The tools required are few and well 
known, but as some of them will be referred to, I will insert them here. 
Overalls (with bib, large pocket across, long and narrow pocket for rule 
and open slide for shears), long trimming shears and wet shears, straight 
edge, paste-board, plumb-bob, rule, pajier brush, paste brush, paste pail, size 
kettle, step-ladder and roller. 

Before commencing, have ready some pumicestone, sand paper, a basin 
of cold water, and two or three soft towels ; I recommend the losing of the 
large round brush for pasting, as it takes up the paste cleaner and more 



518 PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 

readily, and can be turned in the hand easily ; the paper brush I only use 
on soft, light paper, which cannot be handled much ; on 40 inch tint, etc., 
always use the roller. 

Paste for Paper Hanging. — It is well known that it is impossible to 
make good adhesive paste of any other than good sound wheat flour. It is 
perfectly useless to try any other. Much has been said of various sub- 
stitutes, but I never heard of any success in their use. 

Mucli more depends on the proper adaptation of the kinds of paste to the 
several purposes to which they have to be applied than is taken into general 
consideration. 

Many who attempt paper hanging use one kind of paste for all purposes, 
without regard to circumstances ; but as I am of the opinion that much 
depends on the application of suitable paste to certain walls and paper, I 
shall give those which I have found to answer best in cases where they have 
been applied. 

No. 1 is the paste as generally used, and will answer for most papers ; the 
quantity is sufficient for a day's work. Beat up 4 lbs. of good white wheat 
flour in cold water — enough to form a stiff batter (sifting the flour first) ; 
beat it well, to take out all lumps ; tlien add enough cold water to make it 
the consistence of pudding batter ; add about two ounces of well pounded 
alum. Be sure and have plenty of boiling water ready ; take it quite boil- 
ing from the fire, and pour gently and quickly over the batter, stirring 
rapidly at the same time : and when it is observed to swell and lose the 
white color of tlie flour, it is cooked and ready. 

This will make about three-quarters of a pail of solid paste ; do not use 
it while hot ; allow it to cool and it will go further ; you may put about a 
pint of cold water over the top of it, to prevent it skinning ; before using, 
thin this with cold water to spread easily and quickly under the brush. 
This paste will keep a long while without fermentation, when it is useless ; 
mould on the top does not hurl it ; remove it, tlie remainder is good. 

No. 2. Tills paste is made the same as No. 1, with the exception that no 
particle of alum is used. 

No. 3. This paste is seldom wanted, except where great adhesiveness is 
required. In a kettle or iron pan of suitable size, mix flour with cold water 
in the same manner as in No. 1 ; make the batter of much less consistence, 
and to two quarts of batter add half an ounce of pounded resin. As the 
resin does not dissolve so readily, set the pan containing the ingredients 
over a moderate fire, constantly stirring until it boils and thickens, and a 
short time after put out to cool. 

As some adhesive liquid is required to reduce its consistence, I would 
recommend a thin gum arable water as the best. This paste is indispensa- 
ble in papering over varnished paper or painted walls. 

No. 4. This paste is made in the same way as No. 3, witho.ut the alum. 

Sizing for Walls. — Walls that have been whitewashed or colored re- 
quire sizing or scraping. It is hardly necessary for me to explain that size 
is simply glue and water ; for orilinary purposes the common black glue is 
sufficient ; for sizing paper preparatory to varnishing, the best German 
white glue is .necessary. In making size, take your glue and soak over 
night in cold water, and then add hot water until dissolved. 

Preparation of Walls or Grounds. — It is highly essential to the 
attainment of neatness and perfection in paper hanging, that the walls or 
grounds should be in a proper state to receive it ; there are few things 
either in art or science that do not require a sound and clear foundation, 
and the preparation for paper hanging is no exception to that rule. 

In White or Colored Walls in Distemper. — As I said before, those 
walls tliat are white-washed or colored require a very careful preparation. 
Some rooms have been white-washed so often that one coat on another has 
amounted to tiie thickness of a coat of plaster. All this must be removed 
by damping ami scraping. Care must be used to indent the walls as little 
as possible, as the blemishes will not be hidden by the paper. 



PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 519 

Observe particular!}' that the top, bottom, and angles are well scraped ; 
after filling all inequalities with plaster of Paris, wash over the wall with 
hot size, and they are ready. 

Plaster of Paris is a very useful article for the paper hanger, merely 
mixing it with water, and applying it to all holes. It is the best thing I 
ever used, as it does not contract in drying. 

On the Preparation of Grounds Affected with Damp. — Damp is 
one of the worst things with which a paper hanger has to contend, and a 
great many means are resorted to for overcoming it. The following are 
among the best : 

No. 1. Wall metal ; No. 2. Battening for lath and plaster; No. 3. Bat- 
tening and canvassing ; No. 4. Strong brown paper ; No. 5. Ivy on outside 
walls. Of these, tiie surest plan is battening for lath and plaster ; but as it 
is attended with much trouble and expense, it is seldom used. This is a 
plasterer's work, and as it is well known, it is useless to describe it. 

Battening and canvassing is a very good metliod. Tlie wooden plugs 
or battens must be made of good hard wood, and driven well into the wall ; 
they must be placed close to the top, bottom, windows, and fire-place ; 
and double, to form a right angle at each of the corners ; then cut, and have 
your canvass backstitched in sizes that eacli piece may cover a side or end ; 
stretch and tack on the battens with tinned tacks ; use very stiff paste over 
canvas work. 

Wall metal, or sheet lead, is very good. It can be used to good advan- 
tage on parts of walls, as some lower sides next an alley, etc. As it is made 
now, it can be evenly pressed on the wall with strong paste, No. 1. 

Strong brown paper is next best for damp walls. It is made at the mills 
of immense size. When using, cut off the rougli edges, and wet it well 
with water; let it stand until soft and pliable ; as it is mostly in demand 
for parts of walls partly damp, or to level the unevenness of walls, it should 
be put on with tinned tacks, as others rust and show through fine papers. 

Ivy on Outside Walls. — This preventative of damp is not in a paper 
hanger's line ; but as I have had some experience in it, I give it. I found 
that on walls that are affected with damp, if ivy or some close leaved plant 
is grown so that its close overhanging leaves prevent the rain and moisture 
from permeating the wall, in a little time it will leave the wall inside dry. 

On Hanging Common Papers. — Having given the remedies for the 
various obstacles which present themselves, I will give a few plain 'direc- 
tions to hang paper after the wall is properly prepared and the tools in 
order. Trim the paper close to the pattern on one side and within one- 
eighth of an inch on the other for a lap, measure the number of breadths 
required, and cut from your pieces, leaving remnants for over doors and 
windows ; then commence hanging ; try and begin at a bead or where it 
will not sliow when you stop ; the bead down the left side of a mantel is the 
best place ; work all papers to the left, and in hanging they will always be 
on your right, and can be easily cut and fitted in the angles as you proceed ; 
try and make the lapping joint face the light, so that it may not be seen ; 
many striped and foimal ])atterns require uniformity; always make them 
centre over the mantel and between piers. My metiiod to do this is to cut 
a slip of paper of tlie size of the mantel, and try it across the paper until 
you strike tliat fart of tiie pattern that will come the same on both sides, 
then cut off each breadth on each side enough to make the part measured 
come on each side. 

On Pasting Paper. — Lay your breadths carefully on your table, and 
bring the first piece just to tlie edge ; have your paste pail and brush at 
your right hand and take a brush full of paste and begin from left to right, 
double over the paper and pass to the left and finish and double the balance ; 
you should observe to fold the longest part to commence with at the right 
top, for the obvious reason of having your breadth plumb, and matching the 
pattern. With borders it is well to paste double and cut after pasting ; it is 
the fastest way. 



520 



PAINTERS, PAPER HANGERS, &C. 



Lining Paper. — Lining paper is in most cases to be recommended as a 
ground for delicate paper hangings. It adds much to a soft effect, also 
making an evenness to a wall, a quicker absorption of the paste, the want of 
which is frequently injurious to stained grounds. It is to be had at the 
mills in large rolls cut off in breadths the same as the paper. Hang without 
lapping. 

Hanging Flock Papers with Crimson Stained Ground. — I believe 
that this kind requires more care and attention than any other, therefore I 
hope my method will be acceptable. These papers are subject to discolor- 
ation even by trifling mismanagement. Pastes Nos. 2 and 4 must be used ; 
have them in separate vessels, with a brush to each ; as great adhesiveness 
is only required on the lap edge, paste it with No. 4, the rest of breadth with 
No. 2. The advantage of this system will be obvious to a paper hanger ; he 
will know that this paper does not require a quantity of strong paste. All 
joints must be cut with a sharp knife ; the edge must butt as in forty-inch 
tints ; be careful to take off with your knife all the little pips or marks of 
flock projecting beyond tlie pattern. Gold moulding is the only suitable border. 

Panelling. — For effect in panel work, much depends on taste, and often 
the workman is directed by the owner or employer, but lie should know 
how to produce certain effects. Where the firei)lace, doors and windows, 
are situated about uniformly in a room, there is no difficulty to decide ; 
make your styles and vails in a regular size, according to the height of the 
room ; to a ten feet room, say about si.x inch vails, &c. ; to a room to be 
done in wood, make rosewood style and light oak centres with suitable 
mouldings, and reverse accordingto taste. Another mode of panelling is to 
make each side in one panel wliere the doors and windows are not alike ; 
this is an excellent plan. In all apartments of a panelled room there should 
be a full panel, and the greatest nicety should be observed in centreing the 
pattern in the panel, for where pictures are to be placed in them, the least 
deviation from uniformity will be seen, and it is displeasing to any critical 
eye. As before stated, be careful to have the laps toward the light. 

Wood Hangings, Forty-Inch Tints, Stamped Gold, &c. — Of wood 
hangings I would not recommend a general use ; they will not answer on a 
whole room, but I have found that some woods, the soft maples, cedar, 
birch, &c., make very pretty and durable work. My secret for applying 
them is as follows : Have your wood cut to right size, and then with a soft 
sponge apply glycerine, let it stand over night, and the woods will be as 
pliable as paper ; then apply to the walls with paste No. 3, rub down with 
wooden scraper. On forty-inch tints and wood papers I would always have 
two workmen pasting with paste No. 2. I have found these papers to stain 
when one is pasting, on account of not being able to apply the paste evenly. 
The same remarks apply to stamped gold, &c. One of the best plans I have 
found to trim plain tints and stamped gold is that, having no pattern to cut, 
to drive an awl througli the piece and trim by the small holes made; drive 
the awl within an eighth of an inch of the end of the piece. Always apply 
these papers with paper hangers' rollers made of wood with cloth covering. 
I find it a good plan when butting the edge of plain tints to roll the edges 
with a bed castor, which will effectually prevent any seams from being seen. 

Cautions to Paper Hangers — Poisonous Paper, &c. — It is needless, 
I thiiTk, to caution any good workman against using paste and refuse to fill 
holes in plastering, prejjaratory to papering. Tliis has caused severe illness 
to occupants of the room. The common plan of papering over old ])aper, 
in some cases many layers, is bad, as mould is apt to result. Formerly all 
green papers were objectionable on account of the arsenic. Now aniline 
has taken its place in some of the green papers, but flock or velvet papers 
are injurious not only on account of the color being poisonous in some 
cases, but also owing to the dust which comes off into the air. 

A portion of the above comprehensive article is from the " Painters' Manual " and is published 
■with the peimissiou of Messrs. Jesse Haney & Co., Proprietors of the Copyright. 




MAEBLE AND IVORY AVOEKEES. 



How TO Cut, Polish and remove Stains from Marble, to 
Soften, Silver, and Dye Ivory, &c. 

To Cut and Polish Marble. — The marble saw is a thin plate of soft 
iron, continually supplied, during its sawing motion, witli water and the 
sharpest sand. The sawing of moderate pieces is performed by hand ; that 
of large slabs is most economically done by a proper mill. The first sub- 
stance used in the polishing process is the sharpest sand, which must 
be worked with till the surface becomes perfectly flat. Then a second and 
even a third sand, of increasing fineness, is to be applied. The next sub- 
stance is emery, of progressive degrees of fineness ; after which tripoli 
is employed; and the last polish is given with thin putty. The body with 
whicii the sand is rubbed upon the marble is usuall}"^ a plate of iron ; but, 
for the subsequent process, a plate of lead is used, with fine sand and em- 
ery. The polishing rubbers are coarse linen cloths, or bagging, wedged 
tight into an iron planing tool. In every step of the operation, a constant 
trickling supply of water is required. 

Powerful Cement for Broken Marble. — Take gum arable, 1 lb. ; 
make into a thick mucilage; add to it powdered plaster of Paris, H l^- > 
sifted quick lime, 5 ozs. ; mix well ; heat the marble and apply the mixture. 

Seven Colors for Staining Marble. — It is necessary to heat tlie mar- 
ble hot, but not so hot as to injure it, tlie proper lieat being that at whicli 
the colors nearly boil. Blue; alkaline indigo dye, or turnsole with alkali. 
Red; Dragon's blood in spirits of wine. Yellow; gamboge in spirits of 
win€. Gold Color; sal-ammonia, sulphate of zinc, and verdigris, equal 
parts. Green; sap green in spirits of potash. Brown; tincture of logwood. 
Crimson ; alkanet root in turpentine. Marble may be veined according to 
taste. To stain marble well is a difficult operation. 

Perpetual Ink for Tombstones. — Pitch, 11 lbs.; lampblack, 1 lb.; 
turpentine sufficient ; mix with heat. 

To Clean Old Marble. — Take a bullock's gall, 1 gill soap lees, half a 
gill of turpentine ; make into a paste witli pipecla}', apply it to tlie marble ; 
let it dry a day or two, and then rub it off, and it will appear equal to new ; 
if very dirty, repeat the application. 

To Extract Oil from Marble or Stone. — Soft soap, 1 part ; fullers 
earth, 2 parts ; potash, 1 part ; boiling water to mix. Lay it on the spots of 
grease, and let it remain for a few hours. 

521 



522 MARBLE AND IVORY WORKERS. 

To Gild Letters on Marble. — Apply iirst a coating of size and then 
several successive coats of size thickened witli finely powdered wliiting 
until a good face is produced. Let each coat become dry, and rub it down 
witli fine glass paper before apjilying tlie next. Then go over it tliinly and 
evenly with gohl size and apply tlie gold leaf, burnishing witli an agate; 
several coats of leaf will be required to give a good effect. 

To Clean Marble. — Take two parts of common soda, 1 part pumice- 
stone, and 1 part of finely powdered chalk ; sift it througli a fine sieve, and 
mix it with water; then rub it well all over the marble, and the stains will 
be removed ; then wash the marble over with soap and water, and it will 
be as clean as it was at first. 

Marble, to Clean. — Mix a quarter of a pound of soft soap with the 
same quantity of pounded whiting, an ounce of soda, and a piece of stone- 
blue the size of a walnut ; boil these together for a quarter of an hour ; 
whilst hot, rub it over the marble with a piece of flannel, and leave it on 
for twenty-four hours; then wash it off with clean water, and polish the 
marble with a piece of coarse flannel. To remove spots and grease from marble: 
— Make a paste with fuller's earth and hot water; cover the spots with it, 
and let it dry on ; and the next day scour it off with soft or yellow soap 

Marble, to Imitate. — Dissolve an ounce of curd soap, grated in four 
ounces of water, in a glazed earthen vessel ; add an ounce of wiiite wax cut 
in thin slices ; when the whole is incorporated, it is fit for use. Having 
dried the figure before the fire, suspend it by a string, and dip it in the mix- 
ture ; when it has absorbed the varnish, dip it a second time, and that gen- 
erally suffices. Cover it carefully from the dust for a week, then rub it 
gently with soft cotton wool, and a brilliant shining gloss will be produced 
exactly reseml)ling polished marble. 

To TAKE Stains out of Marble. — Mix unslacked lime, in finest pow- 
der, with the strongest soap lye pretty thick ; and instantly, with a painter's 
brush, lay it on the whole of the marble. In two months' time wash it off 
perfectly clean ; then have ready a fine thick lather of soft soap boiled in 
soft water; dip a brush in it, and scour the marble, not as common clean- 
ing. This will, by very good rubbing, give a beautiful polish Clear off 
the soap, and finisii with a smooth hard brush till the end be effecte<l. 

To TAKE Iron-stains oct of Marble. — An equal quantity of fresh 
spirit of vitriol and lemon-juice being mixed in a bottle shake it well ; wet 
tlie spots, and in a few minutes rub with soft linen till they disappear. 

Alabaster. — A species of soft marble used for ornamental purposes, 
which derives its name from Alabastron, a town of Egypt, where a manu- 
factory' formetly existed of works of art in domestic vessels, executed from 
the stone found in the neighboring mountains. As this composition is of a 
delicate nature, easily scratched, and soon stained by the smoke or atmos- 
phere, all objects should be preserved from these external influences by 
being kept under glass shades. Should they, liowever, become staineil,the 
following is the best method To cleanse Alabaster: — Remove the stains by 
brushing with soap and water, then whitewash the stained part, and let it 
remain for some hours ; after which remove the whitewash, rub the stained 
part with a soft cloth, and the stains will liave disappeared. Grease spots 
may be removed by ruljbing the blemishes with powdered French chalk, or 
a little oil of turjjentine. 

To Bronze. — Apply to the whole surface of the object a coat of size, 
after which lay on paint of a bronze-green color ; and when this is nearly 
dry, gently ap})ly to the most prominent parts a little bronze-powder 
through the medium of a wad of wool or soft cotton. The success of the 
process greatly depends upon the delicacy with wliich it is conducted. — • 
See Bronze and Size. 

To Imitate. — Alabaster ornaments may be imitated by brushing over 
plaster of Paris models with spermaceti, white vvax, or a mixture of the two, 
or by steeping the models in the warm mixtuTe. Or, instead of this pro- 
cess, they may be brushed over several times with white of egg, allowing 



MARBLE AND IVORY WORKERS. 523 

each coating sufficient time to dry. Only models made of the finest plaster 
are suited for these processes. 

To Join. — As alabaster objects are composed of several parts, they are 
liable, from a variety of causes to become disjointed, and wlien this occurs 
the parts may be rejoined by a cement made from tiie white of one egg 
mixed with a teaspoonful of quick lime. The cement should be used im- 
mediately that it- is mixed, and the parts to be joined should be previously 
damped with lukewarm water. 

To Clean Alabaster, or ant other Kinds of Marble. — Pound 
pumice stone to a fine powder, and mix it with verjuice. Let it remain 
several hours, then dip in a perfectly clean sponge, and rub the marble 
with it till clean. Rinse it off with clear fresh water, and rub it dry with 
a clean linen cloth. 

Ivory. — A substance which is properly obtained from the tusks of the 
elephant, the teeth of the hippopotamus, wild boar, &c. It is largely used 
for the handles of knives, and for other purposes requiring a smooth and 
clean white surface. Carvings in ivor^' when not kept under glass, some- 
times become covered in time with a multitude of minute cracks which 
get filled with dirt and deface them. Glass not only protects them from this 
injury, but affords the means of bleaching or whitening ivory which has 
been discolored. This effect is ])roduced by exposing the articles to the 
sun's rays under glass, turning each side in succession to the direction of 
the rays. To remove the cracks before mentioned, the ivory should be 
washed in soap and warm water with a brush till the cracks disappear, 
after which tlie article should be placed under glass. 

Ivory, to Stain. — Ivory may be stained of any color, after being freed 
from dirt and grease, as follows : — Black. Wash the ivory well in an alka- 
line lye, steep it in a weak solution of nitrate of silver, then expose it to the 
light. Blue. Steep it in a weak solution of sulphate of indigo which has 
been nearly neutralized with salt of tartar. Brown. As for black, but using 
a weaker solution of silver. Green. Dissolve verdigris in vinegar, and 
steep the pieces therein for a short time, observing to use a glass or stone- 
ware vessel. Purple. Steep it in a weak neutral solution of terchloride of 
gold, and then ex])ose it to the light. Red. Make an infusion of cochineal 
in water of ammonia, then immerse the -pieces therein, having previously 
soaked them for a few minutes in water very slightly acidulated with aqua- 
fortis. Yellow. Steep the pieces for some hours in a solution of sugar of 
lead, then take them out, and when dry, immerse them in a solution of 
chromate of potassa. 

To Polish Ivory. — Eemove any scratches or file marks that may be 
present with finely pulverized pumice stone, moistened with water. Then 
wash the ivory, and polish with prepared chalk, applied moist upon a piece 
of chamois leather, rubbing quickly. 

Etching Fluid for Ivory. — Take dilute sulphuric acid, dilute muriatic 
acid, equal parts ; mix. For etching varnish take white wax, 2 parts ; tears 
of mastic, 2 parts ; mix. 

To GILD Ivory. — Immerse it in a solution of nitro-muriate of gold, 
and then expose it to hydrogen gas while damp. Wash it afterwards in 
clean water. 

To Silver Ivory. — Pound a small piece of nitrate of silver in a mortar, 
add soft water to it, mix them well together, and keep in vial for use. When 
you wish to silver any article, immerse it in this solution, let it remain till 
it turns of a deep yellow ; then place it in clear water, and expose it to the 
rays of the sun. If you wish to depicture a figure, name, or cipher, on your 
ivory, dip a camel'shair pencil in the solution, and draw the subject on 
the ivory. After it has turned a deep j'ellow, wash it well with water, and 
place it in the sunshine, occasionally wetting it with pure water. In 
a short time it will turn of a deep black color, which, if well rubbed, will 
change to a brilliant silver. 

To Soften Ivory. — In 3 oz. spirits of nitre and 15 oz. of spring-water, 



524 MARBLE AND IVORY WORKERS. 

mixed together, put your ivory to soak ; and in tliree or four days it will 
obey your fingers. 

To Whiten Ivory. — Slake some lime in water ; put your ivory in the 
water, after being decanted from tlie grounds, and boil it till it looks quite 
wliite. To polisii it afterwards, set it in tlie turner's wheel ; and, after 
having worked, take ruslies and pumice-stones, subtile powder, with water, 
rub it till it looks perfectly smooth. Next to that, heat it by turning it 
against a piece of linen or sheep-skin leatlier : and when hot, rub it over 
with a little dry whiting diluted in oil of olives ; then with a little dry whi- 
ting alone : finally witli a piece of soft white rag. When all this is per- 
formed as directed, tlie ivory will look very white. 

Another way to Bleach Ivory. — Take 2 handfuls of lime, slake it 
by sprinkling it with water : then add 3 pts. of water, and stir the whole 
together ; let it settle ten minutes, and pour the water into a pan for your 
purpose. Then take your ivory and steep it in the lime-water for 24 
hours, after which, boil it in a strong alum-water 1 hour, and dry it 
in the air. 

Dyes for Ivory, Horn, and Bone. — Black. — 1. Lay the articles for 
several hours in a strong solution of nitrate of silver, and expose to the 
light. 2. Boil the article for sometime in a strained decoction of logwood, 
and then steep in a solution of per-sulphate or acetate of iron. 3. Immerse 
frequently in ink until of sufficient deptli of color. Blue. — 1. Immerse for some 
time in a diluted solution of sulpliate of indigo, partly saturated with potash, 
and it will be fully stained. 2. Steep in a strong solution of sulphate of 
copper. Green. — 1. Uip blue-stained articles for a short time in a nitro- 
hydrochlorate of tin, and then in a liot decoction of fustic. 2. Boil in a so- 
lution of verdigris in vinegar until the desired color is obtained. Red. — 1, 
Dip the article first in a tin mordant used in dj-eing, and then plunge in a 
hot decoction of Brazil wood — \ lb. to a gallon of water — or cochineal. 
2. Steep in red ink till sufficiently stained. Scarlet. — Use lac dye instead 
of the preceding. Violet. — Dip in the tin mordant, and then immerse in a 
decoction of logwood. Yellow. — Boil the articles in a solution of alum, 
1 lb. to -J a -gallon, then immerse for half an hour in the following 
mixture : Take ^ lb. of turmeric, and ^ lb. pearlash ; boil 1 gal. water : 
when taken from this, the borite must be again dipped in the alum 
solution. 

Mother of Pearl, Work. — This delicate substance requires great care 
in its workmanship, but it may be cut with the aid of saws, files and drills, 
with the aid of muriatic or sulphuric acid, and it is polished by colcothar, 
or the brown red oxide of iron left after the distillation of the acid from 
sulphate of iron. In all ornamental work, where pearl is said to be used, 
for flat surfaces, such as inlaying, mosaic work, &c., it is not real pearl, but 
mother of pearl that is used. 

To Polish Pearl — Take finely pulverized rotten stone and make into 
a thick paste by adding olive oil; then add sulphuric acid a sufficient quan- 
tity to make into a thin paste, apply on a velvet cork ; rub quickly, and as 
soon as the pearl takes the polish, wiish it. 

Horn in Imitation of Tortoise-Shell. — First steam and then press 
the horn into proper shapes, and afterwards lay the following mixture on 
with a small brush, in imitation of the mottle of tortoise-shell : Taka equal 
parts of quick lime and litharge, and mix with strong soap-lees ; let this 
remain until it is thoroughly dry; brush off, and repeat two or three times 
if necessary. Such parts as are required to be of a reddish brown should 
be covered with a mixture of whiting and the stain. 




GUNSMITHS, 'TINSMITHS, &c. 



The Manufacture, Care and Management of Guns, Sizes 
OF Tinware, Lacquer for Tin, &c. 

GUN, Cake and Management of. — Every gun, if only moderately used, 
requires occasionally to be taken entirely to pieces. Twice a j'ear the 
breech or breeches of a gun wliicii is much used should be taken out ; the 
pivots and locks will require more frequent attention. The following in- 
structions relative to the care and management of the gun will be found 
useful. On talcing off the mainspring, first put the lock on full cock; next 
cramp the mainspring, then let down the cock, and the mainspring will fall 
off. When the cock is to be put on again, first let the cock be left down ; 
then hook the end of the mainspring on the swivel or chain ; then move it 
up and place it into its position on the lock-plate ; this done, unscrew the 
cramp, and the lock is once more fit for action. When the hammer is to be 
taken off, first shut down tlie hammer carefully, cramp the spring, until by 
shaking the lock the hammer is heard to rattle ; then take out the screw 
behind, and the hammer will fall off. To put it on again, replace it in its 
former situation ; turn in the screw, and set the spring free. If the liammer- 
spring is to be taken out, the hammer and mainspring must be released, in 
order to reach tlie screw behind; the hammer spring must then be cramped, 
till it is taken out and put on again to receive the hammer. In taking to 
pieces the small works of a gun-lock, he careful to keep the screws distinct. 
Commence b}' taking off the mainspring, next unscrew and take out tlie 
ecear, by half-cocking tiie lock ; clasp the forepart of the lock, firmly press- 
ing the thumb at the same time against the hinder part of tlie cock, direct- 
ing it forward, while the scearand scear-spring, being now pressed together 
with the forefinger and thumb, will facilitate the taking out of the scear- 
screw. Then undo the two screws, take off the bridle, unscrew and take 
out the scear-spring ; next unscrew and take off the cock, which will read- 
ily separate from the tumbler if it be gently tapped or shaken ; this done, 
take out the tumbler, and the process is finished. When it is required to put 
the lock together again. First put the tumbler in its place and screw on the 
cock ; next do the same by the scear spring ; set on the bridle with the two 
upper screws, put in the scear, let down the cock, to admit of putting on 
the mainspring, and tlie operation is complete. The locks do not require 
to be taken off every time a gun is used ; once a fortnight is quite sufficient. 
Put a little fine oil to the parts where there is friction ; but if the gun has 
been used on a wet day, the lock should be taken off, cleaned, and oiled im- 
mediately. Gun cleaning is practised in a variety of vvays, but the follow- 
ing directions will probably be found as good as any ; place the breech end 

S25 



526 ' GUNSMITHS, TINSMITHS, &C. 

of the barrels in a bucket, in wliich tliere is cold water about three inches 
deep ; then, after wetting the sponge, cloth, or tow, introduce the rod into 
the barrels, and work it well ; next aj)ply the wire brush attached to tlie 
cleaning rod with some clean hot water, which will take out all the lead. 
Wipe the rod and tiie outside of the barrels dry, and set the latter upright, 
muzzle downwards, for two minutes to drain, after which rul) them perfect- 
ly dry. Wipe the barrels out clean, then pass an oiled rag down the inside, 
and rub over the outside, leave them a little oily, which will prevent rust. 
The frequency with which a gun should be cleaned depends upon circum- 
stances. Some guns foul sooner tlian others. Some powder also fouls 
more than others ; and as a rule small shot fouls a gim sooner than large 
shot. Under all circumstances, a gun should be wiped out after every twen- 
ty shots ; its more effective use after the operation amply compensating for 
the trouble. When a gun is put by for the season, care should be taken to place 
it where no damp can come to it ; the b^t preventative for this evil, is to 
liave iron rods made of the length and diameter of the barrel, leaving just 
sufficient room to cover the rod with kerseymere, or some other woollen 
material ; the rod thus furnished should be placed within the barrel ; in ad- 
dition to this, a little wax should be placed over the touch-hole, and no 
damp can then possibly penetrate. Never put a gun by for the season with- 
out having taken the breech out. Remove, clean, and thoroughly dry the 
screws, lubricate the threads with pure tallow and return them. To remove 
rust from the i'lside of the barrel, adopt the following method : Have an ash- 
en rod turned a few inches longer than the barrel, and nearly the size of 
the bore. Let one end of the rod be cut lengthwise, so as to make a slit of 
six inches long; into which insert as much fine emery paper as will com- 
pletely fill up the bore of the barrel, taking care in folding the paper tight- 
ly round the wood, that tlie emery surface is outward. Force it into the 
barrel by screwing it downwards from the top to the bottom ; repeat this 
process until the barrels show a perfectly clean and polished surface. Sand 
and other coarse materials should never be used for this purpose, as they 
abrade the surface of the barrel, and consequently injure it. 

GUNS, Precautions respkcting. — In putting awaj' a gun, the greatest 
care is necessary in order to prevent accidents ; as a rule it is always better 
to fire the gun off previously to entering tlie house; but as this is some- 
times to be objected to, owing to the disturbance and alarm which it occa- 
sions, the following precaution should at any rate be observed, paving ar- 
rived at your door, remove the cap of the gun, if a percussion piece, or if a 
flint throw out the priming, let down tlse spring of the lock, draw the ram- 
rod, and dropping it down the barrel, put the gun away into a closet or 
other safe place of your own, or suspend it in your studv high above the 
reach of any one, and all must be safe at least against ordinary risks. 

To Remedy Scattering Shot Guns. — The oidy remedy known to gun 
smiths is by choke-boring, that is, boring from the breech of the gun, so as 
to have a gradual taper towards the muzzle. This method of boring great- 
ly improves the shooting qualities of the gun, as the charge concentrates at 
the muzzle. Large shots are more apt to scatter than fine, but this depends 
on the bore of the gun. A large bored gun does not shoot fine shot so well 
as medium. A small bored gim throws fine shot with greater force than -a 
large bored one. As a general thing, a small bored gun is not adapted to 
large shot, as it does not chamber them well. The length of gun also de- 
pends on the size of tiie bore — 28 or 30 inches for a gun of from 10 to 14 
gauge ; 30 to 34, of guns from 8 to 10 ; 26 to 28, of guns of 15 to 18 
gauge. 

Bronzing Fluid for Guns. — Nitric acid, sp. gr. 1., 2 parts ; nitric ether, 
alcohol, muriate of \um, each 1 part; mix, then add sulphate of copper, 2 
parts, dissolved in water, 10 parts. 

Blueing on Revolvers and Gun Barrels. — Is performed by simply 
beating the piece to be blued in powdered charcoal over a fire until the 
desired^olor is obtained. 



GUNSMITHS, TINSMITHS, &C. 527 

Fine Blue Finish for Gun Barrels. — Apply nitric acid and let it eat into 
tlie iron a little ; then the latter will be covered witli a thin film of oxide. 
Clean the barrel, oil and bnrnish. A very fine appearance is given to gun 
barrels hy treating them with dilute nitric acid and vinegar, to which has 
been added suliihate of copper. The metallic copper is deposited irregu- 
larly over the iron surface ; wash, oil, and rub with a hard brush. 

Browning FOR Gun Barrels. — Spirits of nitre, 1 lb.; alcohol, 1 lb.; 
corrosive sublimate, 1 oz. ; mix in a bottle, and cork for use. Directions : 
polish the barrel perfect; then rub it with quick lime with a cloth, which 
removes grease and dirt ; now apply the browning fluid with a clean wliite 
cloth, apply one coat, and set it in a warm dark place for from 10 to 20 
hours, imtil a red rust forms on it ; then card it down with a gunmaker's 
card, and rub off with a clean cloth. Ilepeat the process if you wish a dark 
shade. 

Browning for Twist Barrels. — Spirits of nitre, j^ oz. ; tincture of 
steel, ^ oz. ; or use the unmedicated tincture of iron if the tincture of steel 
cannot be obtained ; black brimstone, }( oz. ; blue vitriol, }4 oz. ; corrosive 
sublimate, X oz. ; nitric acid, 1 dram ; copperas, J^ oz. ; mix with l}4 pints 
rain water, and bottle for use. This is to be applied the same as the first ; 
it causes the twist of the barrel to be visible after application, a quality 
which the other liquid does not possess. 

Broavning Composition for Gun Barrels. — 1. Blue vitriol, 4 ozs. ; 
tincture of muriate of iron, 2 ozs. ; water, I qt. ; dissolve, and add aquafor- 
tis and sweet spirits of nitre, of each, 1 oz. 2. Blue vitriol and sweet spir- 
its of nitre, of each, 1 oz. ; aquafortis, ^ oz. ; water, 1 pint. To be used in 
the same manner as previotisly described in this work. 

Varnish AND Polish for Gun Stocks. — Gum shellac, 10 ozs.; gum 
sandarac, 1 oz. ; Venice turpentine, 1 dr. ; 98 per cent, alcohol, 1 gal. ; shake 
the jug occasionally for a day or two, and it is ready for use. Apply a 
few coats of this to your gun stocks, polish by rubbing smooth, and yoflr 
work is complete. 

Boring Gun Barrels. — Take a piece of rod, cast steel, ''^ inch smaller 
than the interior of the barrel, and a few inches longer, beat one end up 
something larger than the size of the bore, then turn or file it in the shape 
of an egg, leaving the swell, or centreing part l-20th of an inch larger than 
the bore. With a saw file, cut longitudinal cuts, % inch apart, laying tiiem 
the same angle as a rose bit countersink, taking care not to injure the peri- 
phery of the tools ; harden and temper to straw color. 

Damascus Twist and Stub-Twist Gun-Barrels. — The twisted barrels 
are made out of long ribands of iron, wound spirally around a mandril, 
and welded on their edges by jimiping tliem on the ground, or rather on an 
anvil embedded therein. The plain stub barrels are made in this manner, 
from iron manufactured from a bundle of stub-nails, welded together, and 
drawn out into ribands, to insure the possession of a material most thor- 
oughly and intimately worked. The Damascus barrels are made from a 
mixture of stub-nails and clippings of steel in given proportions, puddled to- 
gether, made into a bloom, and subsequently passed through all the stages 
of the manufacture of iron, in order to obtain an iron that shall be of an 
unequal quality and hardness, and therefore display dilferent colors and 
markings when oxidized or browned. Other twisted barrels are made in 
the like manner, except that the bars to form the ribands are twisted wliilst 
red hot, like ropes, some to the right, others to the left, and which are some- 
times laminated together for greater diversity. They are subsequently 
again drawn into the ribands and wound upon the mandril, and frequently 
two or three differently prepared pieces are placed side by side to form tlie 
complex and ornamental figures for the barrels of fowling-pieces, described 
as stub-twist, wire-twist, Damascus-twist, &c. Sometimes Danwscus gun-bar- 
rels are formed by arranging twenty-five thin bars of iron and mild steel in 
alternate layers, welding the whole together, drawing it ilown small, twist- 
ing it like a rope, and again welding three such ropes, for the formation of 



528 GUNSMITHS, TINSMITHS, &C. 

the riband, which is then spirally twisted to form a barrel, that exhibits, 
when finished and acted upon by acids, a diversified, laminated appearance, 
resembling, wlien properly managed, an ostrich feather. 

Damaskeening. — This is the art, now in a great measure lost, of pro- 
ducing a watered or wavy appearance on steel sword-blades, armor, 
&c., or of inlaying and encrusting steel with gold and silver, originally prac- 
tised at Damascus. Various methods of damaskeening were practiced, but 
the most common seem to have been those of welding two different kinds 
of steel, or steel and iron, together, or of cutting lines on tlie surface of the 
steel and filling them with gold or silver, which was either forced into the 
incised lines and brought to a level with the surface of the steel, or remained 
in relief above it. When the former method was used, a light pattern, gen- 
erally in many lines, was produced on a dark ground, or vice versa, and tJie 
jtmction of the metals caused the pattern to run througli tiie entire thick- 
ness of the blade, so that it could not be obliterated even by grinding. 

GUNPOWDER. — A substance composed of tiiree ingredients, saltpetre, 
charcoal, and sulphur. The quality of gunpowder is best estimated by ac- 
tual trial of its power and cleanliness in use. It should be dry, hard, and 
free from dust ; the grains should be of a uniform size, and glossy, and the 
color a dark grey, or brownish grey, not perfectly black. A very little 
placed on a piece of paper and fired, should instantly explode with a flash, 
and neither leave a perceptible residue on the paper, nor burn it. Dried by 
the heat of boiling water it should not lose more than \ to 1% of its weight. 
From tlie aptitude which gunpowder has for absorbing moisture, it is ex- 
tremely difficult to make it retain its original strength without extreme 
care. Gunpowder used in this deteriorated state, has also a tendency to 
foul the gun barrels. On all occasions, tlierefore, where gunpowder has 
been exposed to the air, it should be dried previously to being used, and 
especially so when the atmosphere is known to be superabundantly charged 
with moisture. Gunpowder should be bought in canisters only, and as fresh 
as possible. In keeping it, it should be guarded as carefully as possible 
from exposure to the air. The common tin case, however closely prepared, 
is not sufficient for the purpose, unless it be rendered waterproof, and closed 
either by a soft velvet cork, or a fine threaded screw ; the former is prefer- 
able. An excellent plan is to divide large quantities into smaller ones, and 
put them into bottles, each containing about four ounces ; which being 
corked and sealed prevents exposing more than is wanted for immediate 
consumption. Sportsmen and others should take care to purchase their 
gunpowder from such sources as will secure its genuineness ; if possible, 
from the maker direct, but at any rate through a channel having a direct 
communication with the powder mill. The method resorted to by powder 
merchants for restoring damaged gunpowder is, to put part of the gunpow- 
der on a sail-cloth, and add to it an equal weight of good powder ; the two 
are then mingled together, then dried in the sun, barrelled up, and set by in 
a dry place. When it is found to be very bad, it is restored by moistening 
it with vinegar or brandy ; then beat fine and sifted; and to every pound 
of powder is added an ounce, or an ounce and a half, or two ounces (accord- 
ing to its stage of decay) of melted nitre. Tiiese ingredients are afterwards 
well moistened, thoroughly mixed, and granulated in the ordinary way. 

Blasting Powders. — Reduce separately to powder, 2 parts chlorate of 
potassa and 1 part red sulphuret of arsenic ; mix very lightly together, or 
powder separately, 5 parts chlorate of potassa ; 2 parts red sulphuret of 
arsenic, and 1 part ferrocyanide of potassium (prussiate of potassa) ; mix 
carefully, or, mix carefully as before, after having separately reduced to 
powder equal parts chlorate of potassa and ferrocyanide potassium. These 
possess eight times the explosive force of gunpowder and must b.e used with 
the greatest caution. 

Blasting Rocks, &c. — In small blasts, 1 lb. of powder will loosen about 
4^ tons. In large blasts, 1 lb. of powder will loosen about 2^ tons ; 60 or 
60 lbs. of powder, enclosed in a resisting bag hung or propped up against a 



GUNSMITHS, TINSMITHS, &C. 



529 



gate or barrier, will demolish any ordinary construction. One man can 
bore, with a bitt 1 inch in diameter, from 50 to 60 inches per day of 10 hours 
in granite, or 300 to 400 ins. per day in limestone. Two strikers and a 
holder can bore with a bitt 2 ins. in diameter 10 feet per day in rock of 
medium liardness. 

To Make Dualin. — Dualin is made from paper stock, saturated with 
nitrate of potassium and dried in a furnace, then ground and mixed with 
nitro-glycerine. Component parts of nitro-glycerine. To 4f lbs. concen- 
trated sulphuric-acid and 2^ lbs. of concentrated nitric acid, add 1 lb. of 
glycerine. 

To Clean Cotton Waste. — Pack the waste in a tin cylinder with a 
perforated false bottom and tube with stop-cock at bottom. Pour on the 
waste bisulphide of carbon sufficient to cover, and allow to soak a few min- 
utes, then add more bisulphide, and so on for a time or two, and then squeeze 
out. By simple distillation the whole of the bisulphide, or nearly all, can 
easily be recovered and so be used over again. This will free the cotton 
completely from grease. 



SIZES OF TIN-WARE OF DIFFERENT KINDS. 



Dippers. y^ gal. 

" 1 pt. 

Coffee Pots. 1 gal. 

" " 3 qts. 

Pans. 20 qts. 

" 16 qts. 

" 14 qts. 

" 10 qts. 

" 6 qts. 

" 2 qts. 

" . . . 3 pts. 

" -..:... 1 pt. 

Pie Pans 

Large Wash Bowl 

Small Wash Bowl 

Milk Strainer 

Pails and Dish Kettles 14 qts. 

10 qts. 

" " " 6 qts. 

" *' " 2 qts. 

Colander. 

2 gals. 

1 gal. 

\ gal. 

1 qt. 

1 pt. 

i pt. 

1 gal. 

^gal. 

1 qt. 

1 pt. 

I pt- 



Measures for Druggists, Beer, &c. 



Measures of other forms. 



Diam. 
of bot. 


Diam. 
of top. 


Heig't 


inches 


inches 


inches 


4 


6i 


4 


•AU 


4J^ 


23^ 


7 


4 


8+ 


6 


B^ 


^\ 


13 


19i 


8 


115^ 


18 


6'^ 


9M 


IbY^ 


6'^ 


11 


uu 


4'/8 


9 


123^ 


4 


6 


9 


33^ 


bU 


8'^ 


m 


4 


6 '4 




7* 


9 


U\ 


bVA, 


11 


6 


bh 


9* 


6 


H 


9i 


Bi 


9 


13 


9 


7 


lU 


9 


bh 


n 


6* 


4 


&% 


4 


534 


11 


5 


6 


lOi 


83/8 


^K 


oU 


7* 


6 54 


B'/s 


6 


6«/8 


2i 


4^8 


4 


2 


4 


334: 


!?< 


3^ 


6>/s 


6i 


9i 


m 


4 


8 


4 


U 


5| 


33^ 


2'/s 


4| 


2^8 


2H 


Bys 



23 



For 1 gallon, 7 


by 


20 inches. 


3J " 


10 


by 


28 


5 " 


12 


by 


40 


6 " 


14 


by 


40 


10 " 


20 


by 


42 


15 " 


30 


by 


42 



530 GUNSMITHS, TINSMITHS, &C. 

Tin Cans. — Size of SiTeet, for from 1 to 100 Gallons. 

For 25 gallons, 30 by 56 inches 

40 " 36 by 63 " 

50 " 40 by 70 " 

75 " 40 by 84 " 

100 " 40 by 98 " 

This includes all the laps, seams, &c., which will be found sufficiently 
correct for all practical purposes. 

Gold Lacquer for Tin. — Transparent, All Colors. — Alcoliol in a 
flask, ^ pt. ; add gum shellac, 1 oz. ; turmeric, ^ oz. ; red saiiders, 3ozs. Set 
the flask in a warm ])lace, shake frequently for 12 hours or more, then strain 
off the liquor, rinse the bottle, and return it, corking tightly for use. 

When this varnish is used, it must be applied to the work freely and 
flowing, and the articles should be hot when applied. One or more coats 
may be laid on, as the color is required more or less liglit or deep. If any 
of it sliould become thick from evaporation, at any time, tliin it with alcohol. 
And by the following modifications, all tlie various colors are obtained. 

2. Rose Color. — Proceed as above, substituting i oz. of finely ground 
best lake in place of tlie turmeric. 

3. Blue. — The blue is made by substituting pulverized Prussian blue, 
i oz., in place of the turmeric 

4. Purple. — Add a little of the blue to the Jirst. 

5. Green. — Add a little of the rose-color to the Jirst. 
Crystallized Tin-Plate. — The figures are more or less beautiful and 

diversified, according to the degree of heat and relative dilution of the acid. 
Place the tin-plate, slightly heated, over a tub of water, and rub its surface 
with a sponge dipped in a liquor composed of 4 parts of aquafortis and 2 of 
distilled water, holding 1 part of common salt or sal-ammoniac in solution. 
Whenever tlie crystalline spangles seem to be tlioroughly brought out, the 
plate must be immersed in water, washed with a feather or a little cotton 
(taking care not to rub off the fihn of tin tliat forms the feathering), forth- 
with dried with a low lieat, and coated witli a lacquer varnish, otherwise it 
loses its lustre in the air. If the wliole surface is not plunged at once in 
cold water, but if it be partially cooled by sprinkling water on it, the crys- 
tallization will be finely variegated with large and small figures. Similar 
results will be obtained by blowing eold air through a pipe on the tinned 
surface, while it is just passing from tlie fused .to the solid state. 

To Crystallize Tin. — Sulphuric acid, 4 oz. ; soft water, 2 to 3 oz. ; 
according to strength of the acid ; salt, 1| ozs. Mix. Heat the tin hot over 
a stove, then, with a sponge applj' the mixture, then wash off directly with 
clean water. Dry the tin, and varnish with demar varnish. 

Tinning Small Articles. — Dissolve as much zinc scraps in muriatic 
acid as it will take up, let it settle, then decant the clear, and it is ready for 
use. Next prepare a suitable iron vessel, set it over the fire, put your tin 
therein, and melt it, and put as much mutton or beef tallow as will cover 
the tin about i inch thick. This prevents the oxidation of the metal ; but be 
very careful that the tallow does not catch fire. The iron, or any other 
metal to be tinned, must be well cleaned, either with scraping, filing, polish 
ing with sand, or immersed in diluted vitriol. Proceed to wet the articles in 
the zinc solution, then carefully immerse them in the tallow and melted tin ; 
in a very short time they will become perfectly tinned, when they may be 
taken out. 

Japanner's Gold Size. — Gum ammoniac, 1 lb. ; boiled oil, 8 oz. ; spirits 
turpentine, 12 ozs. Melt the gum, then add the oil, and lastly spirits tur- 
pentine. 

Black Varnish for Iron Work. — Asphaltum, 1 lb. ; lampblack, J lb. ; 
resin, i lb. ; spirits turpentine, 1 quart ; linseed oil, just sufficient to rub up 
the lampblack with before mixing it with the others. Apply with a camel's 
hair brush 




TAMERS, LEATHER DRESSERS, HARNESS 



MAKERS, &C. 



Different methods of Tanning, Sizing, Blacking, Cements, 
Polishes, Dyes, &c. 

Waterproof Varnish for Harness. — India-rubber, ^ lb. ; spts. tur- 
pentine, 1 gal. ; dissolve to a jelly, then take hot linseed oil equal parts with 
the mass, and incorporate tliem well over a slow fire. 

Blacking for Harness. — Beeswax, ^ lb. ; ivory black, 2 ounces ; spts. 
of turpentine, 1 oz. Prussian blue, ground in oil, 1 oz. ; copal varnish, J 
oz. ; melt the wax and stir into it the other ingredients, before the mixture 
is quite cold ; make it into balls, rub a little upon a brush, apply it upon the 
harness and polish lightly with silk. 

Best Harness Varnish Extant. — Alcohol, 1 gallon ; white turpentine, 
li lb. ; gum shellac, li lb. ; Venice turpentine, 1 gill. Let them stand 
by the stove till the gums are dissolved, then add sweet oil, 1 gill ; and 
color it, if you wish, with lampblack, 2 oz. This will not crack like the old 
varnish. 

Harness Oil. — Neat's-foot oil, 1 gal. ; lampblack, 4 oz. Mix well. 

Bridle Stain. — Skimmed milk, 1 pt. ; spirits of salts, % oz. ; spts. of red 
lavender, i oz. ; gum arabic, 1 oz. ; and the juice of 2 lemons ; mix well 
togetlier, and cork for use ; apply with a sponge ; when dry polish with a 
brush or a piece of flannel. If wished paler, put in less red lavender. 

Brilliant Varnish for Leather. — Take four ounces of shellac, half an 
ounce of lamp-black, and place them in a stoneware vessel, into which pour 
about one and a quarter pounds of alcohol and cover it with a moist bladder. 
Let them be frequently shaken for about 24 liours. After this puncture the 
bladder and add half an ounce of turpentine, and leave tlie whole for about 24 
hours longer. Repeated applications of this will erack the leather, but for 
some purposes it is very useful. 

Keeping Harness Pliable. — It is said that by adding a little glycerine 
to the grease applied to harness, it will be kept in a soft and pliable state, 
in spite of the ammoniacal exhalations of the stable, which tend to make it 
brittle. 

Tanning. — The first operation is to soak the hide, as no hide can be prop- 
perly tanned unless it has been soaked and broken on a fleshing beam. If 
the hide has not been salted add a little salt and soak it in soft water. In 
order to be thoroughly soaked, green hides should remain in the liquor from 
9 to 12 days ; of course the time varies with the thickness of the hide. The 
following liquor is used to remove hair or wool, viz. : 10 gals, cold water 
(soft) ; 8 qts. slaked lime, and the same quantity of wood ashes. Soak 
until the hair or wool will pull off easilj'. As it frequently happens it is 
desirable to cure the hide and keep the hair clean, the following paste 

S3 1 



632 TANNERS, LEATHER DRESSERS, HARNESS MAKERS, &C. 

should be made, viz. : equal parts of lime and hard wood ashes (lime should 
be slaked and made into a paste with soft water). This should be spread 
on tlie flesh side of the hide and the skin rolled up flesh side in and placed in 
a tub just covering it with water. It should remain 10 days or until the 
hair will pull out easil}-, then scrape with a knife. The skins of animals 
are composed mainly of glue or gluten. This is soluble, and the principle 
derived from the bark, tannin or tannic acid is also to a considerable extent 
soluble ; when the latter is allowed to act upon the former, chemical com- 
bination takes place, and leather is produced, which is insoluble 

Cheap Tanning without Bark or Mineral Astringents. — The 
astringent liquor is composed of water, 17 gals. ; Aleppo galls, J lb. ; 
Bengal catechu, 1^ oz., and 5 lbs. of tormentils or septfoil root. Powder the 
ingredients, and boil in the water 1 hour; when cool put in the skins (which 
must be prepared by being plunged into a preparation of bran and water 
for two days previously) ; handle them frequently during the first 3 days, 
let them alone the next 3 days, then handle three or four times in one day 
let them lie undisturbed for 25 days more, when the process will be com- 
plete. 

New Tanning Composition. — For harness leather, 4 lbs. catechu, 3 pts. 
common Ij'e, 3 oz. of alum. For wax leather (split leather), 3 lbs. catechu, 3 
pts. common lye, 3 ozs. alum. For calf-skins, 2 lbs. catechu ; 3 pts. lye. For 
sheep-skins, 1 lb. catechu, 1 pt. lye, 1 oz. alum. The catechu by itself will 
make the leather hard and brittle, the lye will soften it ; the alum being only 
used for coloring, can be dispensed with or other matter used in its place. 
The mixture is in every case boiled, and the leather is then immersed in it 
long enough to be thoroughly tanned, for which purpose the harness leather 
should be steeped from 18 to 20 days, wax leather from 12 to 14 days, calf 
skins from 7 to 9 days, and slieep-skins from 2 to 4 days. 

Deer Skins. — Tanning and Buffing for Gloves. — For each skin, 
take a bucket of water, and put it into 1 qt. of lime ; let the skin or skins 
lie in from 3 to 4 days ; then rinse in clean water, hair, and grain ; then soak 
them in cold water to get out the glue ; now scour or pound in good soap 
suds for half an hour; after which take wliite vitriol, alum, and salt, 1 table- 
spoonful of each to a skin ; these will be dissolved in sufficient water to 
cover the skin, and remain in it for 24 hours ; wring out as dry as convenient 
and spread on with a brush ^ pint of curriers' oil, and hang in the sun about 
2 days ; after which 3^011 will scour out the oil with soap-suds, and hang out* 
again until perfectly dry ; then pull and work them until they are soft ; and 
if a reasonable time does not make them soft, scour out in suds again as be- 
fore, until complete. The oil may be saved by pouring or taking it from 
the top of the suds, if left standing a short time. The buff color is given 
by spreading yellow ochre evenly over tlie surface of the skin when finished, 
rubbing it well with a brush. 

Tanning with Acid. — After having removed the hair, scouring, soak- 
ing and pounding in the suds, &c., as in the last recipe, in place of the white 
vitriol, alum, and salt as.there mentioned, take oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) 
and water, equal parts of each, and thoroughly wet tlie flesh-side of the 
skin with it, by means of a sptmge or cloth upon a stick ; then folding up 
the skin, letting it stand for 20 minutes only, having ready a solution of 
sal-soda and water, say 1 lb. to a bucket of water, and soak the skin or 
skins in that for two hours, when you will wash in clean water, and apply 
a little dry salt, letting lie in the salt over night, or that length of time ; 
then remove the flesh with a blunt knife, or if doing business on a large 
scale, by means of the regular beam and flesh knife ; when dry, or nearly 
so, soften by pulling and rubbing with tlie hands, and also with a piece 
of pumice stone. This of course is the quickest way of tanning, and by 
only wetting the skins with the acid, and soaking out in 20 minutes, they 
are not rotted. 

Another Method. — Oil of vitriol, ^ oz. ; salt, 1 teacup ; milk, suflScient 
to handsomely cover the skin, not exceeding 3 qts. ; warm the milk, then add 



TANNERS, LEATHER DRESSERS, HARNESS MAKERS, &C. 533 

tlie salt and vitriol ; stir the skin in the liquid 40 minutes, keeping it warm ; 
then dry, and work it as directed in tlie above. 

Canadian Process. — The Canadians make four liquors in using the japo- 
nica. The first liquor is made by dissolving, for 20 sides of upper, 15 
lbs. of terra japonica in sufBcient water to cover tiie upper being tanned. The 
SECOND liquor contains the same amount of japonica, and 8 lbs. of saltpetre 
also. The third contains 20 lbs. of japonica and 4| lbs. of alum. The 
FOURTH liquor contains only 15 lbs. of japonica, and IJ lbs. of sulplmric 
acid ; and the leather remains 4 days in each liquor for upper ; and for sole 
tlie quantities and time are both doubled. They count 50 calf-skins in 
place of 20 sides of upper, but let them lie in each liquor only 3 days. 

Process of Tanning Calf, Kip, and Harness Leather in from 6 to 
30 Days. — For a 12-lb. calf-skin, take 3 lbs. of terra japonica, common salt, 
2 lbs. ; alum, 1 lb. ; put them in a copper kettle with sufficient water to dis- 
solve the whole witliout boiling. The skin will be lined, haired, and treated 
every way as for the old process, wlien it will be put into a vessel with water 
to cover it, at which time you will put in 1 pint of the composition, stirring 
it well, adding the same night and morning for three days, when you will 
add the whole, handling 2 or 3 times daily, all the time tanning ; you can 
continue to use the tanning liquid by adding half the quantity each time, 
by keeping these proportions for any amount. If you desire to give a dark 
color to the leatlier, you will put in lib. of Sicily sumac; kip skins will 
require about 20 days, light horse hides for harness 30 days, calf-skins from 
6 to 10 days at most. 

To Tan Raw Hide. — When taken from the animal, spread it flesh side 
up; then put 2 parts of salt, 2 parts of saltpetre and alum combined, make 
it fine, sprinkle it evenly over the surface, roll it up, let it alone a few days 
till dissolved ; then take off what flesh remains, and nail the skin to the side 
of a barn in the sun, stretch tight ; to make jt soft like liarness leather, put 
neat's-foot oil on it, fasten it up in the sun again ; then rub out all the oil 
you can with a wedge-shaped stick, and it is tanned with the hair on. 

To Tan Fur Skins, &c. — To remove the legs and useless parts, soak 
the skin soft and tiien remove the fleshy substances, and soak it in warm 
water one hour. Now take for each skin, borax, saltpetre, and glauber- 
salt, of each ^ oz., and dissolve or wet with soft water sufficient to allow 
it to be spread on the flesh-side of the skin. Put it on with a brush 
thickest in tlie centre or thickest part of the skin, and double the skin 
together, flesh side in ; keeping it in a cool place for 24 hours, not allowing 
it to freeze. Then wash the skin clean, and take sal-soda, 1 oz. ; bora.x, 
i oz. ; refined soap, 2 oz. ; melt them slowly together, being careful not to 
allow them to boil, and apply the mixture to the flesh side at first. Boil up 
again and keep in a warm place for 24 hours ; then wash the skin clean again 
as above, and have saleratus, 2 oz., dissolved in hot water sufficient to well 
saturate the skin ; take alum, 4 oz. ; salt, 8 oz. ; and dissolve also in hot rain 
water ; when sufficiently cool to allow tlie handling of it without scalding, 
put in the skin for 12 hours ; then wring out the water and hang up for 12 
hours more to dry. Repeat this last soaking aud drying 2 or 3 times, ac- 
cording to the desired softness of the skin when finished. Lastly, finish 
by pulling and working, and finally by rubbing with a piece of pumice- 
stone and fine sand-paper. This works like a charm on sheep-skins, fur 
skins, dog, wolf, bear-skins, &c. 

To Tan Muskrat Skins with ^e Fur on. — First, for soaking, to 10, 
gals, cold soft water, add 8 parts of wheat bran ; old soap, J pt. ; pulverized 
borax, 1 oz. ; sulphuric acid, 2 ozs. If the skins have not been salted, add 
salt, 1 pt. Green skins should not be soaked more than 8 to 10 hours. Dry 
ones should soak till very soft. Tlie sulphuric acid hastens the soaking 
process. For tan liquor, to 10 gals, warm soft water, add bran, |^ bushel ; stir 
well, and let it ferment in a warm room. Then add slowly, sulphuric acid, 2 J 
lbs. ; stir all the time. Muskrat should remain in about 4 hours ; tlien take 
out and rub with a fleshing knife ; an old chopping knife with the edge 
taken off will do. Then work it over a beam until entirely dry. 



534 TANNERS, LEATHER DRESSERS, HARNESS MAKERS, &C. 

To Tan Skins with the Fur on. — The following process for tanning 
sheep skins with the wool on for mats or mittens — if for mittens the wool 
should be trimmed off evenly to half or three-fourths of an inch in length 
— we have seen recommended. \V;ishthe wool thoroughly in cold soapsuds, 
and rinse. For two skins dissolve ^ a pound of alum and salt in a little hot 
water, which put into a tub of enough cold water to cover the skins ; soak 
twelve hours and then hang them over a pole. Before entirely dry spi'ead 
and stretch them on a board to dry, and while a little damp sprinkle on the 
flesh side of each skin an ounce of saltpetre and an ounce of alum pulverized 
and mixed ; after rubbing this in well, put the flesh sides together and lay 
in the shade for two or tliree days, turning tlie under skin uppermost every 
day. When perfectly dry scrape the flesli side with a blunt knife, and rub 
with pumice or rotten stone, till soft and pliable. 

The following is an excellent plan for tanning any kind of skins with 
the fur on : — After having cut off the useless parts, and softened the skin 
by soaking, remove the fatty matter from the inside and soak it in warm 
water for an hour. Next, mix equal parts of borax, saltpetre, and glauber 
salts (sulphate of soda) in tlie proportion of about ^ ounce of each for each 
skin, witli sufficient water to make a thin paste ; spread this with a brush 
over the inside of tlie skin, applying more on tlie thicker parts than on 
the thinner ; double the skin together, flesh side inwards, and place it in a 
cool place. After standing 24 hours, wash tlie skin clean, and apply, ia 
the same manner as before, a mixture of 1 ounce sal soda, ^ ounce borax 
and 2 ounces hard white soap, melted slowly together without being allowed 
to boil ; fold together again and put away in a warm place for 24 hours. 
After this, dissolve 4 ounces alum, 8 ounces salt, and 2 ounces saleratus, 
in sufficient hot rain water to saturate the skin ; when cool enough not to 
scald the hands, soak the skin in it for 12 hours ; then wring out and hang 
it up to dry. When dry repeat* this soaking and drying two or three times 
till the skin is sufficiently soft. Lastly smooth the inside with fine sand, 
paper and pumice stone. 

CuBRiERs' Size. — Take of sizing, 1 qt. ; soft soap, 1 gill ; stuffing, 1 
gill; sweet milk, ^ pt. ; boil the sizing in water to a proper consistence, 
strain, and add the other ingredients ; and wiien thoroughly mixed, it is 
ready for use. 

Curriers' Paste. — First Coat. — Take of water, 2 qts. ; flour, -J pint ; 
Castile soap, 1 oz. ; make into paste. Second Coat. — Take of first paste, j 
pt. ; gum tragacanth, 1 gill ; water, 1 pt. ; mix all together. This will finish 
18 sides of upper. 

Currier^' Skirting. — This is for finishing skirting and the flesh of 
harness leather, in imitation of oak tanning. Take of chrome yellow, ^ lb.; 
yellow ochre, 1 lb. ; cream of tartar, 1 oz. ; soda, ^ oz. ; paste, 5 qts. ; mix 
well. This will finish 12 sides. 

Skirting. — For the grain to imitate oak tan. Take of clirome yellow, 
i lb.; yellow ochre, ^ lb. ; cream of tartar, 1 oz. ; soda, 1 oz. ; paste, 2 qts.; 
spirits of turpentine, 1 pt.; mix well. This will finisli 12 sides. 

Dyes FOR Morocco and Sheep Leather. — (Blue.) — Blue is given by 
steeping tlie subject a day in urine and indigo, then boiling it with alum ; 
or, it may be given by tempering tlie indigo with red wine, and washing the 
skin therewith. Another. — Boil elderberries or dwarf-elder, tiien smear and 
wash the skins tlierewith and wring them out ; then boil the elderberries as 
before in a solution of alum water, anj wet tlie skins in the same manner 
once or twice, dry tliem, and \\\ey will be very blue. (Red.) — Red is given 
by washing the skin and laying them 2 hours in gall, then wringing them 
out, dipping them in a liquor made with ligustrum, alum, and verdigris, in 
water, and lastly in the dye made of Brazilwood boiled with lye. (Purple.) — 
Purple is given by wetting the skins with a solution of roche alum in warm 
water, and when dry, again rubbing tliein witii tlie hand with a decoction 
of logwood in cold water. (Green.) — Green is given by smearing the skin 
with sap-green and alum boiled. (Dark Green.) — Dark green is given with 



TANNERS, LEATHER DRESSERS, HARNESS MAKERS, &C. 535 

steel-filings and sal-ammoni.ac, steeped in wine till soft, then smeared over 
the skin, which is to be djiied in the shade. (Yellow.) — Yellow is given by 
smearing tlie skin ovei* with aloes and linseed-oil dissolved and strained, or 
by infusing in weld. (Light Orange.) — Orange color is given by smearing it 
with fustic berries boiled in alum water, or for deep orange, with turmeric. 
(Sk-i/-colvr.) — Sky-color is given with indigo steeped in boiling water, and the 
next morning warmed and smeared over the skin. See Dyers' Department. 
To Dye Leather Yellow. — Picric acid gives a good yellow witliout 
any mordant ; it must be used in very dilute solution, and not warmer than 
70° Fahr., so as not to penetrate tlie leather. 

Green Dye for Leather. — Aniline blue modifies picric acid to a fine 
green. In dyeing the leather, the temperature of 85° Fahr. must never be 
exceeded. See Aniline Dyes in Dyers' Department. 

Best Color for Shoe and Harness Edge. — Alcohol, 1 pint ; tincture 
of iron, IJ ozs. ; extract logwood, 1 oz. ; pulverized nutgalls, 1 oz. ; soft 
water, | pint; sweet oil, ^ oz. ; put this last into the alcohol before adding 
the water. Nothing can exceed the beautiful finish imparted to the leather 
by this preparation. 

Cheap Color for the Edge. — Soft water, 1 gallon ; extract logwood, 1 
oz. ; boil till tlie extract is dissolved ; remove from the fire, add copperas, 2 
ozs., bichromate of potash, and gum arable, of each J oz., all to be pul- 
verized. 

Beautiful Bronze for Leather. — Dissolve a little of the so-called 
insoluble aniline violet in a little water, and brush the solution over the 
leather; after it dries repeat the process. 

Superior Edge Blacking. — Soft water, 5 gallons ; bring to a boil, and 
add 8 ozs. logwood extract, pulverized ; boil 3 minutes, remove from the fire, 
and stir in 2J ozs. gum arabic, 1 oz. bichromate of potash, and 80 grains 
prussiate of potash. 

For a small quantity of this, use water, 2 qts. ; extract of logwood, ^ 
oz. ; gum arabic, 96 grains ; bichromate of potash, 48 grains ; prussiate of 
potash, 8 grains. Boil the extract in the water 2 minutes ; remove from 
the fire and stir in the others, and it is ready for use. 

For tanners' surface blacking, which is not required to take on a high 
polish, the gum arabic may be omitted. 

French Finish for Leather. — Take a common wooden pailful of 
scraps (the legs and pates of calf-skins are best), and put a handful each of 
salt and alum upon them, and let stand three days ; then boil until they get 
a thick paste ; in using, you will warm it, and in the first application put a 
little tallow with it, and for a second time a little soft soap, and use it in 
the regular way of finishing, and your leather will be soft and pliable, like 
French leather. 

French Patent Leather. — Work into the skin with appropriate tools 
3 or 4 successive coatings of drying varnish, made by boiling linseed oil 
with white lead and litharge, in tlie proportion of one pound of each of the 
latter to one gallon of the former, and adding a portion of chalk or ochre, 
each coating being thoroughly dried before the application of the next. 
Ivory-black is then substituted for the chalk or ochre, the varnish thinned 
with spirits of turpentine, and five additional applications made in the same 
manner as before, except that it is put on thin and not worked in. The 
leather is rubbed down with pumice-stone, in powder, and then placed in a 
room at 90 degrees, out of the way of dust.' The last varnish is prepared 
by boiling J lb. asphaltum with 10 lbs. of the drying oil used in the first 
stage of the process, and then stirring in 5 lbs. copal varnish ami 10 lbs. of 
turpentine. It must have 1 month's age before using it. 

Brilliant French Varnish for Leather. — Spirits of wine, j^ pint ; 
vinegar, 5 pints ; gum Senegal in powder, J lb. ; loaf sugar, 6 ozs. ; powdered 
galls, 2 ozs. ; green copperas, 4 ozs. Dissolve the gum and §ugar in tlie 
water; strain, and put on a slow fire, but don't boil ; now put in the galls, 
copperas, and the alcohol ; stir well for five minutes ; set off ; and when 



53G TANNERS, LEATHER DRESSERS, HARNESS MAKERS, &C. 

nearly cool, strain through flannel, and bottle for use. It is applied with a 
pencil brush. Most superior. • * 

Liquid Japan for Leather. — Molasses, 8 lbs. ; lampblack, 1 lb. ; sweet 
oil, 1 lb.; gum arabic, 1 lb.; isinglass, 1 lb. Mix well in 32 lbs. water; 
apply heat ; when cool, add 1 quart alcohol; an ox's gall will improve it. 

French Polish or Dressing for Leather. — Mix 2 pts. best vinegar 
with 1 pt. soft water ; stir into it ^ lb. glue, broken up, i lb. logwood chips, 
i oz. of finely powdered indigo, J oz. of the best soft soap, i oz. of isinglass; 
put the mixture over the fire, and let it boil 10 minutes or more ; then strain, 
bottle, and cork. When cold, it is fit for use. Apply with a sponge. 

Gold Varnish. — Turmeric, 1 drachm ; gamboge, 1 drachm ; turpentine, 
2 pints ; shellac, 5 ozs. ; sandarac, 5 ozs. ; dragon's blood, 8 drachms ; thin 
mastic varnish, 8 ozs. ; digest with occasional agitation for 14 days ; then 
set aside to fine ; and pour off the clear. 

Grain Black for Harness Leather. — First stain in tallow ; then take 
spirits of turpentine, 1 pint ; cream of tartar, 1 oz. ; soda, 1 oz. ; gum shellac, 
^ oz. ; thick paste, reduced thin, 2 quarts. Mix well. This will finish 12 
sides. 

To Utilize Leather Scraps. — First clean the scraps, then soak them 
in water containing 1 per cent, of sulphuric acid until the material becomes 
soft and plastic, then compress into blocks and dry by steam. In order to 
soften the blocks, 1 lb. of glycerine is added to 100 lbs. of the material ; 
they are then passed tlirough rollers, and brought to the proper thickness to 
be used as inner soles of boots and shoes. 

Sizing for Boots and Shoes in Treeing Out. — Water, 1 quart; dis- 
solve in it, by heat, isinglass, 1 oz. ; adding more water to replace loss by 
evaporation ; when dissolved, add starch, 6 ozs. ; extract of logwood, bees- 
wax, and tallow, of each, 2 ozs. Rub the starch up first by pouring on 
sufiicient boiling water for that purpose. It makes boots and shoes soft 
and pliable, and gives a splendid appearance to old stock on the shelves. 

Black Varnish for the Edge. — Take 98 per cent, alcohol, 1 pint ; 
shellac, 3 ozs. ; resin, 2 ozs. ; pine turpentine, 1 oz. ; lampblack, Joz. ; mix : 
and when the gums are all cut, it is ready for use. This preparation makes 
a most splendid appearance when applied to boot, shoe, or harness edge, 
and is equally applicable to cloth or wood, where a gloss is required after 
being painted. 

Beautiful Stains for Boots, Shoes and Leather Goods. — Soft 
water, 1 pt. ; oxalic acid, 2 tablespoonfuls or more ; if required stronger, 
dissolve, and for a red color, add finely pulverized rose-pink, vermilion or 
drop lake. Blue, add finely pulverized Prussian blue, or indigo. Yellow, 
king's yellow, yellow ochre, &c. White, flake white. Green, blue and 
yellow mixed. Orange, red and j'ellow mixed. Purple, red and blue mixed. 
Pulverize the ingredients well before mixing with the water and acid. Any 
other shade desired can be selected from the " Compound colors " in the 
next department. 

Waterproof Oil-Blacking. — Camphene, 1 pint ; add all the India- 
rubber it will dissolve ; curriers' oil, 1 pint ; tallow, 7 lbs. ; lampblack, 2 
ozs. Mix thoroughly by heat. 

Shoemakers' Heel Ball. — Beeswax, 8 oz. ; tallow, 1 oz. ; melt, and 
add powdered gum arabic, 1 oz., and lampblack to color. 

Best Heel Ball. — Melt together beeswax, 2 lbs. ; suet, 8 ozs. ; stir in 
ivory black, 4 ozs., lampblack, ^ oz., powdered gum arabic, 2 oz., powdered 
rock candy, 2 oz., mix and when partly cold pour into tin or leaden moulds. 

Channellers and Shoemakers' Cement. — India-rubber dissolved to a 
proper consistence in sulpliuric etiier. 

Cement for Leather or Rubber Soles and Leather Belting. — 
Gutta percha, 1 lb. ; India-rubber, 4 ozs. ; pitchy 2 ozs. ; shellac, 1 oz. ; oil, 
2 ozs. ; melt, and use hot. 

German Blacking. — Ivory-black, Ipart; molasses, ^ part ; sweet oil, 
yi part ; mix, as before ; then stir in a mixture of hydrochloric acid, ji part ; 



TANNERS, LEATHER DRESSERS, HARNESS MAKERS, &C. 537 

oil of vitriol, ^ part ; each separately dilnted with twice its weijrht of water 
before mixing tliem. Tliis forms the ordinary paste blacking of Germany, 
according to Liebig. 

Oil Paste Blacking. — Ivory-black, 4 lbs. ; molasses, 2 lbs. ; sweet oil, 
1 lb.; oil of vitriol, 3 lbs. ; mix and pnt in tins. 

Polish for Patent Leather. — The following is given by the London 
Chemist and Druggist : 

Wiiites of two eggs, one tablespoonful of spirits of wine, two large 
Innips of sugar, finely powdered ivory-black, as much as may be sufficient 
to produce the necessary blackness and consistence. To be laid on with a 
soft sponge, lightly, an(l afterwards gently rubbed with a soft cloth. 

Superior Water-proof Comvosition for Leather. — Boiled oil, six- 
teen parts ; spirits turpentine, two parts ; beeswax and resin one part each ; 
Venice turpentine, two parts; mix and use hot. 

Waterproof Composition for Boots and Shoes. — Beeswax, 2 ozs. ; 
beef suet, 4 ozs. ; resin, 1 oz. ; ne^its-foot oil, 2 ozi». ; lampblack, 1 oz. Melt 
together. Sells well. 

Fine Blacking for Shoes. — Take four ounces of ivory-black, three 
ounces of tlie coarsest sugar, a tablespoonful of sweet oil, and a pint of small 
beer ; mix tliem gradually till cold. 

Oil Paste Blacking. — Take oil of vitriol, two ounces ; ivory-black, one 
pound ; molasses, five ounces ; tanner's oil, five ounces ; mix the vitriol and 
oil together, and let it stand a day ; then add the ivory-black and molasses, 
and stir it well together till it makes a tiiick paste. 

Liquid Blacking. — Ivory bhick, 2 lbs. ; molasses, 2 lbs. ; sweet oil, 1 
lb. ; rub together till well mixed ; then add oil vitriol, ^ lb. ; add coarse 
sugar, ^ lb. ; and dilute witii beer bottoms ; tins cannot be excelled. 

On Rubber Goods. — As many parties require to use rubber goods who 
are entire!}- ignorant of the ciieap mixtures which are vended in large quan- 
tities, at enormous profits by manufacturers, I have tiiought j)ro])er in this 
place to irradiate tlie subject witii a little " light " for the benefit of those 
whom " it may concern," and accordingl}' present the formula} for com- 
pounding tlie different mixtures wliich enter into the composition of many 
articles sold quite extensively as jnire rubber goods, but which, owing to 
large adulterations, in many cases cost 75 per cent, less than the prices 
charged for them. Tlie first I sliall present is for 

Light Buffer Springs. — Grind together clear Java rubber, 25 lbs. ; 
Para rubber, 5 lbs. ; common magnesia, 10 lbs. ; pure sulphur, 25 ozs. Tiiis 
is brown at first, but in a few days turns grey or white, and just sinks in 
water. Springs made from tiiis compound, 4J X 2J X 1, pressed to half an 
inch, showed 34 tons on the dial. 

Grey Packing for Marine Engines, &c. — Grind together cleaned 
Java rubber, 5 lbs. ; Para rubber, 25 lbs. ; oxide of zinc, 16 lbs. ; carbonate 
of magnesia, 6 lbs. ; Porcelain or Cornwall clay, 3 lbs. ; red lead, 2 lbs. ; 
pure sulphur, 30 ozs. It may be proper to state tliat good purified Java 
rubber miglit be substituted by engineers with good effect for Para rubber 
in the above and some other compositions. 

Kag Packing for Valves, Bearing Springs, &c. — Tliis is made prin- 
cipally from tiie useless cuttings in the manufacture of India-rubber coats, 
when the gum is ru( or spread on calico foundations. Proportions as fol- 
lows : grind together useless scraps, 35 lbs. ; black-lead, 18 lbs. ; Java 
gum, 16 lbs. ; yellow sulphur, 1 lb. 

Composition for Suction Hose for Fire Engines, &c. — Grind to- 
gether Java rubber, 20 lbs. ; Para do., 10 lbs. ; white lead, 14 lbs. ; red lead, 
14 lbs. ; yellow sulphur, \\ lbs. Tiiis is spread upon flax cloth, which 
weighs 10, 16, and 32 ozs. to tlie square yard. 

Common Black Packing. — Grind together, Java rubber, 15 lbs. ; Para 
do., 15 lbs. ; oxide of zinc, 15 lbs. ; China or Cornwall clay, 15 lbs. ; j'ellow 
sulphur, 28 ozs. 

Common White Buffer Kings, &c. — Grind together Java rubber, 30 

23* 



538 TANNERS, LEATHEE DRESSERS, HARNESS MAKERS, &C. 

lbs. ; oxide of zinc, 18 lbs. ; carbonate of magnesia, 6 lbs. ; clean cbalk or 
wbiting, 6 lbs. ; flour of sulphur, 2 lbs. 

Vulcanite, or Ebonite. — If the amount of sulphur added to the pre- 
pared rubber amounts to 10 per cent, and tlie operations of vulcanizing is 
performed in close vessels, at a temperature exceeding 300, or the lieat re- 
quired for Vulcanizing India-Rubber as described under that head, 
which see, an article will be produced known as vulcanite, or ebonite. It is a 
black, hard, elastic substance, resembling horn in its texture and appear- 
ance, and capable of taking a very high polish. It is of great use in the 
arts, and is largely manufactured for making combs, door hantlles, and 
hundreds of articles hitherto made in ivory or bone. Its electrical proper- 
ties also are very great. 

Best Pure Springs, or Washers. — Grind together Para gum, 30 lbs. ; 
oxide of zinc, 5 lbs. ; carb. magnesia, 2 lbs. ; common chalk, 3 lbs. ; Porce- 
lain or Cornwall clay, 2 lbs. ; pure sulphur, 30 ozs. 

Companion Quality to Above. — Para rubber, 30 lbs. ; oxide of zinc, 5 
lbs. ; Porcelain or Cornwall clay, 5 lbs. ; pure sulphur, 32 ozs. 

" Hypo " Cloth for Waterproof Coats. — Grind together clean Java 
gum, 30 lbs. ; lampblack, 5 lbs. ; dry clialk or whiting, 11 lbs. ; sulphuret 
of lead, 5 lbs. Tiiis composition is applied to waterproof garments. 

To Vulcanize India-Rubber. — Tlie vulcanizing process patented by 
the late Charles Goodyear, consists in incorporating with the rubber from 
8 to 10 per cent, of sulphur, together with various metallic oxides, chiefly 
lead and zinc, the quantity of the latter articles being regulated by the de- 
gree of elasticity, etc., required in the desired article. The goods of one 
large establishment are vulcanized in cylindrical wrought iron steam heat- 
ers, over 50 feet long and from 5 to 6 feet in diameter. These heaters 
have xloors opening on hinges at one end, and through these doors the 
goods to be vulcanized are introduced on a sort of railway carriage, then, 
after the door is shut, steam is let on, and a temperature of from 250° to 
800° of heat is kept up for several liours, the degree of heat being ascer- 
tained by means of thermometers attached to the heaters. The value, 
solidity, and quality of the goods is much increased by keeping the articles 
under the pressure of metallic moulds or sheets while undergoing this pro- 
cess. The whole process requires careful manipulation and great experi- 
ence to conduct it properly. 

To Deodorize Rubber. — Cover the articles of rubber with charcoal 
dust, place them in an enclosed vessel, and raise the temperature to 94° 
Fahr., and let it remain thus for several hours. Remove and clean the 
articles from the charcoal dust, and they will be found free from all odor. 

Gutta-Percha and Rubber Waste. — The waste is cut into small 
pieces, and 100 lbs. of the same are placed in a well-closed boiler with 10 
lbs. of bisulphide of carbon and 4 ozs. absolute alcohol, well stirred ; then 
the boiler is closed, and left a few hours to soak. After this time it is found 
to be changed into a soft dough mass, which, after being ground or 
kneaded, is flt to be formed into any shape, when the solvent will evapor- 
ate. If too much of the latter has been used, a thick unmanageable liquid 
is obtained. 

To Repair Leakages in Fire Engine Hose. — Pass a round bar of iron 
into the hose under the leak, then rivet on a patch qf leather, previously 
coated with marine glue. 

To Repair Rubber Hose. — Cut the hose apart where it is defective ; 
obtain from any gasfitter a piece of iron pipe 2 or 3 inches long, twist the 
hose over it until the ends meet, wrap with strong twine, well waxed, and 
it will last a long time. 

Varnish for Faded Rubber Goods. — Black Japan varnish diluted 
with a little linseed oil. 




WATCHMAKING. 



The Modus Operandi Complete in all its Various Details, 
Cleaning, Tempering Case and other Springs, Drill- 
ing Hard Steel, Putting Teeth in "Watches and 
Clocks, Determining the Correct Diameter of a 
Pinion by Measuring the Teeth, Adjusting and Reg- 
ulating, Putting in Beat, Weakening the Hair Spring, 
Valuable and Useful Tables of Trains of Watches, 
Showing the Number of Teeth in the Wheels, Leaves 
IN THE Pinion, Beats in a Minute and the Time the 
Wheels Revolve In. 

On Watch Cleaning. — The greatest care is necessary in taking the 
watcli down, and separating its parts. First, remove the liands carefully, so 
as not to bend the slight pivots on whicli they work, next, remove the move- 
ment from the case, and take off the dial and dial wheels ; next, let down 
the mahi spring by placing your bench key upon the arbor, or winding 
post, and turning as though you were going to wind the watch until the 
click rests liglitly upon the ratchet; then with your screw-driver press the 
point of the click away from the teeth and ease down the springs ; next, 
draw the screws, or pins, and remove the bridges of the train or the upper 
plate, as the case may be, next, remove the balance with the greatest care 
to avoid injuring the hair spring. The stud or small post into which the 
hair spring is fastened may be removed from the bridge or plate of most 
modern watches without unkeying the spring, by slipping a thin instrument, 
like the edge of a blade knife, under the corner of it and prying upward, 
this will save much trouble, as j^ou will not have the hair-spring to adjust 
when you reset the balance. If the watch upon whicli you propose to 
work has an upper plate, as an American or an English lever for instance, 
loosen the lever before you have entirely separated the plates, otlierwise it 
will hang and probably be broken. Tlie watch being now taken apart, 
brush tlie dust away from its different parts, and subject tliem to a careful 
examination with j'our ej'e-glass. Assure yourself the teeth of the wheel'; 
and leaves of the pinions are all perfect and smooth ; that the pivots are all 
straiglit, round, and highl}'^ polished ; that the holes through which they are 
to work are not too large, and have not become oval in shape ; that every 
jewel is smooth and perfectly sound ; and that none of them are loose in 
their settings. See also that the escapement is not too deep or too shallow; 
that the lever or cylinder is perfect ; that all the wheels have sufficient play 
to avoid friction, but not enough to derange their coming togetlier properly 
that none of them work against the pillar-plate ; that the balance turns 
horizontally and does not rub : that the hair-spring is not bent or wrongly 

539 



540 WATCHMAKING. 

set 80 tliat the coils rub on each other on tlie plate, or on the balance ; in 
short, that every thing about the^ whole movement is just as reason would 
teacli you it should be. If you find it otherwise, proceed to repair in 
accordance with a carefully weighed judgment and tlie processes given 
in this chapter, after wliicli clean ; if not, the watch only needs to be cleaned, 
and, therefore, you may go on with your work at once. 

To Clean. — Tlie best process is to simply blow your breath upon the 
plate or bridge to be cleaned, and then to use your brush with a little pre- 
pared chalk. The wheels and bridges should be held between the thumb 
and finger in a piece of soft i)aper while undergoing the process ; otherwise 
the oil from the skin will prevent their becoming clean. The pinions may 
be cleaned by sinking them several times into a piece of pith, and the holes 
by turning a nicely shaped piece of pivot wood into them, first dry, and 
afterwards oiled a very little with watch oil. When the holes pass through 
jewels, you must work gently to avoid breaking them. 

The " Chemical Process. " — Some watchmakers employ what they 
call the " Chemical Process" to clean and remove discoloration from watch 
movements. It is as follows : — 

Remove the screws and other steel parts ; then dampen with a solution of 
oxalic acid and water. Let it remain a few minutes, after which immerse 
in a solution made of one-fourth pound cyanuret potassa to one gallon rain 
water. Let it remain about five minutes, and then rinse well with clean 
water, after which you may dry in sawdust, or with a brush and prepared 
chalk, as suits your convenience. This gives the work an excellent ap- 
pearance. 

To PREPARE Chalk for Cleaning. — Pulverize your chalk thoroughly, 
and then mix it with clear rain water in the proportion to two pounds to 
the gallon. Stir well, arid then let stand about two minutes. In this time 
the gritty matter will have settled to the bottom. Pour the water into 
another vessel slowly so as not to stir up the settlings. Let stand until 
entirely settled, and then pour off as before. The settlings in the second 
vessel will be your prepared chalk, ready for use as soon as dried. Spanish 
whiting, treated in the same way, makes a very good cleaning or polishing 
powder. Some operatives add a little jeweller's rouge, and we tliink it an 
improvement ; it gives the powder a nice color at least, and therefore adds 
to its importance in the eyes of the uninitiated. In cases where a sharper 
polishing powder is required, it may be prepared in the same way from 
rotten-stone. 

Pivot Wood. — Watchmakers usually buy this article of watch-material 
dealers. A small shrub known as Indian arrow-wood, to be met with in the 
northern and western states, makes an excellent pivot wood. It must be 
cut when the sap is down, and split into quarters so as throw the pith out- 
side of the rod. 

Pith for Cleaning. — The stalk of the common mullen affords the best 
pith for cleaning pinions. Winter, when the stalk is dry, is the time to 
gather it. Some use cork instead of pitJi, but it is inferior. 

To Pivot. — When you find a pivot broken, you will hardly be at a loss 
to understand that the easiest mode of repairing the damage is to drill into 
the end of the pinion or staff, as the case may be, and having inserted a 
new pivot, turn it down to the proper proportions. This is by no means a 
difficult tiling when tiie piece to be drilled is not too hard, or when the 
temper may be slightly drawn without injury to the other parts of the 
article. 

To tell when the Lever is of proper Length. — You may readily 
learn whether or not a lever is of proper length, by measuring from the 
guard ])oint to the pallet staff, and then comparing with the roller or ruby- 
pin table : the diameter of the table should always be just half the length 
measured on the lever. Tlie rule will work both ways, and may be useful 
in cases where a new ruby-pin table has to be supplied. 

To change Depth of Lever Escapement. — K you are operating on a 



"WATCHMAKING. 541 

fine watch, the best plan is to put a new staff into the lever, cutting its 
pivots a little to one side, just as far as you desire to change the escape- 
ment. Common watches will not, of course, justify so much trouble. The 
usual process in their case is to knock out the staff, and with a small file 
cut the hole oblong in a direction opposite to that in which you desire to 
move your pallets ; then replace the staff, wedge it to the required position, 
and secure by soft soldering. In instances where the staff is put in with a 
screw, you will have to proceed differentlj'. Take out the staff, pry the 
pallets from the lever, file the pin holes to slant in the direction you would 
move tlie pallets, without changing their size on the other side of the lever. 
Connect the pieces as they were before, and, with the lever resting on some 
solid substance, you may strike lightly with your hammer until the bend- 
ing of the pins will allow the pallets to pass into position. 

Compensation Balance of Chronometeks — The balance is a small 
piece of steel covered with a hoop of brass. The rim, consisting of the two 
metals, is divided at the two extremities, tlie one diametrical arm of tlie 
balance, so that the increase of temperature which weakens the balance 
springs contract, in a proportionate degree, the diameter of the balance, 
leaving the spring less resistance to overcome. This occurs from the brass 
expanding much more by heat than steel, and it therefore curls the semi- 
circular arcs inwards, an action that will be immediately understood, if we 
conceive the compound bar of steel to be straight, as the heat would render 
the brass side longer and convex, and in the balance it renders it more cur- 
ved. In the com|>ensation balance, the two metals are united as follows : 
the disc of steel when turned and pierced with a central hole is fixed by a 
little screw-bolt and nut at the bottom of a small crucible, with a central 
elevation smaller than the disc ; the brass is now melted and the whole 
allowed to cool. The crucible is broken, the excess of brass is turneil off 
in the latlie, the arms are made with the file as usual, the rim is tapped to 
receive the compensation screws or weights, and, lastly, the hoop is divided 
in two places at the opposite ends of its diametrical arm. The balance 
springs of marine chronometers, which are in the form of a screw, are 
wound into the square thread of a screw of the appropriate diameter and 
coarseness ; the two ends of the spring are retainetl by side screws, and the 
whole is carefully enveloped in platinum foil, and lightly bound with wire. 
The mass is next heated in a pie(!e of gun barrel closed at one end, and 
plunged into oil, which hardens the spring almost without discoloring it, 
owing to the exclusion of the air by the close platinum covering, which is 
now removed, and the spring is let down to the blue before removal from 
the screwed block. The balance or hair spring of common watclies are fre- 
quently left soft, those of the best watches are hardened in tlie coil upon a 
plain cylinder and are then curled into the spiral form between the edge of 
a blunt knife and the thumb, the same as in curling up a narrow ribbon or 
paper, or the filaments of an ostrich feather. The soft springs are \vorth 
60 cents each, those hardened and tempered $1.26 each. This raises the 
value of the steel, originally less than 4 cents, to $2000 and $8000 respec- 
tively. It takes 3200 balance springs to weigh an ounce. 

Watch Spring Manufacture. — Watcli sjirings are hammered out of 
round steel wire, of suitable diameter until they fill the gauge, for width, 
which at the same time insures equality of thickness. The holes are pun- 
ched in their extremities, and they are trinnned on the edge with a smooth 
file. The springs are then tied up with binding wire, in a loose open coil 
and lieated over a charcoal fire upon a perforated revolving plate. They are 
hardened in oil and blazed off. The spring is now distended in a long metal 
frame, similar to that used for a saw blade, and ground and polished with 
emery and oil between lead blocks. By this time its elasticit}' appears 
quite lost, and it may be bent in any direction ; its elasticity is, liowever, 
entirely restored by a subsequent hammering on a very bright anvil which 
puts the " nature into the spring. " The coloring is done over a flat plate of 
iron, or hood, under which a small spirit lamp is kept burning ; the spring 



542 WATCHMAKING. 

is continually drawn backward and forward, about two or three inches at 
a time, until it assumes the orange or deep blue tint throughout, according 
to the taste of the purchaser. By many the coloring is considered to be a 
matter of ornament and not essential. The last process is to coil the spring 
into the spiral form, that it may enter the barrel in which it is to be con- 
tained. This is done by a tool with a small axis and winch handles, and 
does not require heat. 

To TELL WHEN Levek PALLETS ARE OF PROPER SizE. — The clear space 
between the pallets should correspond with the outside measure, on tlie 
points of three teeth of the scape wheel. The usual mode of measuring 
for new pallets is to set the wheel as close as possible to free its self when 
in motion. You can arrange it in your deptliing tool, after which the mea- 
surement between the pivot holes of the two pieces, on the pillar plate, will 
show you exactly what is required. 

To LENGTHEN LeVERS OF AnCHOR-ESCAPEMENT WaTCHES WITHOUT 

Hammering or Soldering. — Cut square across with a screw-head file, a 
little back from the point above the fork, and, when you have thus cut into 
it to a sufficient depth, bend forward the desired distance the piece thus 
partially detached. In the event of the piece snapping off while bending — 
which, however, rarely happens — file down the point level with the fork, 
and insert a pin English lever style. 

To Temper Case and other Springs op Watches. — Draw the tem- 
per from the spring, and fit it properly in its place in tiie watch ; tlien take 
it out and temper it hard in rain-water (the addition of a little table salt to 
the water will be an improvement) ; after which place it in a small sheet- 
iron ladle or cup, and barely cover it with linseed-oil : then hold the ladle 
over a lighted lamp until the oil ignites, let it burn until the oil is nearly, not 
quite consumed ; then re-cover with oil and burn down as before ; and so a 
tliird time ; at the end of which, plunge it again into water. Main and hair 
springs may, in like manner, be tempered by the same process ; first draw the 
temper, and properly coil and clamp to keep it in position, and then pro- 
ceed tiie same as with case-springs. 

To make Red Watch Hands. — 1 oz. carmine, 1 oz. muriate of silver, 
i oz. of tinner's japan ; mix together in an earthen vessel, and hold over a 
spirit-lamp until formed into a paste. Apply this to the watch hand, and 
then lay it over a copper plate, face side up, and heat the plate sufficiently 
to produce the color desired. 

To Drill into Hard Steel. — Make your drill oval in form, instead of 
the usual pointed shape, and temper as hard as it will bear witliout break- 
ing ; then roughen tlie surface where you desire to drill with a little diluted 
muriatic acid, and, instead of oil, use turpentine or kerosene, in which a little 
gum camphor has been dissolved, with your drill. In operating, keep the pres- 
sure on your drill firm and steady ; and if the bottom of tlie hole should 
chance to become burnished that the drill will not act, as sometimes happens, 
again roughen with diluted acid as before ; then clean out the hole carefully, 
and proceed again. 

To Pdt Teeth in Watch or Clock Wheels without Dovetailing 
or Soldering. — Drill a hole somewhat wider tiian the tooth, square through 
the plate, a little below the base of tlie tooth ; cut from the edge of the 
wheel square down to the hole already drilled ; then flatten a piece of wire 
so as to fit snugly into tlie cut of the saw, and with a light hammer form a head 
on it like the head of a pin. When thus prepared, press the wire or pin 
into position in the wheel, the head filling the hole drilled tiirough the 
plate, and the end projecting out, so as to form the tooth ; then with a sharp- 
pointed graver cut a small groove each side of the pin from the edge of the 
wheel down to the hole, and with a blow of your hammer spread the face 
of the pin so as to fill the grooves just cut. Repeat the same operation on 
the other side of the wheel, and finish off in the usual way. The tooth will 
be found perfectly riveted in on every side, and as strong as the original 
one, while in appearance it will be equal to the best dovetailing. 



WATCHMA-KING. 543 

To Case-harden Iron. — If you desire to harden to any considerable 
depth, put the article into a crucible with cyanide of potassium, cover over 
and heat altogether, then plunge into water. This process will harden per 
fectly to the depth of one or two inches. 

To TIGHTEN A CaNNON PiNION ON THE CeNTRE ArBOR WHEN TOO 

LOOSE. — Grasp tiie arbor lightly with a pair of cutting nippers, and, by a 
single turn of the nippers around the arbor, cut or raise a small thread 
thereon. 

To Frost Watch Movements. — Sink that part of the article to be 
frosted for a short time in a compound of nitric acid, muriatic acid, and table 
salt, one ounce of each. On removing from the acid, place it in a shallow 
vessel containing enough sour beer to merely cover it, then with a fine 
scratch brush scour thorougiily, letting it remain under the beer during the 
operation. Next wash off, first in pure water and tlien in alcohol. Gild or 
silver in accordance with any recipe in the plating department. 

Rule for Determining the Correct Diameter of a Pinion bt 
Measuring the Teeth of the Wheel that Matches into it. — The terra 
FULL, as used below, indicates full measure from outside to outside of the 
teeth named, and the term centre, the measure from centre of one tooth to 
centre of the other tooth named, inclusive. 

For diameter of a pinion of 15 leaves, measure, with calipers, a shade 
less than 6 teeth of the wheel,/;///. 

For diameter of a pinion of 14 leaves, measure, with calipers, a shade 
less than 6 teeth of the wiieel, centre. 

For diameter of a pinion of 12 leaves, measure, with calipers, 5 teeth of 
the wheel, centre. 

For diameter of a pinion of 10 leaves, measure, with calipers, 4 teeth of 
the wheel,/);//. 

For diameter of a pinion of 9 leaves, measure, with calipers, a little less 
than 4 teeth of the wheel, /«//. 

For diameter of a pinion of 8 leaves, measure, with calipers, a little less 
than 4 teeth of the wheel, centre. 

For diameter of a pinion of 7 leaves, measure, with calipers, a little less 
than 3 teeth of the wheel, _/i(//. 

For diameter of a pinion of 6 leaves, measure, with calipers, 3 teeth of 
the wheel, centre. 

For diameter of a pinion of 5 leaves, measure, with calipers, 3 teeth of the 
wheel, centre. 

As a general rule, pinions that lead, as in the hour wheel, should be 
somewhat larger than those that drive, and pinions of clocks should gener- 
ally be somewhat larger proportionally than those of watches. 

For diameter of a pinion of 4 leaves, measure, with calipers, one half of 
one space over 2 teeth of the wheel,////. 

To Polish Wheels perfectly without injury. — Take a flat burnish- 
ing file, warm it over a spirit lamp, and coat it lightly with beeswax. When 
cold, wipe off as much of the wax as can be readily removed, and with 
your file thus prepared, polish the wheel, resting the wheel while polishing 
on a piece of cork. The finish produced will be quite equal to tlie finest 
buff polish, while there will be no clogging, and the edges of the arms and 
teeth will remain perfectly square. 

Sandoz' Method of Producing Isochronism in Flat and Breguet 
Springs. — Isochronism, from the Greek, meaning equal time, is tiie property 
possessed b}- the pendulum and the hair spring to acomplish their arcs of vi- 
bration of different amplitudes in the same si)ace of time. In a pendulum, 
the only condition required is that its length be such as to make the centre 
of gravity move according to the cycloid curve ; but in the hair spring the 
means change with tlie forms effected by the spring. In the spherical or conical 
springs, the extreme curves constructed after the matliematical rules dis- 
covered by Prof. Phillipps, of the Polytechnic School of Paris, will produce an 
Isochronism very nearly perfect. In the flat spring, these curves cannot ex« 



544 WATCHMAKING. 

ist, therefore other means must be resorted to. I shall give now the results 
of several years of experiment and study, wliicli can be embodied in the 
two following theorems : 

1. In the Jiat spring, every coil has theoreticalli/ a point where the vibrations 
are IscochronuL 2. That point of Isockronism is determined by the relative posi- 
tion of the two points connecting the hair spring with the collet and stud, called 
Points d'attache. 

These two propositions form the base of Isoclironism in the flat spring ; 
therefore the idea generally accredited among watciimakers that tiie Isoch- 
ronal properties of a flat spring dej)end on its length is incorrect, since 
the 10th as well as the 20tli coil of the spring is able to produce tlie Isocliron- 
ism, the only limit being such sizes of springs that would prevent tlie per- 
fect freedom of its action. 

Freedom of action being necessary for the Isochronal properties of tlie 
spring to develop themselves, the spring must be bent to the centre, accord- 
ing to Fig. II. — the first coil being too near or the curve too flat, so tliat 
even a minute part of tlie spring could touch the collet, would hinder the 
Isochronism. Next, the spring must be pinned jierfectly tight in the collet 
and stud, and move freely between the regulator pins. 

These conditions fiiltilled, the watcli is run 36 or 12 hours with just strength 
enough to keep it going ; the result is compared with a regulator and set 
down. Next, the watcii is fully wound up, and after a space of time equal 
to the first trial, tlie result is again set down. Most generally the watch will 
run slower in the short vibrations tiian in the wide ones, and consequently 
lose time in tlie pocket in the last twelve hours of its running. Having set 
down as a jirinciple that every coil has an Isochronal point, we have now 
to determine that point, remembering that, as a general rule, ere)'y«Hc/'c«seo/ 
length of the spring over that point, will cause the watch to gain in the short vibra- 
tions, and every decrease back of that point will cause it to gain in the wide vibra- 
tions. This rule is correct only for certain limits, as I jim going to explain. 
Supposing that a hair spring of 15 coils is perfectly Isoclironal witli tiie two 
points d'attache, j\\st ojiposite each other as sliown in Fig. III., the 14th and 
the 16th coil, as well as the 15th, will produce the Isochronism very nearly at 
the same point. Supposing that we increase gradually tlie lengtii of that 
hair spring of 15 coils, pinned up so that the two points d'attache are primi- 
tively opposite eacii otiier — so thai its length will vow be 15^ coils — the twopoints 
d'attache are now in the position shown in Fig. IV., or wliat is called pinned 
to the half ^'^'^- The result will be that the hair spring will cause the watch 
to gain in the short vibrations as much as it is in its power to do. 

But if we go further than the half coil, we now enter the ground that 
belongs to tlie 16th coil, and every increase of length in that half coil will 
cause the hairspring to lose in the short vibrations, in the same proportion 
that it has been gaining and increasing the lengtii of tlie first half. That 
change will continue until we reach the same point on tlie 16th coil that we 
started from on the loth, the two pins opposite each other; at that point 
we shall have again the Isochronism. The same operation is applicable to 
the 14th coil, with tiie same results. 

Now it is immaterial wliether we take tiiat half coil to the centre, or to 
tlie outside of tlie spring, because botli of these operations will produce the 
same results, viz., tlie cliaiige of the relative places of the points d'attache 
of the spring. Therefore the artist has his choice, and is guided by the 
size of tlie spring and the weight of tlie balance; for taking half a coil to the 
centre of the spring will not much affect the rate of the watch, but taken 
outside, the difference will be great. On the other hand, a very short cut 
to tlie centre will greatly affect the Isochronism, and at the outside, a full 
half-coil will generally produce from 15 to 25" difference in 24 hours. If then 
the watchmaker would produce the greatest possible changes of Isochron- 
ism in a watch, the change of position of the two poiitts d'attache of the 
spring of one coil around, will give him the two higliest degrees of gaining 
and losing in the short vibrations. 



WATCHMAKING. 



545 



It follows from the following pages, that if a watch loses in the last run- 
ning (short vibrations), the first thing to do is to increase tlie length of the 
hair spring from the outside ; if the result is better, but not yet good, give 
still more length ; if the result is worse, it shows that }'ou are too far on the 
coil. Take back the whole length that you had given in the first operation, 
and draw more length, so as to affect tiie spring the other way ; or if your 
spring is already small or your balance pretty heavy, cut to the centre so as 
to come around to the required positions. 

Some springs cannot produce the Isochronism ; this comes from a defect 
in making the spring, or a want of homogeneity in the metal ; the only rem- 
edy is a new spring. 




Pig. IV. 



In the Breguet Spring, the Isochronism is produced in the same manner 
as the flat springs, but great care must be taken in making the curve, for if 
it is not made in conformity to the principle of Phillipps, tiie Isochronism 
will be disturbed. 

For instance, in Fig. V., the spring being pinned in A, and the watch 
losing?" in the last 12 hours (short vib.), I first increase the length of the 
hair spring to the point B ; but as I am already on tlie ground belonging to 
the losing action, the result will be an increased loss of time in the last run- 
ning. I then go back to the point A, and moreover pin the spring to C, and 
then I shall approximate Isochronism. However, in most cases the increase 
of length will make the watch gain in its last running. 



546 WATCHMAKING. 

Adjustments to Positions. — This adjustment is known to but few 
watchmakers, and they make it'a regular business. It requires of the op- 
erator considerable manual skill and reflective powers. The great princi- 
ple is to equalize the frictions, so that the pivots will offer to the action of 
the spring the same resistance in the four positions generally required, viz., 
dial up, XII up, cock up and III up. After liaving inspected and corrected 
the train so that the motive power is transmitted uniformly to the balance, 
the pivots and jewels of the lever should be polished and shortened so as 
to have very little friction ; next, the lever should be poised as nearly per- 
fect as possible, and the slot also in the fork where the ruby pin acts should 
be polished. The balance jewels ought to be made short enough to have 
the holes square, rounded inside, and perfectly polished, the balance pivots 
well burnished and their ends half rounded, and the balance poised very 
carefully. The English method of throwing the balance out of poise to 
obtain the same rate in different positions is not accepted generally, and is 
considered a bad practice by the most eminent watchmakers. The hair 
spring is put in its position without the balance, and bent so that the collet 
and the cock jewel will have the same centres. The watch being now in 
good running order, is put under trial for 12 or 24 hours, and the rate in 
each position carefully noted. If there is any difference in the running 
with the cock up, or dial up, making the ends of the pivots even and 
equally well polished will remove the discrepancy. If the watch loses with 
■XII up, which is generally the case, and the friction on the balance jewels 
being reduced as much as possible, the remedy is to increase the friction 
when the watch is either dial or cock up. This is done by throwing the hair 
spring a little out of the centre of the cock jeiuel, thereby adding to the friction 
on the pivot end, a lateral pressure against the balance jewels. If the watch 
is well regulated with XII up, and loses with III up, throw the spring a little 
towards the Jigure III ; this operation lifts up the balance when the watch is 
in losing position and diminishes tlie friction of the pivots in that particu 
lar case. Making the ends of the pivots perfectly flat has a tendency to 
make the watch gain with dial or cock up. The sound of the watch must 
be clear in all positions, else it indicates a friction, as for instance rough 
jewels or pivots, safety pin rubbing against the roller, etc. 

How TO Regulate a Watch in a few Minutes, and a Practical 
Method to put a new Hair Spring, of the right size and Perfectly 
Regulated in a Watch without Running It. — First, ascertain how many 
vibrations the watch beats in one minute, by counting every other vibra- 
tion and comparing that time with a well-regulated watch or regulator. In 
general, Swiss watches beat 18,000 in one hour, viz., 300 in one minute ; 
American vyatches, either 16,200, or 270 per minute ; and the English 
levers, 14,400, or 240 per minute. If there is any doubt, it is better to count 
up leaves and teetli, and ascertain the right number ; but these cases are 
scarce where watches will beat odd numbers. 

Having found out the right number, examine the balance carefully for 
one or two minutes, comiting every vibration going from right to left, a.nd 
in the mean time examining the regulator or clock, to see when one min- 
ute is up. If the watch is well regulated, the number of vibrations must 
be exactly half of the regular first number, viz., 150, 135, or 120, as only every 
other vibration has been recorded to facilitate the observation. If not so, 
move the regulator, right or left, until a perfect coincidence comes. 

To pick up a new hair spring, after having recorded the right number 
of beats — either by the old hair spring or by the numbers of the train — lay 
first the spring with its centre well in the centre of the cock jewel, and 
having ascertained where the coil will enter between the pins of the regu- 
lator, note the place. Stick to the pivot of the balance a small round piece 
of beeswax ; then stick it to the centre of the spring, so as to establish a 
temporary but firm connection of the two pieces, and liaving pinched with 
the tweezers the hair spring to the place indicated by the regulator pins, 
cause it to vibrate gently ; then count up the vibrations for one minute, 



WATCHMAKING. 547 

and when you have got a spring that will produce nearlj^ the required num- 
ber of beats, pin it to the collet, and cause it again to vibrate, moving the 
tweezers forward and backward, until the rigiit number of beats is pro- 
duced ; with another pair of tweezers, pinch the hair spring about one- 
eighth of an inch back of the regulating point, so as to counterbalance the 
gain produced by the regulator pins, and bend slightly tlie wire, wiiich is 
the i)lace where tlie hair spring must be pinned to tlie stud. Having then 
trued up the spring, proceed to put the regulator to tlie right place, by 
using the way indicated in the beginning of this article, and the work is 
done. Success is certain, when the operation has been carefully performed. 
The balance must be made to vibrate on some hard and well polished sub- 
stance, so as to keep up the vibration to about the standard of regular run- 
ning. A little practice will soon enable the watchmaker to change a hair 
spring very quick, and without any trouble whatever. 

Of Compensation. — A most accurate way of counterbalancing effects 
proc^iced on the running of watches by different temperatures, is the ex- 
pansion balance, formed of two concentric rings, one interior, of steel, and 
one exterior, of brass, joined together by hard soldering or smelting. The 
general proportion of these two metals is one part of steel, two of brass. 
The stronger dilation of brass, causes the rim of the balance to head in- 
wardly when the heat, increasing, diminishes the strength of the hair 
spring ; the greater contraction bends the rim outwardly when cold comes 
to increase the rigidity of the spring's coils. Pushing forward or backward 
the screws of the rim will affect the compensating powers of the balance, 
by causing their weight to be more active as they come nearer the end of 
the cut arm. The thinner and higher the rim, the greater the action. A 
few trials will bring the balance to compensate the effect of temperature 
from 30'' to 100*^ Fahrenheit. For extreme temperatures another compen- 
sation, called auxi/iai-y, is used, but only in ship clironometers. A soft 
spring will be less effected by changes of temperature than a hardened one ; 
this affords a way to compensate certain balances, where otherwise new 
ones would have to be used. A precaution to observe in compensating is 
to make the screws go freely on the balance, and not screw them too tight, 
else the action of the rim not being free, a good compensation could not be 
attained, until the combined actions of dilation and contraction of the rim 
have freed the screws. 

For watchmakers who would want to compensate a watch without hav- 
ing an expansion balance, I give the following process, which I have suc- 
cessfully used : After having cut off the greater part of the regulator's arm, 
another arm is to be fitted with a screw on the rim of the regulator, so as 
to revolve freely arouiul that screw as an axis. The pins are jiut in the 
same position as on the old arm. A ring, of two parts of brass and one of 
steel, is then fastened to one end on that movable arm, and the other end 
is screwed at any convenient place, either on the regulator itself, or on the 
cock. See Fig. 1. By placing the whole ring on the regulator, the latter 
may be moved as in any other watch, the ring, opening or shutting itself 
under the changes of temperature, will push backward and forward the 
regvdator pins, and so effect the compensation which is to be regulated by 
varying either the proportion of brass and steel, or the size of the 
ring. 

To try tlie running of the watches, a common refrigerator is used to 
produce the low temperature, and then an apparatus, self-regulating, will 
produce the high temperature. It is commonly a square box of tin or cop- 
per, hermetically closed, under which is a gas burner. A compensating arm 
of the form of a U, made of brass and steel, is fastened inside the box, and 
is connected by a string with a lever attached to the key of the burner, and 
acts so that at the high temperature, say 100° Fahr., the gas is nearly shut 
off, the compensating arm gradually releasing itself and consequently let- 
ting out more gas when the heat diminishes inside the box. Use steel pins 
to secure spring to collet and stud. 



548 WATCHMAKING. 

To MAKE Polishing Beoaches. — Tliese are usually made of ivory, and 
used with diamond dust, loose, instead of having been driven in. You oil 
tlie broach liglitly, dip it into the finest diamond dust, and proceed to work 
it into the jewel tlie same as you do the brass broach. Unfortunately, too 
many watchmakers fail to attach sufficient importance to the polishing 
broach. Tlie sluggish motion of watches now-a-days is more often attrib- 
utable to rough jewels than to any other cause. 

To Polish Steel. — Take crocus of oxide of tin and graduate it in, in 
the same way as in preparing diamond dust, and apply it to the steel by 
means of a piece of soft iron or bell metal, made proper form, and prepared 
with flour of emery, same as for pivot burnishers ; use the coarsest of the 
crocus first, and finish off with the finest. To iron or soft steel a better 
finish may be given by burnishing, than can be imparted by the use of pol- 
ishing powder of any kind whatever. The German Method of Polishing Steel 
is performed by the use of crocus on a buff wheel. Nothing can exceed 
the surpassing beauty imparted to steel or even cast iron by this .pro- 
cess. 

Crocus Powder for Polishing. — Chloride of sodium and sulphate of 
iron are well mixed in a mortar. The mixture is then put into a shallow 
crucible and exposed to a red heat ; vapor escapes and the mass fuses. 
When no more vapor escapes, remove the crucible and let it cool. The 
color of the oxide of iron produced, if the fire has been properly regulated, 
is a fine violet ; if the heat has been too high it becomes black. The mass 
when cold is to be powdered and washed, to separate the sulphate of soda. 
The powder of crocus is then to be submitted to a process of careful elutri- 
ation, and the finer particles reserved for the more delicate work. An 
excellent powder for applying to razor strops is made by igniting together 
in a crucible, equal parts of well dried green vitriol and common salt. The 
heat must be slowly raised and well regulated, otherwise tlie materials will 
boil over in a pasty state, and be lost. When well made, out of contact 
with air, it has the brilliant aspect of black lead. It requires to be ground 
and elutriated, after which it affords, on drying, an impalpable powder, that 
may be either applied on a strop of smooth buff leather, or mixed up with 
hog's lard or tallow into a stiff cerate. 

To Remove Rust from Iron or Steel, &c. — For cleaning purposes, 
&c., kerosene oil or benzine are probably the best things known. When 
articles have become pitted by rust, however, these can, of course, only be 
removed by mechanical means, such as scouring with fine powder, or flour 
of emery and oil, or with very fine emery paper. To prevent steel from 
rusting, rub it with a mixture of lime and oil, or with mercurial ointment, 
either of which will be found valuable. 

To Make Burnishers. — Proceed the same as in making pivot files, 
with the exception that you are to use fine flour of emery on a slip of oiled 
brass or copper, instead of the emery paper. Burnishers which have be- 
come too smooth may be improved vastly with the flour of emery as above 
without drawing the temper. 

To Prepare a Burnisher for' Polishing. — Melt a little beeswax on 
the face of your burnisher. Its effect then on brass or other finer metals, 
will be equal to the best buff. A small burnisher prepared in this way is 
the very thing with which to polish up watch wheels. Rest them on a 
piece of pith while polishing. 

Rules for Determining the Correct Length of the Lever, size 
OF Ruby-pin Table, size of the Pallets, and depth of Escapement of 
Lever Watches. — A lever, from the guard point to the pallet staff, should 
correspond in length witli twice the diameter of the ruby-pin table, and 
when a table is accidentallj' lost, the correct size thereof may be known by 
measuring lialf the length of the lever between the points above named. 
For correct size of pallet, the clear space between the pallets should corres- 
pond with the outside measure on the points of three teeth of the escape- 
ment wheel. The only rule that can be given, without the use of diagrams, 



WATCHMAKING. 549 

for correct depth of the escapement, is to set it as close as it will bear, and 
still free itself perfectly when in motion. This may be done by first plac- 
ing the escapement in your depthing tool, and then setting it to the correct 
depth. Then by measuring the distance between the pivots of the lever 
staff and escapement wheel, as now set, and the corresponding pivot holes 
in the watch, you determine correctly how much the depth of the escape- 
ment requires to be altered. 

To PREVENT Watches Losing Time from Action of Pendulum 
Spring. — Pin the pendulum spring into the stud, so that that part, the part 
of the eye immediately emerging from the collet, and tlie centre of the col- 
let, are in a line ; then you will have the spring pinned in, in equal terms, 
as it is called bj' those wlio are versed in the higher branches of springing. 
Bring the watch to time by adding to or taking from the balance, and 
poise it ; try the watch with the 12 up for 2 hours, tlien with tlie 6 up for 
2 hours, tlien laying down for the same time ; tiie trials here described will 
be sufficient if the watch has seconds ; keep the curb pin close so as to 
allow the spring only a little play ; the vibration of the balance should be 
1^ turn or 1^ lying. 

Watch, Management of. — 1. Wind your watch as nearly as possible 
at the same hour every day. 2. Be careful that the key is in good condi- 
tion, as there is much danger of injurmg tlie works v/iien the key is worn 
or cracked^ there are more main springs and chains broken through a jerk 
in winding than from any other cause, which injury will sooner or later be 
the result, if the key be in bad order. 3. As all metals contract by cold 
and expand by heat, it must be manifest that to keep the watch as nearly 
as possible at one temperature, is a necessary piece of attention. 4. Keep 
the watch as constantly as possible in one position, that is, if it hangs by 
day, let it hang by night, against something soft. 5. The hands of a 
pocket chronometer or duplex watcii should never be set backwards ; in 
other watches, this is a matter of no consequence. 6. The glass should 
never be opened in watches which set and regulate at the back. One or 
two directions more, it is of vital importance tliat you bear in mind. On 
regulating a watch, should it be ^ast, move the regulator a trifle towards 
the slow ; and if going slow, do tlie reverse ; you cannot move the regu- 
lator too slightly or too gently at a time, and the only inconvenience that 
can arise is having to perform the operation more than once. On the con- 
trary', if you move the regulator too much at a time, you will be as far, if not 
farther than ever, from attaining your object, so that you may repeat the 
movement until quite tired and disappointed, stoutly blaming both watch and 
watchmaker, while the fault is entirely your own. Again, you cannot be too 
careful in respect of the nature and condition of your watch-pocket ; see that 
it be made of something soft and pliant, such as wash-leather, which is the 
best, and also that there be no flue or nap that may be torn off when taking 
the watch out of the pocket. Cleanliness, too, is as needful here as in the 
key before winding; for, if there be dust or dirt in either instance, it will, 
you may rely upon it, work its way into the watch, as well as wear away 
the engine-turning of the case. 

To Put Watches in Beat. — If a cylinder escapement, or a detached 
lever, put the balance into a position, then turn the regulator so that it will 
point directly to the pivot-hole of the pallet staff, if a lever, or of the scape- 
wheel, if a cylinder. Then lift out the balance with its bridge or clock, 
turn it over and set the ruby-pin directly in line with the regulator, or the 
square cut of the cylinder at right angles with it. Your watch will then be 
in perfect beat. In case of an American or an English lever, when the 
regulator is placed upon the plate, you will have to proceed differently. 
Fix the balance into its place, cut off the connection of the train, if the 
mainspring is not entirely down, by slipping a fine broach into one of the 
wheels, look between the plates and ascertain how the lever stands. If the 
end farthest from the balancers equi-distant between the two brass pins, it 
is all right ; if not, change the hair-spring till it becomes so. If dealing 



550 "WATCHMAKING. 

with a duplex watch, you must see that the roller notch, when the balance 
is at rest, is exactly between the locking tootli and tlie line of centre ; that 
is, a line drawn from tlie centre of the roller to the centre of tlie scape- 
wiieel. The balance must start from its rest and move through an arc of 
about ten degrees before bringing the locking tooth into action. 

To Frost Watch Plates. — Watch plates are frosted by means of fine 
brass wire scratch brushes fixed in a lathe, and made to revolve at great 
speed, the end of the wire brushes striking the plate producing a beautiful 
frosted appearance. 

To Restore Watch Dials. — If the dial be painted, clean the figure off 
with spirits of wine, or anything else that will render the dial perfectly 
clean ; tlien heat it to a briglit red, and plunge it into a strong solution of 
cyanide of potassium, then wash in soap and water and dry in box dust. 
Kepeat if not a good color. India ink, ground with gum water, will do for 
the figures. 

To WHiTiysr Silver Watch Dials. — Flatten a piece of charcoal by rub- 
bing it on a flat stone ; on this place the dial face upwards, apply a gentle 
heat carefully with the blow-pipe, allowing the flame to play all over the 
surface of the dial without touching it, so as to thorouglily heat without 
warping the dial. Then pickle and rinse, using acid enougli to make the 
water very tart, and immersing but for a few seconds. Silver dials may 
also be annealed by heating them red hot on a flat piece of cf|^)er over a 
clear fire. 

To Make a Watch Keep Good Time when the Cylinder Edges akb 
Worn off, by Altering the Escapement without Putting a new 
Cylinder in. — Look at the cyhnder, and see if there is room, either above 
or below the old wears, to shift the action of the wheel. If the wlieel holes 
are brass, making one a little deeper, and putting a shallower one on the 
other side, will perhaps be sufiieient. This must be done according as you 
want your wheel up or down. If the holes are stone, shift your wheel on 
the pinion by a new collet, or turning away more of tlie old one, as the 
case may require. If you raise your wheel see that it works free of plate 
and top of cylinder, and fliat the web of «the wheel clears the top of pas- 
sage. This last fault may be altered by polishing the passage a little wider, 
if the rub be slight. If shifted downwards, see to freedom at bottom of 
cylinder, &c. 

Polishing Watch Balance. — This may be done with sufiieient ac- 
curacy by scraping one arm of the calipers with a file when the balance is 
set in motion. Tiiis will cause tiie heaviest part to settle downwards with 
certainty, observing always that the pivots are nicely rounded and formed 
at the endsi In some cases it becomes necessary to put a balance out of 
poise, in order to make the watch go equally in various positions. The rule 
for this is: to make the watch gain, the balance should be heaviest on the 
lower side when hanging up : to make it lose the reverse. 

To Prevent a Chain Running off the Fusee. — In the first place, you 
must look and ascertain the cause of the difiiculty. If it results from the 
chain being too large, the only remedy is a new chain. If it is not too 
large, and yet runs off without any apparent cause, change it end for end 
— that will generally make it go all right. In cases where the channel in 
the fusee has been damaged and is rough, you will be under the necessity 
of dressing it over with a file the proper size and shape. Sometimes you 
find the chain naturally inclined to work away from the body of the fusee. 
The best way to remedy a difficulty of this kind is to file off a very little 
from the outer lower edge of the cliain tlie entire length ; tiiis, as you can 
see, will incline it to work on instead of off Some workmen, when they 
have a bad case and a common watch, cliange the standing of the fusee so 
as to cause the winding end of its arbor to incline a little from the barrel. 
This, of course, cannot do otherwise than make the chain run to its place. 

To Weaken the Hair-Spring. — This is often effected by grinding the 
spring down. You remove the spring from the collet, and place it upon 



WATCHMAKING. 551 

a piece of pivot wood cut to fit the centre coil. A piece of soft steel wire, 
flattened so as to pass freely between the coils, and armed with a little 
pulverized oil-stone and oil, will serve as your grinder, and with it you may 
soon reduce the strength of the spring. Your operations will, of course, be 
confined to the centre coil, for no other part of the spring will rest suffi- 
ciently against the wood to enable you to grind it, but this will generally 
suffice.. The effect will be more rapid than one would suppose, therefore 
it will stand you in hand to be careful, or you may get the spring too 
weak before you suspect it. 

To Tighten a Rdbt Pin. — Set the ruby pin in asphaltum varnish. It 
will become hard in a few minutes, and be much firmer and better than 
gum shellac, as generally used. 

To Temper Brass, or to Draw its Temper. — Brass is rendered hard 
by hammering or rolling ; therefore, when you make a thing of brass neces- 
sary to be in temper, you must prepare tlie material before shaping the 
article. Temper may be drawn from brass by heating it to a cherry red, and 
then simply plunging it into water, the same as though you were going to 
temper steel. 

To Temper Gravers. — Gravers and other instruments larger than drills, 
may be tempered in quicksilver as above ; or you may use lead instead 
of quicksilver. Cut down into the lead, say half an inch ; then having 
heated your instrument to a light cherry red, press it firmly into the cut. 
The lead will melt around it, and an excellent temper will be imparted. 

To Temper Drills, — Select none but the finest and best steel for your 
drills. In making them, never heat higher than a cherry red, and always 
hammer till nearly cold. Do all your hammering in one way, for if, after 
you have flattened your piece out, you attempt to hammer it back to a 
square or a round, you spoil it. When your drill is in proper shape, heat it 
to a cherry red, and thrust it into a piece of resin or into quicksilver. Some 
'use a solution of cj'anuret potassa and rain-water for tempering their drills, 
but the resin or quicksilver will work best. 

Other Methods to Temper Springs. — Having fltted the spring into the 
case according to your liking, temper it hard by heating and plunging into 
water. Next polish the small end so that you may be able to see wlien the 
color changes ; lay it on a piece of copper or brass plate, and hold it over 
your lamp, with the blaze directlj' under the largest part of tlie spring. 
Watch the polished part of the steel closely, and when you see it turn blue, 
remove the plate from the lamp, letting all cool gradually togetlier. When 
cool enough to handle, polish tlie end of the spring again, place it on the 
plate, and hold it over tlie lamp as before. The third blueing of the polished 
end will leave the spring in proper temper. Anj' steel article to which j^ou 
desire to give a spring temper may be treated in the same way. Another 
process, said to be good, is" to temper the spring as in the flrst instance ; then 
put it into a small iron ladle, cover it with linseed oil, and hold over a lamp 
till the oil takes fire. Remove the ladle, but let the oil continue to burn 
until nearly all consumed, then blow out, re-cover with oil, and hold over 
the lamp as before. The third burning out of the oil will leave the spring 
in the right temper. 

To Temper Clicks, Ratchets, &c. — Clicks, ratchets, or other steel 
articles requiring a similar degree of hardness, should be tempered in 
mercurial ointment. The process consists in simply heating to a clierry 
red and plunging into the ointment. No other mode will combine toughness 
and hardness to such an extent. 

You will understand the reason for having the article thus plugged up 
while passing it through the heating and cooling process, when you know that 
springing always results from the action of changeable currents of atmos- 
phere. The temper may be drawn from cylinders, staffs, pinions, or any 
other delicate pieces, by this mode with perfect safety. 

To Temper Staffs, Cylinders, or Pinions, without Springing 
THEM. — Prepare the articles as in the preceding process, using a steel plug 



552 WATCHMAKING. 

Having heated the key-pipe to a cherry red, plunge it into water ; then 
polish the end of your steel plug, place the key upon a plate of brass or 
copper, and jiold it over your lamp vvitli the blaze immediately under the 
pipe till the polished part becomes blue. Let cool gradually, then polish 
again. Blue and cool a second time, and the work will be done. 

To Draw the Temper from part of a Small Steel Article. — Hold 
the part from which you wish to draw the temper with a pair of tweezers, 
and with your blow-pipe direct the flame upon them — not the article — 
till sufficient heat is communicated to the article to produce the desired 
effect. 

To Blue Screws Evenly. — Take an old watch barrel and drill as many 
holes into tlie head of it as you desire to blue screws at a time. Fill it about 
one-fourth full of brass or iron .filings, put in the head, and then fit a wire, 
long enough to bend over for a handle, into the arbor holes — head of the 
barrel upwards. Brighten the heads of your screws, set them point down- 
wards, into the holes already drilled, and expose the bottom of the barrel to 
your lamp till the screws assume the color you wish. 

To Remove Blueing from Steel. — Immerse in a pickle composed of 
equal parts muriatic acid and elixir vitriol. Rinse in pure water, and dry in 
tissue paper. 

To Make Diamond Broaches. — Make your broaches of brass the size 
and shape you desire ; then having oiled them slightly, roll their points into 
fine diamond dust until entirely covered. Hold them then on the face of 
your anvil and tap with a light hammer till the grains disappear in the 
brass. Great caution will be necessary in this operation. Do not tap heavy 
enough to flatten tlie broach. Very light blows are all that will be required ; 
the grains will be driven in much sooner than one would imagine. Some 
roll the broach between two small pieces of steel to imbed the diamond 
dust. It is a very good way, but somewhat more wasteful of the dust. 
Broaches made on this plan are used for dressing out jewels. 

Jewelling. — In using the broaches, press but lightly into the jewel hole, 
and turn the broach rapidly with your fingers. For polishing, use a bone 
or ivory point, lightly coated with the finest diamond dust and oil, and while 
using it with the one hand, accompany the motion with a sUght oscillating 
motion of the otlier hand, in which the jewel is held. This will insure a 
more even polish of the hole, with less liability to press the jewel out of its 
place in the plate, tlian if held firm and steady. 

To Make Diamond Files. — Shape your file of brass, and charge 
with diamond dust, as in case of the mill. Grade the dust in accordance 
with the coarse or fine character of the file desired. 

To Make a Diamond Mill. — Make a brass chuck or wheel, suitable for 
use on a foot-lathe, with a flat even surface, or face of about 1^ or 2 inches in 
diameter ; then place a number of the coarsest pieces of your diamond dust 
on different parts of its face, and with a smooth-faced steel hammer drive 
the pieces of dust all evenly into the brass to nearly or quite level with the 
surface. Your mill, thus prepared, is now used for making pallet jewels or 
for grinding stone and glass of any kind. For polishing, use a bone or box- 
wood chuck or wheel, of similar form to your mill, and coat it slightly with 
the finest grade of diamond-dust and oil ; with this a beautiful polish may 
be given to the hardest stone. 

To Make Diamond Dust. — Place a few small pieces of common or 
cheap diamond on a block of hard polished steel, in a suitable vessel and 
cover it with water to prevent it flying or scattering, then place a flat steel 
punch on each piece separately, and strike the punch with a mallet or 
hammer, with sufficient force to crush the diamond. When reduced suffi- 
ciently fine in this way, the dust may be collected and dried for use ; after 
drying, it may be graduated for different purposes, by mixing it with a little 
watch oil ; when agitated, tlie finest particles will float near the surface, 
whilst the coarsest pieces will sink at once to the bottom ; and thus by de- 
canting the oil in which the dust floats, as many grades of fineness as desired 



WATCHMAKING. 553 

may be obtained. The dust may l)e separated from the oil by pouring on 
a piece of smootli clean paper ; the pa])er will absorb tlie oil, or allow it to 
filter through, while the dust will remain on the surface ; but to prevent 
waste, the better way is to leave it in the oil and use directly therefrom as 
required, or the oil may be washed out of the dust with alcohol. 

To Preserve Pinions or Bearings erom Corrosk>n and Rust. — In 
case of the lower centre bearing under the cannon pinion corroding or 
rusting, when you clean the watch be particular to take the centre wheel 
off. Clean it thoroughly ; if tlie pivot is scratched polish it, then make a little 
hollow in tlie top hole ; put good fresh oil on it, and the pivot will not cor- 
rode or rust for two or three years. As to the other pivots in the watch, 
they should all be thoroughly cleaned, and old oil cleaned out: then if no 
dust gets in, and no accident happens to the watch, it will run for years. 

To Bush. — The hole through which the great arbors, or winding axles, 
work, are the onl}' ones that usually require busliing. When they have be- 
come too much worn, the great wheel on the axle before named strikes too 
deeply into the pinions above it and stops the clock. To remedy this, 
busliing is necessary, of course. The most common way of doing is to 
drive a steel point or punch into the plate just above the axle hole, 
thus forcing the brass downwards until the hole is reduced to its 
original size. Another mode is to solder a piece of brass upon the plate in 
such a position as to hold the axle down to its proper place. If you simply 
wish your clock to run, and have no ambition to jtroduce a bush that will 
■;ok workmanlike, about as good a way as any is to fit apiece of hard wood 
between the post which comes through the top of the plate and axle. Make 
it long enough to hold the axle to its proper place, so that the axle will run 
on the end of the grain. Cut notches where the pivots come through, 
and secure by wrapping around it and the plate a piece of small wire or a 
thread. 

To Remedy Worn Pinions. — Turn the leaves or rollers, so the worn 
places upon them will be towards the arbor or shaft, and fasten them in that 
position. K they are " rolling pinions " and you cannot secure them other- 
wise, you had better do it with a little soft solder. 

To Oil Properly. — Oil only, and very liglitly, the pallets of the verge, 
the steel pin upon which the verge works, and the point where the loop of 
the verge wire works over the pendulum wire. Use none but the best 
watch oil. Though you might be working constantly at the clock-repairing 
business, a bottle costing you but twenty-five cents would last you two 
years at least. You can buy it at any watch-furnishing establishment. 

To Make the Clock Strike Correctly. — If not very cautious in ptit- 
ting up your clock you will get some of your striking-train wheels in wrong, 
and thus produce a derangement in the striking. If this should happen, 
pry the plates apart on the striking side, slip the pivots of tlie upper wheels 
out, and having disconnected them from the train, turn them part around 
and put them back. If still not right, repeat the experiment. A few efforts 
at most will get them to working properly. The sound in cuckoo clocks is 
caused by a wire acting on a small bellows which is connected with two 
small pipes like organ pipes. 

A Defect to Look after. — Always examine the pendulum wire at the 
point where the loop of the verge wire works over it. You Avill generally 
find a small notch, or at least a rougli place worn there. Dress it out per- 
fectly smooth, or your clock will not be likely to work well. Small as this 
defect may seem, it stojis a large number of clocks. 

Figures on Gold and Silver Dials. — Hold a small piece of copper 
over a gas flame for a few minutes till it is coated with soot ; clear this off 
on to a piece of finely ground glass, add fat oil and a small quantity of oil of 
spike lavender, and grind up ; paint with a small camel hair brush. 

To Re-Black Clock Hands. — Use asphaltum varnish. One coat 
will make old rusty hands look as good as new, and it dries in a few 
minutes. 

24 



654 



WATCHMAKERS. 



LIST OF TEAINS OP WATCUES. 

gHOWINS THE HUMBttB OF TEETH IN THE WHEELS, LEAVES IN THB 

PINIONS BEATS IN A MINUTE, AND TIME THB FOURTH 

WHEEL REVOLVES IN. 

Trains, for Seven Teeth in tbe Escapement Wheel. 



Ko.of 








Leaves 


Teeth 
mthe 
Escape- 

nitnt 
Wheel. 


Leaves 
in the 




No. of 
Second* 




Teeth in 


inSd 


Teeth in 


ia4tU 


liycape- 


No. of Beats in 


the 4tlt 




3d Wheel. 


Wheel 


4th Wheel 


Whoul 


ment 


one minute. 


WheeV 


Wheel. 




Pinion. 




Pinion. 


Wlioel 
Pinion. 




revol- 
ves in. 


72 


66 


6 


68 


6 


7 


6 


298— 


27 


66 


64 


6 


64 


6 


7 


6 


292+ 


31 


66 


64 


6 


63 


6 


7 


6 


287+ 


31 


66 


63 


6 


63 


6 


7 


6 


283— 


31 


66 


63 


6 


62 


6 


7 


6 


278+ 


31 


66 


'^S 


6 


61 


6 


7 


e 


274— 


31 


66 


63 


<5 


60 


6 


7 


6 


269+ 


31 



Trains, for Nine Teeth iu the Escapement Wheel. 



ftS 


60 


6 


57 


6 


9 


6 


299+ 


34 


66 


60 


6 


64 


6 


9 


6 


297 


33 


63 


60 


6 


-56 


6 


9 


6 


294 


34 


66 


60 


6 


53 


6 


9 


6 


291+ 


33 


63 


60 


6 


55 


6 


9 


6 


289— 


34 


66 


60 


6 


62 


6 


9 


6 


286 


33 


63 


60 


6 


54 


6 


9 


6 


283+ 


34 


66 


60 


6 


61 


6 


9 


6 


280+ 


31 


63 


60 


6 


53 


6 


9 


6 


278+ 


34 


56 


60 


6 


50 


6 


9 


6 


275 


33 


63 


60 


6 


62 


6 


9 


6 


273 


31 



Trains, for Eleven Teeth In the Escapement Wheel. 



60 


60 


6 


49 


6 


11 


6 


300— 


36 


60 


54 


6 


54 


6 


11 


6 


297 


40 


60 


56 


6 


52 


6 


11 


6 


230— 


30 


64 


52 


6 


52 


6 


11 


6 


294— 


30 


58 


56 


6 


53 


6 


11 


6 


292+ 


40 


60 


54 


6 


53 


6 


11 


6 


291+ 


40 


62 


64 


6 


51 


6 


11 


6 


290— 


S» 


68 


64 


6 


54 


6 


11 


6 


287+ 


41 


58 


55 


6 


53 


6 


11 


6 


287 


41 


59 


54 


6 


63 


6 


11 


6 


286+ 


41 


60 


54 


6 


62 


6 


11 


6 


286 


40 


60 ' 


55 


6 


51 


6 


11 


6 


286— 


39 


61 


55 


6 


50 


6 


11 


6 


285- 


39 


63 


56 


6 


48 


6 


11 


6 


282+ 


38 


59 


64 


6 


52 


6 


11 


6 


281+ 


41 


60 


64 


6 


51 


6 


11 


6 


281+ 


40 


61 


54 


6 


50 


6 


11 


6 


280- 


39 


66 


61 


6 


54 


6 


11 


6 


277+ 


43 


60 


60 


6 


48 


6 


11 


6 


293+ 


36 


62 


54 


6 


52 


6 


11 


6 


295+ 


39 


63 


64 


6 


50 


6 


11 


6 


289— 


38 


63 


48 


6 


56 


6 


11 


6 


287+ 


43 


70 


70 


7 


56 


7 


11 


7 


293 + 


36 


70 


70 


7 


48 


7 


11 


6 


2934- 


36 


70 


60 


7 


4S 


6 


11 


6 


293+ 


36 



To Tin Copper Stew Dishes, &c. — Wash the surface of the 
article to be tinned with sulphuric acid, and rub tlie surface well, 
so as to have it smooth and free of blackness caused by the acid ; 
then sprinkle calcined and finely pulverized sal-ammoniac upon the 
surface, holding it over a fire, wben it will be sufficiently hot to 
melt a bar of solder which is to be rubbed over the surface. Any 
copper dish or vessel may be tinned iti this way. 



WATCHMAKERS. 



5o5 



No. of 
Tueth 
Inthr 
Centre 
Wheel. 




Leaves 




Leaves 


Teeth 
;■_: the 
Escape- 
ment 
Wheel. 


Leaves 
in the 




No. of 
jcconda 


Teeth in 


in :icl 


Teeth in 


in 4 th 


Escape- 


No. ot Beats In 


the 4th 


3d Wheel. 


Wheel 
Pinion. 


4th Wheel 


Wheel 
Pinion. 


ment 
Wheel 
Pinion. 


one Minute. 


Wl^fel 
revol- 


60 


70 


6 


48 


7 


11 


6 


2i)3-h 




63 


50 


6 


66 


7 


11 


6 


287+ 




63 


63 


6 


60 


7 


11 


6 


289— 




80 


80 


8 


64 


8 


11 


8 


293+ 




80 


80 


8 


66 


8 


11 


7 


293 -t- 




80 


80 


8 


48 


8 


11 


6 


293+ 




80 


70 


8 


56 


7 


11 


7 


293+ 




80 


70 


8 


48 


7 


11 


6 


293+ 




80 


60 


8 


48 





11 


6 


293+ 




70 


80 


7 


56 


8 


11 


7 


293+ 




70 


80 


7 


48 


8 


11 


6 


293 + 




60 


80 


6 


48 


8 


11 


6 


293+ 




84 


72 


8 


50 


8 


11 


6 


289— 


38 


84 


63 


8 


50 


7 


11 


6 


289— 


38 


84 


54 


8 


50 


6 


11 


6 


289— 


38 


63 


72 


6 


50 


8 


11 


6 


289— 


38 


63 


63 


6 


50 


7 


11 


6 


289- 


38 


84 


64 


8 


56 


8 


11 


6 


287+ 


40 


84 


56 


8 


56 


7 


11 


6 


287+ 


40 


84 


48 


8 


56 


6 


11 


6 


287+ 


40 


63 


64 


6 


56 


8 


11 


6 


287+ 


40 


63 


56 


6 


66 


7 


11 


6 


287+ 


40 



Trains, for Tliirteen Teeth in tlio Escapement Wlieel. 



64 


53 


6 


52 


6 


13 


6 


298+ 


45 


56 


53 


6 


60 


6 


13 


6 


298- 


44 


69 


61 


6 


49 


6 


13 


6 


296- 


43 


60 


51 


6 


48 


6 


13 


6 


294+ 


42 


64 


53 


6 


51 


6 


13 


6 


293- 


45 


66 


53 


6 


49 


6 


13 


6 


292— 


44 


56 


54 


6 


48 


6 


13 


6 


291+ 


44 


57 


63 


6 


48 


6 


13 


6 


291— 


43 


54 


52 


6 


51 


6 


13 


6 


2874- 


46 


54 


43 


6 


50 


6 


13 


6 


287+ 


45 


50 


51 


6 


50 


6 


13 


6 


286+ 


45 


61 


62 


6 


50 


6 


13 


6 


282— 


46 


56 


61 


6 


49 


6 


13 


6 


281— 


45 


57 


51 


6 


48 


6 


13 


6 


280— 


44 


52 


62 


6 


61 


6 


13 


6 


277— 


48 


53 


62 


6 


50 


6 


13 


6 


276+ 


46 


52 


52 


6 


62 


6 


13 


6 


293— 


46 


65 


61 


6 


61 


6 


13 


6 


287 


46 


66 


50 


6 


51 


6 


13 


6 


286+ 


46 


66 


52 


6 


48 


6 


13 


6 


280+ 


44 


56 


52 


6 


50 


6 


13 


6 


292-f 


44 


60 


48 


6 


48 


6 


13 


6 


277+ 


45 


60 


50 


6 


48 


6 


13 


6 


289- 


43 


60 


54 


6 


60 


8 


13 


6 


292+ 


53 


60 


58 


7 


56 


7 


13 


6 


287+ 


51 


60 


60 


8 


64 


6 


13 


6 


300 


44 


62 


66 


7 


66 


7 


13 


6 


296+ 


47 


63 


52 


7 


51 


6 


13 


6 


285 


60 


63 


60 


7 


60 


7 


13 


6 


290 


60 


64 


60 


7 


60 


7 


13 


6 


285 


60 


72 


70 


8 


68 


8 


13 


6 


280 


60 


74 


68 


8 


68 


8 


13 


6 


286+ 


60 



To Draw the Tkmper from Delicate.Steel Pieces withodt 
Springing them. — Place tlie articles from wliicli you desire to 
draw the temper in a common iron clock key. Fill around it with 
brass or iron filings, and then plug up the open end with a steel, 
iron, or brass plug, made to fit closely. Take the handle of the 
key with your pliers and hold its ]upe into the blaze of a lamp till 
near hot, then let it cool grailnally. When sufficiently cold to handle, 
remove the plug, and you will find the article witii its temper fully 
drawn, but in all other respects just as it was before. 



556 



WATCHMAKERS. 



Trains, for Fifteen Teeth In the Escapement Wheel. 


No. of 
Teeth 
in the 
Centre 
Wheel. 




Loaves 




Leaves 


Teeth 
In the 

Escape- 


Leaves 
in the 




Mo. of 
yoconda 


Teeth In 


ill 3(1 


Tcc^h'ln 


in 4th 


Escape- 


No. of Beats in 


the 4th 


3d ■WTieel. 


"Wheel 


4th Wheel 


Wheel 


ment 


one Minute. 


Wheel 




Pinion, 




Pinion. 


Wheel. 


Wheel 
Pinion. 




revol- 
Tes in. 


54 


50 


6 


48 


6 


15 


6 


286 


48 


58 


48 


6 


46 


6 


15 


6 


290 


50 


48 


45 


6 


59 


6 


15 


6 


291— 


60 


48 


45 


6 


58 


6 


15 


6 


300 


62 


48 


45 


6 


57 


6 


15 


6 


288 


62 


48 


45 


6 


56 


6 


15 


6 


288 


60 


56 


48 


6 


46 


6 


15 


6 


289— 


60 


63 


66 


7 


56 


7 


15 


7 


288 


60 


60 


56 


8 


58 


7 


15 


6 


288 


50 


62 


60 


8 


60 


8 


15 


6 


288 


50 


72 


64 


8 


50 


8 


15 


6 


288 


50 


72 


64 


8 


56 


8 


15 


7 


288 


50 


72 


64 


8 


64 


8 


15 


8 


288 


60 


62 


50 


6 


48 


6 


15 


6 


288 


50 


54 


48 


6 


48 


6 


15 


6 


288 


60 


72 


64 


8 


48 


8 


16 


6 


288 


50 


72 


80 


8 


64 


10 


15 


8 


288 


50 


72 


80 


8 


66 


10 


15 


7 


288 


50 


72 


80 


8 


48 


10 


15 


6 


288 


50 


63 


80 


7 


64 


10 


15 


8 


288 


50 


63 


80 


T 


56 


10 


15 


7 


288 


50 


63 


80 


7 


48 


10 


15 


6 


288 


50 



Trains, for Seventeen Teeth in tlie Escapement Wheel. 



64 


80 


8 


48 


10 


17 


6 


299-f 


53 


64 


48 


6 


44 


6 


17 


6 


299+ 


50 


61 


48 


6 


45 


6 


17 


6 


295+ 


63 


64 


48 


6 


43 


6 


17 


6 


292+ 


60 


48 


48 


6 


48 


6 


17 


6 


290+ 


63 


61 


48 


6 


45 


6 


17 


6 


289 


53 


54 


48 


6 


42 


6 


17 


6 


286- 


53 


48 


48 


6 


47 


6 


17 


6 


284+ 


63 


61 


48 


6 


44 


6 


17 


6 


283— 


53 


48 


48 


6 


46 


6 


17 


6 


278 


63 


48 


48 


6 


45 


6 


17 


6 


272 


53 


64 


64 


8 


64 


8 


17 


8 


290+ 


50 


72 


64 


8 


56 


8 


17 


8 


2S6— 


50 


64 


64 


8 


60 


8 


17 


8 


289— 


53 


66 


56 


7 


56 


7 


17 


7 


290+ 


53 


63 


56 


7 


19 


7 


17 


7 


286- 


50 


64 


66 


8 


48 


7 


17 


6 


290+ 


53 


80 


80 • 


10 


64 


10 


17 


8 


290+ 


53 


80 


64 


10 


64 


8 


17 


8 


290+ 


63 


80 


64 


10 


56 


8 


17 


7 


290+ 


53 


80 


64 


10 


48 


8 


17 


6 


290+ 


53 


80 


56 


10 


56 


7 


17 


7 


290+ 


63 


80 


56 


10 


48 


7 


17 


6 


290+ 


63 


64 


80 


8 


64 


10 


17 


8 


290+ 


63 


64 


80 


8 


56 


10 


17 


7 


290+ 


63 



To Remove Soft Solder from Gold. — Place the work in spirits 
of salts, or remove as much as possible with ihe scraper, using a 
gentle heat to enable you to get oft' the solder more easily. Very- 
useful to be known whore hard soldering is required, either in 
bright or colored work. 

Valuable Recipe for Goldsmiths. — Standard gold is com 
pounded of 440 grains of fine gold, and 40 grains (Troy weight) tf 
the oz. alloy ; therefore, when you judge how much gold a piece ol 
work will take, compound it to the standard weight by the fol 
lowing directions : Assai/ Weight. — Tlie weiglit of gold is a pound, 
which is divided into 12 ozs., each oz. into 24 carats, each cara* 
into 4 grains, and, lastly, each grain into 4 quarters; then you see 
the assay quarter-grain, is in reality 1^ grain Troy. 



WATCHMAKERS. 



557 





Trains 


, for Third Wheel and Patent Seconds 




No. of 
Teeth 
In the 
Cenire 
Wheel 




Lraves 




Leiives 


Teeth 
in the 
Eiscape- 

niont 
WheeL 


Leaves 
ni the 




No. i,f 
Second 


Tepth In 


in -.d 


Teeth In 


iu 4th 


Escape- 


No. of Beats In 


the 4tl 


3d Wheel. 


■niicel 


4th Wheel 


Wheel 


ment 


one Minute. 


Wheel 




Pinion. 




Pinion. 


Wheel 




revol- 


















ves in. 


60 


72 


6 


60 


12 




6 


300 


60 


60 


60 


6 


60 


10 




6 


81 to 


60 


60 


48 


6 


60 


8 




6 


3 


60 


48 


60 


6 


00 


8 




6 


300 


60 


60 


72 


6 


51 


12 




6 


270 


60 


60 


60 


6 


bi 


lu 




6 


270 


60 


48 


60 


6 


54 


8 




6 


270 


60 


60 


72 


6 


48 


12 




6 


240 


60 


60 


60 





48 


10 




6 


240 


60 


48 


60 


6 


48 


8 




6 


240 


60 



TraiUM, for Jt<'oiirth Wheel Seconds, with Kleven Teeth 
l.t the Ll.kicapeinent Wlieel. 



48 


1.1 





71 


6 






2G0-I- 


60 


48 


r, 


6 


74 


6 




6 


271+ 


60 


48 


45 


6 


76 


6 




6 


279^ 


60 


48 


45 


6 


78 


6 




6 


286 


60 


60 


49 


7 


74 


7 




6 


271+ 


60 


60 


49 


7 


76 


7 




6 


279- 


60 


60 


49 


7 


78 


7 




6 


28G 


60 


45 


56 


6 


74 


t 




6 


271 + 


60 


45 


66 


6 


76 


1 




6 


279— 


60 


45 


66 


6 


78 


7 




6 


286 


60 


64 


60 


S 


74 


8 




6 


271+ 


60 


64 


60 


8 


70 


8 




5 


279- 


60 


64 


60 


8 


78 


8 




6 


280 


60 


60 


56 


8 


74 


1 




6 


271+ 


60 


60 


66 


8 


76 


1 




6 


279- 


60 


60 


56 


8 


78 


7 




6 


28ij 


60 


60 


48 


8 


74 


6 




6 


271+ 


60 


48 


48 


s 


78 


6 




6 


'28G 


60 


48 


60 


6 


74 


8 




'• 


271+ 


60 


48 


60 


6 


78 


8 




6 


286 


60 


56 


60 


7 


74 


8 




6 


271+ 


60 



Trains, for Fourth Wheel Seconds, Avlth Thirteen Teeth 
in ihe liiiicaiieiiieitt '%%lk<el. 



64 


60 


8 


66 


8 


13 


6 


286 


60 


64 


60 


8 


67 


8 


lo 


6 


290+ 


60 


64 


60 


8 


68 


8 


13 





295— 


60 


64 


60 


8 


69 


8 


13 


6 


299 


60 


60 


49 


7 


77 


1 


13 


7 


286 


60 


60 


49 


7 


6<; 


1 


12 


6 


286 


60 


60 


49 


7 


67 


1 


13 


6 


2911+ 


60 


48 


45 


6 


66 


6 


13 


6 


286 


60 


48 


45 


6 


67 


6 


13 


6 


290+ 


60 


48 


45 


6 


68 


6 


13 


6 


264— 


60 


48 


45 


6 


C9 


6 


13 


6 


299 


60 


60 


56 


8 


66 


7 


13 


6 


286 


60 


80 


60 


10 


66 


8 


13 


6 


286 


60 


64 


75 


8 


66 


10 


13 


6 


286 


60 


48 


6) 


6 


66 


8 


13 


6 


286 


60 


48 


75 


6 


66 


10 


13 


6 


286 


60 


45 


56 


6 


66 


7 


13 


6 


•-'86 


60 


66 


75 


7 


68 


10 


13 


6 


295- 


60 



To Make Pivot Files. — Dress up a piece of wood file-fiisliion, 
about an iiicli broad, and glue a piece of fine emery paper upon it. 
Shape your file then, as you wish it, of the best cast steel, and be- 
fore tempering pass your emery paper heavily across it several 
times, diagonally. Temper by heating to a cherry red, and 
plunging into linseed oil. Old worn pivot files may be dressed over 
and made new by this process. At first thought, one would be led 
to regard them too slightly cut to work well, but not so. They dress 
a pivot more rapidly than any other file. 



558 



WATCHMAKERS. 



Trains, for Fourth "Wlieel Se< onds, witb Ffftren Teeth 
ill Escape <rue tit AVlieel, 



Ko. of 




Ln.ires 




Leaves 


Teeth 


Leaves 
the 




An. oJ 

S.jcond* 


Teeth 
In the 
Ceutrf 


Toelh iM 


i'l :;.! 


Teeth in 


in 4th 


K>ea'c- 

Jlient 
Wheel. 


Escap-- 


No. of Beats in 


the 4th 


id Wheel. 
6 


IVhocl 
Piui. n. 


4th Wheel 


■\Vheol 
Piuicin. 


Whe' 
riai.m. 

7 


on Minute. 


Wheel 
revol- 
ves In. 


64 


8 


70 


8 


15 


300 


60 


64 


60 


8 


60 


8 


15 


6 


300 


60 


64 


45 


8 


60 


6 


15 


6 


300 


60 


611 


56 


8 


60 


7 


15 


6 


300 


a' 


4S 


60 


6 


60 


8 


15 


6 


300 


60 


60 


70 


7 


70 


7 


15 


7 


300 


60 


60 


49 


7 


00 


7 


15 


6 


300 


60 


48 


49 


6 


60 


6 


15 


6 


SOO 


60 


80 


45 


lo 


70 


8 


15 


7 


300 


60 


75 


60 


60 


8 


15 


6 


300 


60 


61 


64 


8 


70 


10 


15 


7 


3 


60 


61 


75 


8 


60 


10 


15 


8 


300 


60 


56 


75 


7 


70 


10 


15 


7 


3 


60 


56 


75 


7 


60 


10 


15 


6 


300 


60 


64 


75 


8 


51 


8 


15 


6 


270 


60 


60 


60 


8 


54 


7 


15 


6 


270 


60 


61 


56 


8 


54 


6 


15 


6 


270 


60 


48 


45 


6 


51 


8 


15 


6 


270 


60 


60 


60 


7 


63 


7 


15 


7 


270 


60 


60 


49 


7 


54 


7 


15 


6 


270 


60 


48 


49 


6 


54 


6 


15 


6 


270 


60 


64 


45 


8 


48 


8 


15 


6 


240 


60 


60 


60 


8 


48 


7 


15 


6 


240 


60 


48 


50 


6 


48 


8 


15 


6 


'J 40 


60 


64 


60 


8 


48 


8 


15 


6 


240 


60 


60 


45 


7 


56 


7 


15 


7 


240 


69 


iO 


49 


7 


48 


7 


15 


6 


240 


60 


48 


45 


6 


4S 


6 


15 


6 


240 


60 


60 




8 


48 


7 


15 


6 


240 


60 



Trains, for Foiirtli AVlieel Seoonds, Avitli Seventeen 
Teetli In Escapement Wheel. 



64 


GO 


8 


51 


8 


17 


6 


2»y 


60 


64 


60 


8 


50 


8 




6 


283-f- 


50 


60 


56 


8 


51 


7 


17 


6 


289 


60 


80 


60 


10 


60 


8 


17 


6 


283+ 


60 


75 


64 


10 


50 


8 


17 


6 


283-1- 


60 


75 


56 


10 


68 


7 


17 


8 


289 


60 




68 > 


10 


68 


8 


17 


8 


289 


60 


80 


75 


10 


68 


10 


17 


8 


289 


60 



Train of the American %¥atch Company's W^atch. 



64 



60 



64 



I 15 I 



800 



60 



Note.— By use nf the foregoing set of Trains, and the rule for sizes of 
pinions, on page 183, all difiictilty of calculating is obviated; and at one 
view, in case of the accidental loss of a wheel iind pinion, may be known 
tho correct size and count of the pinion, and number of teeth iu the 
wlieel lost. 

To Clean a Clock. — Take the movement of the clock to 
"pieces. Krush the wheels and pinions tlioroughly with a stiff 
coarse hriisli ; also the plates whicli the trains work. Clean the 
pivots well by turning in a piece of cotton cloth held tightly be- 
tween your thumb and finger. Tlie pivot holes in the plates are 
generally cleansed by tiiriung a piece of wood into tlieni, but I 
have always found a strip of elotii or a soft cord drawn tightly 
through tliein to act the best. If you use two cords, tlie first one 
slightly oiled, and the next dry, to clean tlie oil out, all tlie bet- 
ter. Do not use salt or acid to clean your clock— it can do no good, 
but may do a great deal of harm. Boiling the movement iu water, 
as is the practice of some, is also foolishness. 




JEWELLEES, GOLD AND SILVEESMITHS. 



Valuable Receipts, Manufacturing, Smelting and Refin- 
ing, Fineness of Gold, Artifkiial Gold, The Coins of 
THE United States, the Standard for Gold and 
Silver Coins, Allots, &c. 



QUANTITY OF STANDARD GOLD TO COMPOUND AN OZ. OF ANY OF THE FOI» 
LOWING ALLOYS CALCULATED TO THE X OF A GRAIN, AS FOLLOWS : 



Carat. 


Dwts. 


Grs. 


Qrs. 




Dwts. 


Grs. 


Qrs 


1 





21 


9 




19 


2 


2 


2 


1 


19 


7 




18 


4 


4 


3 


2 


17 


5 




17 


6 


6 


i 


3 


15 


3 




16 


8 


8 


5 


4 


13 


1 




15 


10 


10 


6 


5 


10 


10 




14 


13 


1 


7 


6 


8 


8 


13 


15 


3 


8 


7 


6 


6 


fi 


12 


17 


5 


9 


8 


4 


4 


< 


11 


19 


7 


10 


9 


2 


2 


W 


10 


21 


9 


11 


10 








pq 


10 








12 


10 


21 


9 


O 


9 


2 


2 


13 


11 


19 


7 


H 


8 


4 


4 


14 


12 


17 


5 


>< 


7 


6 


6 


15 


13 


15 


3 


O 


6 


8 


8 


16 


14 


13 


1 


h4 
< 


5 


10 


10 


17 


15 


10 


10 


4 


13 


1 


18 


16 


8 


8 




3 


15 


3 


19 


17 


6 


6 




2 


17 


5 


20 


18 


4 


4 




1 


19 


7 


21 


19 


2 


2 







21 


9 


22 


22 

















Gold Alloys. — The " New Standard" for watch cases, &c., is 18 carats 
of fine gold and 6 of alloy. No gold of inferior quality can receive the 
" Hall mark ; " and gold of lower qualitj'- is generally described by its com- 
mercial value. The alloy may be entirely silver, which will give a green 
color, or entirely copper for a red color, but the copper and silver are more 
usually mixed in one alloy according to the taste of the jeweller. It will 
be understood that these are all made with fine gold, fine silver, and fine 

550 



5 GO JEWELLERS, GOLD AND SILVEKSMITHS. 

cop])cr, (liiect from the refiner. Gold of 22 carats fine, being so little used, 
is intonlionully omitted. 1. Gold of \% carats, of yellow tirU. Gold, 15 dwt., 
silver, 2 dwt. 18 grs., copper, 2 dwt. 6 grs. 2. (jold of 18 carats, red tint. 
Gold, 15 dwt., silver, 1 dwt. 18 grs., copper. 3 dwt. 6 grs. 3. Spring gold of 
16 carats. Gold, 1 oz. 16 dwt., silver, 6 dwt., copper, 12 dwt. This when 
drawn or rolled very hard makes springs little inferior to steel. 4. .Jewellers' 
Fine Gold, yellow tint, 16 carats nearly. Gold, 1 oz., silver, 7 dwt., copper, 5 
dwt. 5. Gold of red tint, IG carats. Gold 1 oz., silver, 2 dwt., copper, 8 dwt. 

New and Beautiful Allots. — Copper, 69.8 parts; nickel, 19.8 parts; 
zinc, 5.5 parts ; cadmium, 4.7 parts ; used for spoons, forks, &c. Another, 
— Copper, 89.3 parts ; aluminum, 10.5 parts. Oreide resembling Gold. Cop- 
per, 79.7 parts ; zinc, 83.05 parts ; nickel, 6.09 parts, with a trace of iron 
and tin. 

Sterling Gold Alloy, 78s. per oz.-^l. Fine gold, 18 dwts., 12 grs., 
fine silver, 1 dwt., fine copper, 12 grs. — 2. Dry colwed Gold Alloys, 17 Carat. 
Fine gold, 15 dwts., fine silver, 1 dwt. 10 grs., fine copper, 4 dwts. 17 grs., 
— 3. Another, 18 Carat. Fine gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 4 dwts. 10 grs., fine 
copper, 2 dv.'ts. 5 grs. — 4. Another, 18 Carat. Fine gold, 15 dwts., fine silver, 
2 dwts. 4 grs., fine copper, 2 dwts. 19 grs. — 5. Another 18 Carat. Fine gold, 

18 dwts., fine silver, 2 dwts. 18 grs., fine copper, 3 dwts. 18 grs. — 6. Another, 

19 Carat. Fine gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 2 dwts. 6 grs., fine copper, 3 dwts. 12 
grs. — 7. Another, 20 Carat. Fine gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 2 dwts., fine copper, 
2 dwts. 4 grs. — 8. Another, 22 Cftiat. Fine gold, 18 dwts., fine silver, 12 grs., 
fine copper, 1 dwt. 3 grs. — 9. Gold solder for the fwegoing Alloys. Take of 
the allo3-ed gold you are using, 1 dwt., fine silver, 6 grs. — 10. Alloy for Dry 
Colored Rings. Fine gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 4 dwts. 6 grs., fine copper, 4 dwts. 
6 grs. — 11. Solder for ditto. Scrap gold, 2 ozs., fine silver, 3 dwts., fine cop- 
per, 3 dwts. — 12. Dry Colored Scrap reduced to 35s. Gold. Colored scrap, 1 
oz., 9 dwts. 12 grs., fine silver, 2 dwts., fine copper, 17 dwts., 12 grs., spelter, 

4 dwts. 

Dry Coloring for the Foregoing. — Polish your work well and for 
every 2 ozs. take saltpetre, 8 ozs., alum, 4 ozs., salt, 4 ozs., melt all together 
in a black lead pot, stirring with a thin iron bar when dissolving. Use the 
fire on a forge and urge it well with the bellows, as you cannot make it 
too hot. Your polished work being well cleaned with soda, soap, and hot 
water, is dried in box sawdust, is afterwards covered with a thin layer of 
borax, annealed and boiled out, and again dried in box sawdust, and 
finally hung on platinum or silver wire. When the " color " in the pot 
assumes a brown jellow flame, tlve work is dipped in for two or three sec- 
onds, and quepclied with hot water diluted with muriatic acid, which 
removes any " color" that may adhere to the work. This ought to produce 
the desired color, but if it does not, repeat the process, previously drying 
the work before re-immersion in the " color." The color-pot must be 
emptied immediately upon the forge, so that it may be ready for future 
use. 

Wet Colored Alloys. — 1. Fine gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 3 dwts. 12 grs., 
fine copper, 9 dwts. 2. Fine gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 4 dwts. 12 grs., fine 
copper, 10 dwts. 3. Fine gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 4 dwts. 12 grs., fine copper, 
10 dwts. 12 grs. 4. Fine gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 4 dwts., fine copper, 9 dwts. 
12 grs. 5. Green Gold for Fancy Work. Fine gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 6 
dwts. 16 grs. 6. Another Green Gold. Fine gold, 10 dwts., fine silver, 2 
dwts. 2 grs. 7. Red Gold for Fancy Work. Fine gold, 5 dwts., fine copper, 
2 dwts. 12 grs. 8. Another Red Gold. Fine gold, 5 dwts., fine copper, 1 
dwt. 6 grs. 9. Gold solders for the foregoing Alloys. Take of the alloyed 
gold you are using, 1 dwt., fine silver, 6 grs., or 6 grs. silver and 1 gr. cop- 
per may be used. 10. Solder for repairing. Gold alloyed, 1 dwt., fine silver, 

5 grs., pin brass, 1 gr. 11. Wet Colored Solder. Wet colored scrap, 3 ozs., 
fine silver. 10 dwts., fine copper, 5 dwts. 12. Gold 15 Carat, co.^t 56.s. or $14 
per oz. Fine gold, 1 oz. 18 dwts., fine silver, 12 dwts. 12 grs., fine copper, 
10 dwts. 13. Fine gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 8 dwts., fine copper, 4 dwts. 14. 



JEWELLERS, GOLD AND SILVERSMITHS. 561 

Fine gold, 1 oz., fine silver, 8 dwts., fine copper, 4 dwts. 15. Fine gold, 1 
oz., fine silver, (3 dwts., fine copper, 8 dwts. 16. Gold Solder for the last. 
Gold scrap, 1 oz., fine silver, 5 dwts. 17. Gold, good color Fine gold, 1 oz., 
fine silver, 6 dwts., fine copper, 4 dwts. 18. Gold cost 60s. or $15, c/ood color. 
Fine gold, 1 dvvt., fine silver, 6 dwts., fine copper, 4 dwts. 19. Wet colored 
solder. Scrap gold, 4 ozs., fine silver, 13 dwts., fine copper, 6 dwts. 16 grs. 
20. To reduce 22 Curat into ]\"et colored Gold. Gold coins, 4 ozs. 8 dwts., 
fine silver, 13 dwts., fine copper, 1 oz. 13 dwts. 21. To reduce 22 Carat to 
ordinal!/ [Vet colored Gold icith scrap. Coins, 1 oz., fine gold, 3 ozs., fine sil- 
ver, 17 dwts. 12 grs., fine copper, 2 oz. 1 dwt. 12 grs., scrap, 3 oz. 1 dwt. 
22. Another icay with scrap. Coins, 3 ozs. 1 dwt. 6 grs., fine gold, 2 ozs., 
fine silver, 1 oz. 1 dwt, fine copper' 2 ozs. 11 dwts., scrap, 1 oz., 6 dwts. 18 
grs. 23. Another icay with sci-ap. Coins, 2 ozs , fine gold, 3 ozs. 3 dwts. 
8 grs., fine silver, 1 oz. 1 dwt. 4 grs., fine copper, 2 ozs. 10 dwts. 12 grs., 
scrap, 1 oz. 5 dwts. 24. To reduce 22 Carat to ordinary Wet colored Gold 
without scrap. Coins, 1 oz., fine gold, 8 ozs., fine silver, 2 ozs., fine copper, 
4 ozs. 14 dwts. 25. Another way ivithout scrap. Coins, 1 oz., fine gold, 
2 ozs., fine silver, 13 dwts., fine copper, 1 oz. 11 dwts. 26. Another icay 
without scrap. Coins, 2 ozs., fine gold, 6 ozs., fine silver, 1 oz. 14 dwts., fine 
copper, 4 ozs. 2 dwts. 

To Wet-Color the foregoing Alloys. — For 5 ozs. of work take salt- 
petre, 16 ozs., alum, 8 ozs., salt, 8 ozs., all pulverized, and muriatic acid, 2 
ozs., dissolve the ingredients gradually in a black-lead pot. When it boils 
up, add tlie acid, and stir the whole with a wooden spoon. Having annealed 
your work and made it perfectly clean, tie in small parcels with platinum 
or fine silver wire, and when the color boils up immerse it tlierein for four 
minutes, moving it about to ensure a perfect contact with all parts of the 
surface. Then take it out and rinse it well in boiling water, then immerse 
in the color again for 1^ minutes and rinse well once more in fresh hot 
water. Now add 2 ozs. of fresh hot water to the color in the pot, which 
will cause it to sink. When it rises put in your work for 1 minute, rinsing 
in fresh hot water again, when it will begin to brighten. Now immerse 
your work for half a minute longer, and rinse for the last time in clean hot 
water, when it will appear of a most beautiful color. 

Allots, Continued. — 1. Pale gold for coloring Enamelling, or Lapping. — 
Fine gold, 1 oz. ; fine silver, 9 dwts. ; fine copper, 2 dwts. 12 grs. 2. Another 
ditto — Fine gold, 1 oz. ; fine silver, 9 dwts. ; fine copper, 3 dwts. 12 grs. 3. An- 
other ditto. — Fine gold, 1 oz. ; fine silver, 10 dwts. ; fine copper, 3 dwts. 12 grs. 
4. Enamelling Gold No. 1. — Fine gold, 1 oz. ; fine silver, 1 dwt. 12 grs. ; fine cop- 
per, 2 dwts. 12 grs. 5. Enamelling Gold from Sterling — Sterling, 1 oz. ; fine 
silver, 8 grs. ; fine copper, 2 dwts. 6. Enamelling Gold Solder — Gold alloyed, 
1 dwt. ; fine silver, 4 grs. 7. Another ditto, cost 43s. stg., or $10.75 per oz. — 
Fine gold, 12 dwts. ; fine silver, 7 dwts. 3 grs. ; fine copper, 6 dwts. 8. Enamel- 
ing Gold No. 2. cost 50s. stg. per oz. — Fine gold, 1 oz. ; fine silver, 9 dwts. 12 
grs.; fine copper, 7 dwts. 12 grs. Enamelling Gold No. 3. — Fine gold, 1 oz. ; 
fine silver, 14 dwts. ; fine copper, 8 dwts. 10. Enamelling Gold No. 4. — Fine 
gold, 2 ozs. 5 dwts. ; fine silver, 1 oz. 6 dwts. ; fine copper, 1 oz. ; pin brass, 5 
dwts. 11. Enamelling Gold No. 5. — Fine gold, 1 oz. ; fine silver, 12 dwts. ; fine 
copper, 6 dwts. 12. Enamelling Gold No. 6. for transparent enamelling. — Fine 
gold, 1 oz. ; fine silver, 14 dwts. ; fine copper, 6 dwts. 13. Gold solder jf'or enam- 
elled work.-Fiue gold.l oz. ; fine silver, 1 oz. ; fine copper, 10 dwts. ; silver solder, 
8 dwts. 8 grs. 14. Pale Gold alloys for polishing, etc. No. 1. — Fine gold, 1 oz. ; 
fine silver, 8 dwts. ; fine copper, 3 dwts. 12 grs. 15. Another, No. 2.-Fine gold, 1 
oz. ; fine silver, 1 dwt. 20 grs. ; fine copper, 1 dwt. 4 grs. 16. Pale 18 Carat Gold.- 
Fine gold,l oz. ; fine silver, 4 dwts.; fine copper, 2 dwts. 15 grs. 17. Another, pale 
18 Carat Gold.-Fine gold, 1 oz. 12 grs. ; fine silver, 3 dwts. 8 grs. ; fine copper, 3 
dwts. 8 grs. 18. Pale Gold Solder.-Gold alloyed, 1 dwt. 6 gr,s. ; fine silver, 1 dwt. 
19. Alloy for best Pens.-F'me gold, 1 oz. ; fine silver, 5 dwts. ; fine copper, 7 dwts. 
18 grs. ; spelter, 1 dwt. 6 grs. 20. Solder for ditto. — Fine gold, 12 dwts. ; fine 
silver, 7 dwts. 3 grs. ; fine copper, 6 dwts. 21. Medium quality pens. — Fine 

24* 



562 JEWELLERS, GOLD AND SILVERSMITHS. 

gold, 1 oz. ; composition, 1 oz. 13 dwts. 22. Composition for the last. — Fine sil- 
ver, 1 oz. 17 dwts.; fine copper, 5 ozs. 15 dwts. ; spelter, 18 dwts. 20 grs. 28. 
So! da- for ditto. — Fine gohl, 1 oz. ; fine silver, 2 ozs. ; pin brass, 1 oz. 24. Gold 
for common pens. — Fine gold, 1 oz. ; fine silver, 2 ozs. ; fine copper, 1 oz. 25. 
Solder for ditto. — Fine gold, 1 oz. ; fine silver, 2 oz. ; pin brass, 1 oz. 26. Ailot/s 
of gold with Brass, No. 1. — Fine gold, 1 oz.; fine silver, 5 dwts. 6 grs. ; fine cop- 
per, 3 dwts. 12 grs. ; pin brass, 18 dwts. 27. Another ditto. No. 2. — Fine gold, 1 
oz. ; fine silver, 4 dwts. ; fine copper, 4 dwts. ; pin brass, IG dwts. 28. Another 
ditto. No. 3. — Fine gold, loz.; fine silver, 5 dwts. 12 grs. ; fine copper, 8 dwts. 
12 grs.; pin brass, 19 dwts. 6 grs. 29. Another alio!/. — Fine gold, 1 oz.; fine sil- 
ver, 3 dwts. 21 grs. ; fine copper, 9 dwts._3 grs. ; composition, 5 dwts. 6 grs. 30. 
Another, ditto. — Fine gold, 15 dwts. 9 grs. ; fine silver, 5 dwts. 19 grs. ; fine cop- 
per, 3 dwts. 21 grs. ; composition, 15 dwts. 31. Composition for the last tivo 
alloi/s. — Finest copper, 1 oz. ; spelter, 5 dwts. 32. Solder for foregoing alloys. — 
Gold alloyed, 1 dwt. ; fine silver, 12 grs. 33. Imitation Gold, costs 87c. per oz. 
Fine silver, 2 oz. 5 dwts. ; fine copper , 1 oz.; composition, 1 oz.; keeps its color 
very well. 34. Conijjositionfor ditto. — Fine copper, 11 ozs. ; spelter, 2 ozs. 35. 
"California " Gold. — Fine gold, 5 ozs. 12 dwts. ; composition, 7 ozs. 17 dwts. 36 
Composition for "California." — Fine silver, 7 ozs. 17 dwts. ; fine copper, 33 ozs. 
12 dwts. ; spelter, 5 ozs. 22 dwts. 37. Medium Gold. — Fine gold, 1 oz. ; fine 
silver, 12 dwts. ; fine copper, 13 dwts. 38. Bright Gold. — Fine gold, 1 oz. ; fine 
silver, 7 dwts. ; composition marked No. 34, 1 dwt. 6 grs. 39. Common Gold 
No. 1. — Fine gold, 1 oz.; fine silver, 8 dwts.; composition No. 34, 1 oz. 12 dwts. 
41. Common Gold No. 2. — Fine gold, 5 dwts. ; fine silver, 3 dwts. 6 grs. ; fine 
copper, 6 dwts. 12 grs. 42. Gold for Pens. — Fine gold, 1 oz. ; fine silver, 5 
dwts. ; fine copper, 1 oz. ; spelter, 5 dwts. 33. Dry Colored Scrap reduced to 35s. 
or $8.75 Gold. — Colored scrap, 1 oz. 9dwts. 12 grs. ; fine silver, 2 dwts. ; fine 
copper, 17 dwts. 12 grs. ; spelter, 4 dwts. 44. Alloij for Gold Chains. — Fine 
gold, 11 dwts. 6 grs. ; fine silver, 2 dwts. 5 grs. ; fine copper, 6 dwts. 18 grs. 45. 
Another ditto. — Fine gold, 1 oz. ; fine silver, 9 dwts. ; fine copper, 8 dwts. 46. 
Gold worth 45 stg. or $11.25. — Fine gold, 1 oz. ; composition, (see No. 22) 1 oz. 

47. Solder for ditto. — Fine gold, 1 oz. ; fine silver, 15 dwts.; fine copper, 15 dwts. 

48. 12 Carat Gold. — Fine gold, 1 oz. ; fine silver, 10 dwts. ; fine copper, 9 dwts. 
6 grs. 49. Common Gold from "California." — "California," (see No. 85) 8 
ozs. ; fine silver, 13 ozs. 16 dwts. ; fine copper, 6 ozs. 16 dwts. 50. 29s. or $7.25 
Gold. — Fine gold, 1 oz. 13 dwts. 6 grs. ; fine silver, 1 oz. 12 dwts. 12 grs. ; fine 
copper, 1 oz. 16 dwts. 6 grs. ; spelter, 4 dwts. Stands nitric acid very well. 

Alloys for Gold. — 1. Red gold. — Copper, 66.67 parts ; gold, 38.33 
parts. 2. Yellow gold. — Copper, 12.50 parts ; silver, 37.50 parts ; gold, 50 parts. 
3. Green goldi — Silver, 25 parts ; gold, 75 parts. 4. Yellow gold. — Silver, 66.- 
67 parts ; gold, 33.33 parts. 5. Grey gold. — Silver, 5.89 parts ; gold, 88.23 parts ; 
iron, 5,89 parts. 6. Dentist's gold. — Silver, 8.34 parts ; platinum, 66.67 parts ; 
gold, 24.29 parts. 7. English gold coin. — Copper, 8.34 parts ; gold, 91.66 parts. 
8. American gold coin. — Copper, 10 parts ; gold 90 parts. Frencli gold coin 
same as American. 10. Alloys for Silver Coin and Plate. — English standard. 
Copper, 7.50 parts ; silver, 92.50 parts. 11. American ditto. — Copper, 10 parts ; 
silver 90 parts. French the same. 

Alloy for Watch Pinion Sockets. — Gold, 31 parts ; silver, 19 parts ; 
copper, 39 parts ; palladium, 1 part. 

New French Patent Alloy for Silver. — Messieurs De Roulz & Fon- 
tenay have invented the following alloy, which may be used for almost all 
purposes in which silver is usually applied : Silver, 20 parts ; purified nickel, 
28 iMirts ; coi)per, 52 parts. Melt the copper and nickel in the granular state, 
then introduce tlie silver. The flux to be emploj'ed is charcoal and borax, 
both in the state of powder ; and the ingots obtained are to be rendered 
malleable by annealing for a considerable time in powdered charcoal. 

Jeweller's Alloys. — Solder, &c — Eighteen-carat gold for rings. — Gold 
coin, 19^ grs., pure coj)per, 3 grs. ; pure silver, 1-J gr. Cheap gold, twelve carat. 
— Gold coin, 25 gr. ; pure copper, 18i grs. ; pure silver, 7^ grs. Very cheap 
four-carat gold. — Copper, 18 parts ; gold, 4 parts ; silver, 2 parts. Imitation of 



JEWELLERS, GOLD AND SILVERSMITHS. 



563 



^old. — 1. Platina, 4 dwts. ; pure copper, 2^ dwts. ; sheet-zinc, 1 tlwt. ; block- 
tin, If dwt. ; pure lead, l4 dwt. If this should be fouiui too hard or brittle 
for practical use, re-meltinsj the composition with a little sal-ammoniac will 
generally render it malleable as desired. 2. Platina, 2 parts ; silver, 1 part ; 
copper, 3 parts. These compositions, when properly i)repared, so nearly re- 
semble pure gold it is ver}^ difficult to distinguisii them tlierefrom. A little 
powdered cliarcoal, mixed witli metals wliilc meltint^ will be found of ser- 
vice. Best oreide of gold. — Pure copper, 4 oz. ; slieet zinc. If oz. ; magnesia, 
I oz. ; sal-ammoniac, g^ oz. ; quick-lime, 9.32 oz. ; cream tartar, | oz. First 
melt the copper at as low temperature as it will melt ; then add tlie zinc, and 
afterwards the otlier articles in powder, in tlie order named. Use a charcoal 
fire to melt tliese metals. Bushing Allot/ for Picot-holes, ^-c. — Gold coin, 3 
dwts. ; silver, 1 dwt. 20 grs. ; copper, 3 dwts. 20 grs. ; palladium, 1 dwt. The 
best composition known for the purpose named. Gold Solder for Fourteen to 
Sixteen-carat ]Vork. — Gold coin, 1 dwt. ; pure silver, 9 grs. ; pure copper, 6 
grs. ; brass, 3 grs. Darker solder. — Gold coin, 1 dwt. ; pure copper, 8 grs. ; 
pure silver, 5 grs. ; brass, 2 grs. ; melt together in cliarcoal fire. Solder for 
Gold. — Gold, 6 dwts. ; silver, 1 dwt. ; copper, 2 dwts. Soft Gold Solder. — 
Gold, 4 i)arts ; silver, 1 part ; copper, 1 part. Solders for Silver (For the 
use of jewellers). — Fine silver, 19 dwts. ; copper, 1 dwt. ; slieet brass, 10 
dwts. White Solder for Sihei: — Silver, 1 oz. ; tin, 1 oz. Silver Solder for 
Plated Metal. — Fine silver, 1 oz. ; brass, 10 dwts. Solders. — For Gold. — 1. 
Silver, 7 parts ; copper, 1 part, witli borax. 2. Gold, 2 parts ; silver, 1 part ; 
copper, 1 part. 3. Gold, 3 parts; silver, 3 parts ; copper, 1 part; zinc, ^part. 
For Silver. — Silver, 2 parts ; brass, 1 part, with borax or, silver, 4 parts ; 
brass, 3 parts ; zinc, 1.18 part, witli borax. Gold Solders. — 1. Copper, 24.24 
parts; silver, 27.57 parts ; gold, 48.19 parts. 2. Enamel Solder. — Copper, 25 
parts ; silver, 7.07 parts ; gold, 67.93 jiarts. 3. Copper, 20.55 parts ; zinc, 6. 
25 parts ; silver, 31.25 parts ; gold, 36 parts. 4. Enamel Solder. — Silver, 19. 
57 parts ; gold, 80.43 parts. Solder. — For 22 carat gold. — Gold for 22 carats, 
1 dwt, ; silver, 2 grs. ; copper, 1 gr. For 18 carat gold. — Gold, 18 carats, 1 
dwt. ; silver, 2 grs. ; copper, 1 grs. For cheaper gold. — Gold, 1 dwt. ; silver, 
10 grs, ; copper, 8 grs. Cheaper still. — Fine gold, 1 dwt. ; silver, 1 dwt. ; cop- 
per, 1 dwt. 

ORDINARY BRIGHT GOLD WIRE, TABLE SHOWING THE PROPORTIONS OF ALLOY 
FROM 1 oz. UP TO 21 OZ. 



Fine Gold. 


Fine Silver. 


Fine Copper. 


Total. 


Oz. Dwts. Grs. 


Oz. Dwts. 


Grs. 


Oz. Dwts. Grs. 


Oz. Dwts. 


Grs. 


5 21 


6 


6 


6 21 


1 





11 18 


14 


12 


13 18 


2 





17 15 


1 1 


18 


1 15 


3 





1 15 6 


2 3 


12 


2 1 6 


6 





2 12 21 


3 5 


6 


2 1 21 


9 





3 10 12 


4 7 





4 2 12 


12 





4 8 3 


5 8 


18 


5 3 3 


15 





5 4 18 


6 10 


12 


6 3 18 


18 





6 3 8 


7 12 


6 


2 4 9 


21 






Gold. — To find the number of carats of gold in an object, first weigh 
the gold and mix with seven times its weight in silver. This alloy is beaten 
into thin leaves, and nitric acid is added ; this dissolves the silver and copper. 
, The remainder (gold) is then fused and weighed ; by comparing the first 
and last weights the number of carats of jiure gold is found. This operation 
is always repeated several times, and if any difference occurs in the result, 
all is done over again. 



564 JEWELLERS, GOLD AND SILVERSMITHS. 

To Fuse Gold Dust. — Use such a crucible as is generally used for 
melting brass; lieat very hot ; then add your gold dust mixed with pow- 
dered borax ; — after some time a scum or slag will arise on tlie top, which 
may be thickened by the addition of a little lime or bone ash. If the dust 
contains any of the more oxidizable metals, add a little nitre, skim off the 
slag or scum very carefully ; when melted, grasp the crucible with strong 
iron tongs and pour off immediately into cast iron moukls, slightly greased. 
The slag and crucibles may be afterwards pulverized, and the auriferous 
matter recovered from the mass through cupellation by means of lead. 

To Refine Gold. — If you desire to refine gold from the baser metals, 
swedge or roll it out very thin, then cut into narrow strips and curl up so as 
to prevent its lying flatl}'. Drop the pieces thus prepared into a vessel con- 
taining good nitric acid, in the proportion of acid, 2 ozs., and pure rain- 
water, ^ oz. Suffer to remain until thoroughly dissolved, which will be the 
case in from ^ an hour to 1 hour. Then pour off the liquid carefully, and 
you will find tiie gold, in the form of yellow powder, lying at the bottom of 
the vessel. Wash this with pure water till it ceases to have an acid taste, 
after which you may melt and cast into any form you choose. Gold treated 
in this way may be relied on as perfectly pure. 

In melting gold use none other than a charcoal fire, and during the pro- 
cess sprinkle saltpetre and potash into the crucible occasionally'. Do not 
attempt to melt with stone coal, as it renders the metal brittle and otherwise 
imperfect. 

To Kecover the Gold lost in Coloring. — Dissolve a liandful of sul- 
phate of iron in boiling water, then add this to your "color" water, it pre- 
cipitates the small particles of gold. Now draw off the water, being very 
careful not to disturb the auriferous sediment at the bottom. You will now 
proceed to wash the sediment from all trace of acid with plentj' of boiling 
water; it will require 3 or 4 separate washings, with suflficient time between 
each to allow the water to cool and the sediment to settle, before pouring 
the water off. Then dry in an iron vessel by the fire and finally fuse in a 
covered skittle pot with a flux. 

Gold is taken from the surface of silver by spreading over it a paste 
made of powdered sal-ammoniac, with aquafortis, and heating it till the 
matter smokes, and is nearly dry ; when the gold may be separated by rub- 
bing it with a scratch brush. 

To Recover Gold from Gilt Metal. — Take a solution of borax 
water, apply to the gilt surface, and sprinkle over it some finely powdered 
sulphur ; make the article red hot, and quench it in water; then scrape off 
tlie gold, and recover it by means of lead. 

To Cleanse Gold Tarnished in Soldering. — Tiie old English mode 
was to expose all parts of tlie article to a uniform heat, allow it to cool, and 
then boil until brigjit in urine and sal-ammoniac. It is now usually cleaned 
with diluted sulphuric acid. Tiie pickle is made in about the proportion of 
one eighth of an ounce of acid to one ounce of rain water. 

To Remove Soft Solder from Gold. — Place tlie work in spirits of 
salts, or remove as much as possible with the scraper, using a gentle heat 
to enable you to get off the solder more easii}'. Very useful to be known 
where hard soldering is required, eitlier in briglit or colored work. 

Jeweller's Gold Compositions. — Common Gold. — Silver, 1 part ; 
Spanish copper, 16 parts, gold, 2 parts ; mix. Rincj Gold. — Spanish copper, 
6 parts ; silver, 3 parts ; gold, 5 parts ; mix. Mannheim Gold. — Copper, 3 parts ; 
zinc, 1 part. Melt, and stir well. Mosaic (lold. — Coi)per and zinc, equal 
])arts ; melt at the lowest temperature that will fuse the former, tiien mix 
by stirring, and add 5 per cent, more zinc. Parker's Mosaic Gold. — Copj)er, 
100 [varls ; zinc, 54 parts. For common Jewellery. — Copper, 3 parts ; 1 of old 
brass, and 4 oz. of tin to every lb. of copjier. Factitious Gold. — Copper, 16 
parts ; i)hitinuni, 7 parts ; zinc, 1 part ; fused together. This alloy resembles 
gold of 10 carats fine, or ^, and will resist the action of nitric acid, imless 
very concentrated and boiling. Harmstadl's True Imitation of Gold i3 



JEWELLERS, GOLD AND SILVERSMITHS. 565 

stated not only to resemble gold in color, but also in specific gravity and 
ductility. Platinum, 16 parts ; copper, 7 parts ; zinc, 1 part ; put it in a cruci- 
ble, cover with charcoal powder, and melt into a mass. Do. of 6^(7yer.— Copper, 
J oz. ; brass, 2 oz. ; pure silver, 3 oz. ; bismuth, 2 oz.; saltpetre, 2 oz. ; common 
salt, 1 oz. ; arsenic, 1 oz. ; potasii, 1 oz. ; melt in a crucible witii powdered 
charcoal. This compound, used by a German chemist for unlawful pur- 
poses, was so perfect that lie was never discovered. 

Artificial Gold. — This is anew metallic alloy which is now very exten- 
sively used in France as a substitute for gold. Pure copper, 100 parts ; zinc, 
or, preferably, tin, 17 parts ; magnesia, 6 parts ; sal-ammoniac, 3-6 parts ; 
quick-lime, 1 part ; tartar of commerce, 9 parts ; are mixed as follows : The 
copper if first melted, and the magnesia, sal-ammoniac, lime and tartar are 
then added separately, and by degrees, in the form of powder, the whole is 
now briskly stirred for about -J an hour so as to mix thoroughly ; and when 
the zinc is added in small grains by throwing it on the surface, and stirring 
till it is entirely fused, the crucible is then covered, and the fusion main- 
tained for about 35 minutes. The surface is then skimmed, and the alloy 
is ready for casting. It has a fine grain, is malleable, and takes a splendid 
polish. It does not corrode readily, and for many purposes, is an excellent 
substitute for gold. When tarnished, its brilliancy can be restored by a 
little acidulated water. If tin be employed instead of zinc, the alloy will be 
more brilliant. It is very much used in France, and must ultimately attain 
equal popularity here. 

Colored Gold. — 1. Full red gold. — Gold, 5 dwts. ; copper, 5 dwts. 2. Red 
gold. — Gold, 5 dwts. ; silver, 1 dwt. ; copper, 4 dwts. 3. Green Gold. — Gold, 
2 dwt. ; silver, 21 gr. 4. Grey gold. — Gold, 3 dwts. 15 grs. ; silver, 1 dwt. 9 gr. 
5. Blue gold. — Gold, 5 dwt. ; steel filings, 5 dwt. 6. Antique gold, greenish- 
yelloio color. — Gold, 18 dwts. 9 gr. ; silver, 21 gr. ; copper, 18 gr. These 
all require to be submitted to the process of wet coloring. 7. Fictitious gold, 
very bright. — Copper, 16 parts ; platina, 7 parts ; zinc, 1 part ; fused together. 

A Bright Gold Tinge may be given to silver by steeping it for a 
suitable length of time in a weak solution of sulphuric acid and water 
strongly impregnated with iron-rust. 

French Gold Plate. — 1. Gold, 92 parts ; copper, 8 parts. 2. Gold, 84 
parts ; copper, 16 parts. 3. Gold, 75 parts ; copper, 25 parts. Jewellers^ 
Metal. — Copper, 30 parts ; tin, 7 parts ; brass, 10 parts; mi.x. 

Gilding Metal for common jewellery is made by mixing 4 parts copper 
with one of calamine brass. Sometimes 1 lb. copper, with 6 ozs. of brass. 
Dentists' Plate. — No. 1. Gold, 20 dwts. ; silver, 1 dwt.; copper, 2 dwts. 2. 
Gold, 21, silver, 2, copper. Gold for Springs. — Gold, 18 dwts. 12 grs. ; silver, 
6 dwts. ; copper, 5 dwts. 

Spot Gilding, or gilding in spots, producing a ver}"^ fine appearance, is 
done by putting a thin coat of oil on those parts of the metal where you do not 
wish the gilding to appear, the gold will then be deposited in those spots only 
where there is no oil, and the oil is easily removed when the job is finished. 

To Hard Solder Gold, Silver, Copper, Brass, Iron, Steel ok 
Platina. — The solders to be used for gold, silver, copper and brass are 
given in the preceding part. You commence operations by reducing your 
solder to small particles, and mixing it with powdered sal-ammoniac and 
powdered borax in equal parts, moistened to make it hold together. Having 
fitted up the joint to be soldered, you secure the article upon a piece of soft 
charcoal, lay your soldering mixture immediately over the joint, and tlien 
with your blow-pipe turn the flame of your lamp upon it until fusion takes 
place. The job is tiien done, and ready to be cooled and dressed up. Iron 
is usually soldered with copper or brass in accordance with the above pro- 
cess. The best solder for steel is pure gold or pure silver, though gold or 
silver solders are often used successfully. Platina can only be soldered 
well with gold ; and the expense of it, therefore, contributes to the hin- 
dranct! of a general use of platina vessels, even for chemical purposes, where 
they are of so much importance. 



566 JEWELLERS, GOLD AND SILVERSMITHS. 

To Soft Solder Articles. — Moisten tlie parts to be united with sol- 
dering fluid ; then, having joined them together, lay a small piece of solder 
upon tlie joint and hold over your lamp, or direct tlie blaze upon it with 
your 1)lo\v-pipe until fusion is apparent. Withdraw them from the blaze 
immediately, as too much heat will render the solder brittle and unsatisfac- 
tory. When the parts to be joined can be made to spring or press against 
each other, it is best to place a thin piece of solder between them before 
exposing to the lamp. Where two smooth surfaces are to be soldered one 
upon the other, you may make an excellent job bj' moistening them with 
the fluid, and then, having placed a sheet of tin foil between them, holding 
them i)ressed firml.y together over your lamp till the foil melts. If the sur- 
faces fit nicely, a joint may be made in this way so close as to be almost 
imperceptible. The bright looking lead which comes as a lining to tea 
boxes works better in the same way than tin foil. 

English Standard for Silver. — Pure silver, 11 ozs. 2 dwts. ; copper, 
22 dwts. ; melt. Silver Imitation. — Copper, 1 lb. ; tin, f oz. ; melt. This 
composition will roll and ring very near to silver. 

For Silversmiths, Sterling Silver. — 1. Fine silver, 11 ozs. 2 dwts. ; fine 
copper, 18 dwts. 2. Equal to Sterling. — Fine silver, 1 oz. ; fine copper, 1 
dwt. 12 grs. 3. Another ditto. — Fine silver, 1 oz. ; fine copper, 5 dwts. 4. 
Common Silver for Chains. — Fine silver, 6 dwts.; fine copper, 4 dwts. 5. 
Solder for ditto. — Fine silver, 16 dwts. ; fine copper, 12 grs. ; pin brass, 3 
dwts. 12 grs. 6. Alloy for Plating. — Fine silver, 1 oz. ; fine copper, 10 dwts. 
7. Silver Solder. — Fine silver, 1 oz. ; pin brass, 10 dwts. ; pure spelter, 2 
dwts. 8. Copper Solder for Plating. — Fine silver, 10 dwts. ; fine copper, 10 
dwts. 9. Common Silver Soldei: — Fine silver, 10 ozs. ; pin brass, 6 ozs. 12 
dwts.; spelter, 12 dwts. 10. Silver Solder for Enamelling, $1 per oz. — Fine 
silver, 14 dwts. ; fine copper, 8 dwts. 11. Ditto, for Filling Signet Rings. — 
Fine Silver, 10 ozs. ; fine copi)er, 1 oz. 16 dwts. ; fine pin brass, 6 ozs. 12 
dwts.; spelter, 12 dwts. 12. Silver Solder for Gold Plating. — Fine silver, 1 
oz. ; fine copper, 5 dwts. ; pin brass, 5 dwts. 13. Quick Silver Solder. — Fine 
silver, 1 oz. ; pin brass, 10 dwts. ; bar tin, 2 dwts. 14. Imitation Silver. — 
Fine silver, 1 oz. ; nickel, 1 oz. 11 grs. ; fine copper, 2 ozs. 9 grs. 15. 
Another Ditto. — Fine silver, 3 ozs. ; nickel, 1 oz. 11 dwts. ; fine copper, 2 ozs. 9 
grs. ; spelter, 10 dwts. 16. Fiiie Silver Solder for Filigree Work. — Fine silver, 
4 dwts. 6 grs. ; pin brass, 1 dwt. 17. Bismuth Solder. — Bismuth, 3 ozs. ; lead, 
3 ozs. 18 dwts. ; tin, 5 ozs. 6 dwts. 

To Refine Silver. — Dissolve in nitric acid as in tlie case of the gold. 
When the silver has entirely disappeared, add to the 2\ ozs. of solution 
nearly 1 qt. of pure rain water. Sink, then, a sheet of clean copper into it ; 
the silver will collect rapidly upon the copper, and you can scrape it off and 
melt into bulk at pleasure. 

In the event of your refining gold in accordance with the foregoing for- 
mula, and the impurity was silver, the only steps necessary to save the 
latter would be to add the above named proportion of water to the solution 
poured from the gold, and then to proceed with your copper plate as just 
directed. 

To Extract Silver from Waste Products. — Mix your refuse with 
an equal quantity of wood charcoal, place in a crucible and submit to a 
bright red heat, and in a short time a silver button will be found at tlie 
bottom. Carbonate of soda is another good flux. 

To Clean Silver Tarnished in Soldering. — Some expose to a uni- 
form heat, as in the case of gold, and then boil in strong alum water. Otliers 
immerse for a considerable length of time in a liquid made of yi oz. of 
cyanuret potassa to 1 pt. rain water, and then brush off with prepared chalk. 

To Wash Silverware. — Never use a particle of soap on 3'our silver- 
ware, as it dulls the lustre, giving the article more the appearance of pewter 
than silver. When it wants cleaning, rub it with a piece of soft leather 
and prepared chalk, the latter made into a kind of paste with pure water, 
for the reason that water not pure might contain gritty particles. 



JEWELLERS, GOLD AND SILVERSMITHS. 567 

Ornamental Designs on Silver. — Select a sniootli part of tlie silver, 
and sketch on it a monogram or an}' otlier design you clioose, with a sharp 
lead pencil, tlien place the article in a gold solution witli the battery in good 
working order, and in a sliort time all the parts not sketched with tlie lead 
pencil will be covered with a coat of gold. After cleansing tlie article, tlie 
black lead is easily removed by the fingers, and tlie silver ornament dis- 
closed. A gold ornament may be produced by reversing the process. 

Dead White on Silver Articles. — Heat the article to a cherry red, ■ 
or a dull red heat and allow it to cool, then place it in a pickle of 6 parts 
sulphuric acid to 100 parts of water, and allow it to remain for an hour or 
two. If the surface is not I'iglit, rinse in cold water, and repeat the heating 
and pickling operation as before. This removes the copper from the sur- 
face ol the article, leaving p!»-e silver on the surface. When sufficiently 
whitenert, remove from the pickle, well rinse in pure hot water and place in 
warm box sawdust. 

To Frost Polished Silver. — Cyanide of potassium, 1 oz. ; dissolved 
in i pt. of water. Do not hold the silver in your hands, but use pliers made 
of lance wood or box wood, and apply the mixture with a brush to the 
polished "surface. 

Silvering Shells. — Silver leaf and gum water, a sufficient quantity ; 
grind to a {)roper thickness, and cover the inside of the shells. For a Gold 
Color, grind up gold leaf with gum water, and apply to tiie inside of the 
shells. 

Liquid Foil for Silvering Glass Globes, &c. — Lead, 1 part ; tin, 1 
part ; bismuth, 1 part ; melt, and, just before it sets, add mercury, 10 parts. 
Pour this into tlie globe, and turn it rapidh' round. 

Silvering Hooks and Eyes, &c. — The small iron articles" are sus- 
pended in dilute sulphuric acid until the iron shows a bright clean surface. 
After rinsing in pure water they are placed in a bath of a mixed solution of 
sulphate of zinc, sulphate of copper and cyanide of potassium, and there 
remain until they receive a bright coating of brass. Lastly, they are trans- 
ferred to a bath of nitrate of silver, cyanide of ]>otassiuni and sulphate of 
soda, in which they quickly receive a coating of silver. 

Pickle for Frosting and Whitening Silver Goods. — Sulphuric 
acid, 1 dr. ; water, 4 ozs. ; heat the pickle, and immerse the silver in it until 
frosted as desired ; then wash off clean, and dry with a soft linen clotli, or 
in fine clean sawdust. For whitening only, a smaller proportion of acid 
may be used. 

Tc Silver Clock Faces, &c. — Old silver lace, i oz. ; nitric acid, 1 oz. 
Boil them over a gentle fire for about 5 minutes, in an earthen pot. After 
the silver is dissolved take the mixture off, and mix it in a pint of clean 
water, then pour it into another vessel free from sediment ; then add a table- 
spoonful of common salt, and the silver will be precipitated in the form of 
a white powder or curd ; pour off the acid, and mix the curd with 2 oz. salt 
of tartar, and ^^ oz. whiting, all together, and it is readj^ for use. To Use.— 
Clean your brass or copper plate with rotten-stone and a piece of old hat ; 
rub it with salt and water with 3'our hand. Then take a little of the com- 
position on your finger, and rub it over your plate, and it will firmly adhere 
and comjjletely silver it. Wash it well with water. When dry, rub it with 
a clean rag, and varnish with this varnish for clock faces. Spirits of 
wine, 1 pt. ; divide in three parts, mix one part with gum-mastic in a bottle 
by itself ; 1 part spirits and ^ oz. sandarac in another bottle ; and 1 part 
spirits and ^ oz. of whitest gum benjamin, in another bottle ; mix and tem- 
per to your mind. If too thin, some mastic ; if too soft, some sandarac or 
benjamin. When you use it, warm the silvered plate before the fire, and, 
with a flat camel's-hair pencil, stroke it over till no white streaks appear, 
and this will preserve the silvering for many years. 

Silver Solders. — L (Hard.) Copper, 30 parts; zinc, 12.85 parts; sil- 
ver, 57.15 parts. 2. Copper, 23.33 parts ; zinc, 10.00 parts ; silver, GG.67 
parts. 3. Copper, 26.66 parts ; zinc, 10.00 parts ; silver, 63.34 parts. 4. 



5GS JEWELLERS, GOLD AND SILVERSMITHS. 

ISnft.) Copper, 14.75 parts ; zinc, 8.50 parts ; silver, 77.05 parts. 5. Copper, 
22.34 parts; zinc, 10.48 parts ; silver, 67.18 parts. 6. Tin, 63.00 parts ; lead, 
37 parts. 

To Make and Apply Silver-Plating Solution. — Put together in a 
glass ves-sel 1 oz. nitrate of silver, 2 ozs. cyanuret i)otas.sa, 4 ozs. prepared 
SpanJsli whiting, and 10 ozs. i)ure rain water. Cleanse tlie article to be 
plated as per preceding directions, and apply with a soft brush. Finish 
with the chamois skin or burnisher. 

To JMake AM) Apply Sxlver-Platino Powder. — Dissolve silver in 
nitric acid by the aid of heat ; put some pieces of copper into the solution 
to precipitate tlie silver; wash the acid out in the usual way ; then, with 15 
grains of it, mix 2 drachms of tartar, 2 drachms of table salt, and ^ drachm 
of pulverized alum. Brighten the article to be plated with lye and prepared 
chalk, and rub on the nii.xture. When it has assumed a white appearance, 
expose to heat as in the case of plating with gold amalgam, then polish up 
with tlie burnislier or soft leather. 

Silver Plating Fluid. — Dissolve 1 oz. of nitrate of silver, in cr3'stals, 
in 12 ozs. of soft water ; then dissolve in the water 2 ozs. cyanuret of potash ; 
shake the whole together, and let it stand till it becomes clear. Have 
ready some half-ounce vials, and fill half full of Paris white, or fine whiting ; 
and then fill up the bottles with tlie liquor, and it is ready for use. The 
■whiting does not increase the coating power; it only helps to clean the 
articles, and saves the silver fluid, by half filling the bottles. 

Cold Silvering of Metals. — Mix 1 part of chloride of silver with 3 
parts of pearlash, IJ parts common salt, and 1 part whiting ; and well rub 
the mixture on tlie surface of brass or copper (previously well cleaned), by 
means of a piece of soft leather, or a cork moistened with water and dipped 
in the i)owder. When properly silvered, the metal should be well vvaslied 
in hot water, slightly alkalized ; then wiped dry. 

Silvering Solution for Electrotype Plates. — Nitrate of silver, 2 
drachms ; distilled water, 37 drachms. Dissolve, and add sal-ammoniac, 1 
drachm ; hydropliosphite of soda, 4 drachms ; precipitated chalk, 4 drachms. 
Agitate the prejiaration occasionally for 12 hours, when it will be ready for 
use. Apply with a fine sponge. 

Silvering by Heat. — Dissolve 1 oz. silver in nitric acid; add a small 
quantity of salt ; then wash it and add sal-ammoniac, or 6 ozs. of salt and 
white vitriol ; also 5 oz. corrosive sublimate ; rub them together till they 
form a paste ; rub the piece which is to be silvered with the paste ; heat it 
till the silver runs, nfter which dip it in a weak vitriol pickle to clean it. 

Mixture for Silvering. — Dissolve 2 ozs. of silver with 3 grs. of cor- 
rosive sublimate ; add tartaric acid, 4 lbs. ; salt, 8 qts. 

To Separate Silver from Copper. — Mix suljihuric acid, 1 part; nitric 
acid, 1 part ; water, 1 part ; boil the metal in the mixture till it is dissolved ; 
throw in a little salt to cause the silver to subside. 

To Write in Silver. — Mix 1 oz. of the finest pewter or block tin and 
2 ozs. of quicksilver together till both become fluid, then grind it with gum 
water, and write with it. The writing will then look as if done with silver. 

Silvering Powder. — Nitrate of silver and common salt, of each, 30 grs. ; 
cream tartar, 3^ drachms ; pulverize finely and bottle for use. Unequalled 
for polishing copper and phited goods. 

To Refine Sweepings Containing Gold or Silver. — To 8 ozs. of the 
dirt, which has been washed and burnt, add salt, 4 ozs. ; pearl-ash, 4 ozs. ; 
red tartar, 1 oz. ; saltpetre, | oz. ; mix thoroughly in a mortar, melt in a 
crucible, and dissolve out the precious metals in a button. 

To Separate Gold and Silver from Lace, Scc. — Cut in pieces the gold 
or silver lace, tie it tigiitly, and boil in so;ip lye till the size appears dimin- 
ished ; take the cloth out of the liquid, aiui after repeated rinsings in cold 
water, beat it with a mallet to draw out the alkali. Open the linen and the 
pure metal will be found in all its beauty. 

Polishing Powder for Gold and Silver. — Rock alum burnt and 



JEWELLERS, GOLD AND SILVERSMITHS. 5G9 

finely powdered, 5 parts ; levigated chalk, 1 part. Mix ; apply with a dry 
brusli. 

Gold, to Test. — Articles made of gold have their value regulated 
according to a certain standard. Articles of pure gold, for instance, are re- 
presented to be of twenty-four parts or canits, but if there is any alloy, then 
this is deducted, from tiie whole. Plate is not legally sold as gold, except it be 
of standard purity, and to ascertain tliis, it undergoes an examination of the 
assay master of the Goldsmiths' Company, and if found of the correct stand- 
ard, it is stamped with wiiat is termed the hall mark. This mark is a peculiar 
xnd distinctive one, and although many close imitations of it appear on 
spurious metals, yet, if it is once closely observed, it will always serve as an 
infallible guide to persons who are purcliasing gold plate and other articles. 
Gold, or wliat is represented to be sucli, may be readil3' tested by applying 
a drop of aquafortis to it ; if the fluid remains upon the metal in a colorless 
state, tlie metal is pure ; but if upon applying the aquafortis, a green color 
appears, the metal is spurious. Another test consists of a smooth black stone 
called the touchstone ; and upon the article to be tested being rubbed upon 
it, the color of the mark left by pure gold, differing from that made by any 
of its alloys, at once furnishes a test of the comparative merits of the metals. 
With respect to many ornaments made and sold by jewellers without the 
proper stamp, and called gold, they contain only a portion of the precious 
metal, having as much alloy as jewellers can possibly add without losing the 
appearance of gold ; tliese articles look very well when new, but frequently 
soon tarnish and lose their color. 

Jewellery, to Clean. — From constant wear, jewellery is apt to become 
dirty and tarnished, and the process of restoring it to its pristine brightness 
is very simple. Make a lather of common yellow soap and warm water, 
wash the articles in tlii;5 and brush them well, then wipe them dry, and 
polish them either with a plain leather, or with one upon wliich a little rouge 
has been put ; after this application, the brilliancy of the jewellery will be re- 
stored. 

Coloring of Jewellery. — 1. To Heighten the Color of Yellow Gold. — 
Saltpetre, 6 ozs. ; green copperas, 2 ozs. ; white vitriol and alum, of eacii, 1 
oz. If wanted redder, a small qtiantity of blue vitriol must be added. 2. 
For Green Gold. — Saltpetre, 1 oz. 10 dwts. ; sal-ammoniac, 1 oz. 4 dwts. ; 
Iloman vitriol, 1 oz. 4 dwts ; verdigris, 18 dwts. 3. To Clean Gilt Jewellery. — 
Boiling water in a clean flask, ^ pt. ; cyanide of pot.assium, 1 oz. ; shake the 
flask to dissolve the potassium. Add, when cold, liquor ammonia,^ oz. ; rec- 
tified alcohol, 1 oz. Used by brushing over gilded articles. 4. Coloriuq .Jew- 
ellery. — Boil the articles in a dilute solution of terchloride of gold, to which 
some bicarbonate of soda has been added. 5. Colorimi of Gildiw;. — Defective 
colored gilding may also be improved by the help of the following mixture: 
nitrate of potash, 3 ozs.; alum, \^ oz.; sulphate of zinc, 1^ oz. ; comnmn 
salt, 1-J oz. Tliese ingredients are to be put into a small quantity of 
water to form a sort of paste which is put on the articles to be colored ; 
they are then put upon an iron plate over a clear fire, so that they will 
attain nearly to a black heat, when they are suddenly- plunged into cold 
water; this gives them a beautiful high color. Different hues may be had 
by a variation in the mixture. 6. For Red Gold. — To 4 ozs. melted yellow 
wax, add, in fine powder, 1^ oz. of red ochre ; \\ oz. verdigris, calcined till 
it yields no fumes ; and ^ oz. of calcined borax. Mix them well together. 
Dissolve either of above mixtures in water, as the color is wanted, and use as 
required. 7. Fine Color for Heavy Gilt Work. — Alum, 3 ozs. ; saltpetre, 6 
ozs. ; sulphate of zinc, 3 ozs. ; common salt, 3 ozs. Mix all into a thick 
paste, dip the articles into it, and heat them until nearly black on a piece of 
sheet iron over a clear coke or charcoal fire, then plunge them into cold 
water. 8. Fine Color for Light Plated Work. — Sulphate of copper, 2 
dwts.; best verdigris, 4 dwts. 12 grains; sal ammoniac, 4 dwts.; salt- 
petre, 4 dwts. ; acetic acid, 1 oz. ; pulverize the solid articles, add the 
acetic acid gradually, stirring all the time. Dip your articles into this mix- 



570 JEWELLERS, GOLD AND SILVERSMITHS. 

tnre and lieat them to a black color on a sheet of copper. Wlien colJ, place 
them in a middling strong sulplniric acid piclile, which dissolves the coloring 
salts, and induces a very fine gold color. 9. Elrasaui Gold Coloring. — Alum, 
1 oz. ; fine table-salt, 1 oz. ; saltpetre (powdered), 2 ozs. ; iiot rain-water, 
sullicient to make the solution, wlien dissolved, about tlie consistency of 
tlnck ale ; then add sufficient muriatic acid to produce the color desired. 
Tlie degree of success must alwaj's depend, in a greater or less degree, upoi; 
the skill or judgment of the operator. The article to be colored should be 
from fourteen toeigliteen carats fine, of pure gold and copper only, and be free 
from coatings of tin, or silver solder. The solution is best used warm, and 
when freshly made ; the principle on which it acts is to eat out the copj)er 
alloy from the surface of the article, leaving tliereon pure, frosted gold only. 
After coloring, wasli off, first in rain-water, then in alcohol, and dry witiiout 
rubbing, in fine clean sawdust. Fine Etruscan jewellery, that has been 
defaced or tarnislied b}' use, may be perfectly renewed by the same process. 

To Solder To<itoise Shell. — Bring the edges of the pieces of shell to 
fit each other, observing to give the same inclination of grain to each, then 
secure them in a piece of paper, and place them between hot irons or pincers ; 
apply pressure, and let them cool. Tiie heat must not be so great as to burn 
tlie shell, therefore try it first on a white piece of paper. 

Artificial Pearls. — Are made from beads of opaline glass filled with 
gimi, the polish of the glass being reduced by the vapor of hydrofluoric 
acid. 

Reviver for old Jewellery. — Dissolve sal-ammoniac in urine, and 
put tlie jewellery in it for a short time ; then take it out, and rub with 
ciiamois leather, and it will appear equal to new. 

To Cleanse Brushes. — Tiie best method of cleansing watchmakers' and 
jewellers' brushes is to wash them out in a strong soda water. When the 
backs are wood you must favor that part as much as possible ; for being 
glued, the water may injure them. 

To Cdt Glass Round or Oval without a Diamond. — Scratch the glass 
around tiie shape you desire with the corner of a file or graver; then, having 
bent a piece of wire in the same sliape, lieat it red luH and lay it upon the 
scratcli, sink the glass into cold water just deep enough for the water to 
come ahuost on a level with its upper surface. It will rarely ever fail to 
break perfectly true. 

Arrangements of Lapidaries' Cutting Plates. — 1. Soft iron (very 
thin) with diamond dust in oil. 2. Pewter, with coarse emery and water. 
3. Pewter, with fine emery and water. 4. Wood, witii sand and water. 
5. Pewter, with. rotten-stone and water. 6. Leather, with putty powder 
slightly wet. 

Polishing Diamonds. — The plan in use at all the large diamond cutters is 
simply a cast iron disc of good metal, with a vertical spindle run tlirough its 
centre, balanced, and turned, and faced true in a lathe. Tlie disc revolves 
at about 1000 revolutions per minute. With a little diamond dust and oil, 
the stone is set in a small brass cup filled with common soft solder ; it is 
tiien screwed up in the clamps and applied to the skive till the facets is 
formed. 

To Determine the Exact Focal Distance of Spectacle Glasses. — 
Place the end of a measure of thirty or forty inches in lengtli against a 
smooth wall, or other suitable ground, in plain view of some well defined 
object a few rods distant, as for instance a building or window on tlie oppo- 
site side of the street. Tlieu place the edge of your lens on tiie measure, 
and move it backwards or forwards imtil a spectrum is formed, or, in other 
words, until a clear and distinct outline of the distant object is produced on 
the ground against wliicli your measure rests. This point will represent suffi- 
ciently near, for all practical purposes, tiie e.xact focal distance of the lens, 
and will correspond in inclies with the number of all properly marked con- 
vex spectacles. For mending fine steel spectacle frames, use the best gold 
solder in preference to silver or brass solder. 




MACHINISTS, METAL WOEKERS, ARTISANS; 

MANUFACTURES, TRADES & OCCUPATIONS 

OF ALMOST EVERY DESCRIPTION NOT BEFORE MEN- 
TIONED IN THESE PAGES, INCLUDING 

Ikon, Steel, Brass, Copper, Tin, Oil, Glue, Glass, &c., &c. 
Steam Engine and Boiler Making, Instructions to 
Engineers, their duties, Varieties of Steam Engines, 
Incrustation in Boilers, Mining, Smelting, Drilling, 
Enamelling, Planing, Trade Secrets, Formulas, 
Diagrams, Processes of mathematical calculations 

AND COMPUTATIONS, SaW MILLS, OnE HUNDRED AND 

FORTY Mechanical Movements Illustrated, &c., «fec. 

Instructions to Engineers. — Gettiwj up Steam. — Before lighting the 
fire in the morning, raise your safety valve, brnsliing away all the ashes 
and dust which may impair its free action, and if it leaks steam grind it on 
its seat with fine emery or grindstone grit. Valves with vibratory stems 
are safer than those with rigid stems, as they are not so liable to bind by 
the lever and weight getting out of true. To guard against loss by leakage 
and evaporation, leave the water np to the third gauge at night and keep it 
lip to the second gauge during working hours. Clean all ashes and cinders 
from the furnace and ash pit, and spread a layer of two or three inches of 
coal over the grate bars ; pile on plenty of shavings over tlie coal, witii dr^' 
sawdust, split wood, etc., then start your fire. Keep the fire even and reg- 
idar over the grate bars, about 5 inches thick with soft coal, and about 3 
inches witli anthracite, and always avoid e.xcessive firing. Moderate charges 
or firings at intervals of 15 to 20 minutes give the best results. In getting 
up steam from cold water, the fire should be raised gradually, to avoid dam- 
aging the boiler by unequal expansion of the iron. Do not keep tlie damp- 
er and furnace door open at the same time, as the extreme draught expels 
the lieat from the furnace into the cliimney, and the cold air entering 
through the door induces a damaging contraction of the boiler plates 
wherever it strikes. The current of air enters the ash pit with a velocity 
of 12 feet per second, and everj^ 100 lbs. coal requires about 15.524 cubic 
feet for its combustion. With wood for fuel, the area of grate surface should 
be 1.9 to 1.3 ♦liat for coal. Volume of furnace for coal burning, should bo 

5.1 



572 MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 

2.75, to 3 cubic feet for every square foot of its grate surface, for wood 4, 6, 
to 5 cubic feet. Tlie use of tlie pyrometer has satisfactorily established the 
following facts : 1st. That the admission of a certain quantity of air be- 
hind the bridge developes a greater amount of heat for raising steam by 
assisting combustion and consuming the smoke, the existence of smoke 
being always a sure sign of waste. 2. A regular and continuous supply of 
air to the furnace increases its heating powers 33^ per cent. 3. Tlie supply 
of air may enter behind the bridge, through the bars, or through the fur- 
nace doors, as long as it is properly regulated. 4. The supply of air may 
vary with the nature of the fuel ; light burning coal requiring less air than 
caking coal, because the latter becomes a compact mass in the furnace, ex- 
eluding the air from the bars, while the latter is the reverse. 5. For perfect 
combustion a high temperature is necessary. In all cases see that the bars 
are well covered and the fuel kept from caking. Knock away the clinkers 
as soon as formed, keeping tlie spaces open between the bars. Regulate the 
supply of air either by the dampers, ashpit, furnace doors, or by an ori- 
fice behind the bridge. A jet of steam from a pipe placed across the top of, 
and inside the door, will greatly assist in consuming the smoke and intensi- 
fying the heat, by yielding up its oxygen and hydrogen. 

If st^am commences to blow off at the safety valve while the engine is 
at rest, start your pump or injector to create a circulation, cover or back 
your fire with a charge of ashes or fresh coal to absorb the heat, and allow 
the steam to have free egress through the safety valve. If, by neglect, the 
water gets very low, and the boiler dangerously hot, the fire should either 
bj drawn, or drenched with water. Should the fire be very hot and the 
water suppl}' temporarily cut off, stop the engine and cover the fire quite 
thickly with fresh fuel to absorb the heat, keeping the usual allowance of 
water in the boiler until the supply is renewed. Boilers should be blown 
out every 2 or 3 weeks, or as often as mud appears in the water, but never 
until after the fire has been drawn at least one hour, and the damper closed, 
otherwise the empt}' boiler might be damaged by the heat. Never fill a /<o« 
boiler with cold water, as the sudden contraction many times repeated will 
eventually cause it to leak. Never blow out a boiler with a higiier pressure 
than 50 lbs. to the square inch, as steam at a high pressure indicates a high 
temperature in the iron, which under careful management should always be 
let down gradually. Previous to filling a boiler raise the valve to permit the 
free egress of the air which might otherwise do manifold damage. 

Use every possible precaution against using foul water as it induces foaming 
in the boiler ; soapy or oily substances and an insufficiency of steam room 
have a like effect, causing the boiler to burn on the spots wliere the water 
is lifted from it, and the glass gauges to indicate falsely, besides damaging 
the cylinder by priming, carrying mud, grit, water and slush into it through 
the pipe, and rendering the cylinder heads liable to be knocked out. 
Steam from pure water at 212° Fahr. supports a 30 inch column of 
mercury. Steam from sea, or impure water at the same temperature, will 
support only 22 inches. 

Pure soft water derived from lakes and large streams, rain water from 
cisterns, reservoirs, etc*., and springs outside of limestone districts, is the best 
for steam purposes. Water from wells and springs in limestone districts and 
small streams, hold in solution large quantities of chloride of sodium, car- 
bonate of lime, sulphate of lime, etc., besides quantities of vegetable mat- 
ter, in suspension. The carbonic acid in the water, which holds the car- 
bonate of lime, etc., in solution, being driven off by boiling, the latter is 
precipitated and forms an incrustation which adheres with obstinate tenac- 
ity to the boiler plates. By continual accretion the deposit of scale becomes 
thicker and thicker, and being a non-conductor of heat it requires 60 per 
cent, more fuel to raise the water to any given temperature when the scale 
is i of an inch thick ; the conducting power of scale compared with that of 
iron being as 1 to 37. The red scale formed from water impregnated with 
salts of iron, derived from percolation through iron ore, is still more mis- 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 573 

cliievous and destrnclive to steam boilers. In no way can the evil be com- 
pletely averted excejit by boiling the water, to drive off the carbonic acid, 
but this is sometimes impracticable, although many feed water heaters aie 
in successful operation. A list of scale preventives can be found in another 
part of this work. 

In tubular boilers, the hand holes should be opened frequently and all 
sediment removed from over the fire ; keep the sheets, flues, tubes, gauge 
cocks, glass gauges and connections well swept and perfectly clean, and the 
boiler and engine-room in neat condition. Keep a sharp look out for leaks, 
and repair them if possible without delay, and allow no water to come in 
contact with the e.xterior of the boiler under any circumstances. Examine 
and repair every blister as soon as it appears, and make frequent and thor- 
ough examinations of the boiler with a small steel hannner. 

In case of foaming, close the tlirottle, and keep closed long enough to 
show true level of the water. If the water level is right, feeding and blow- 
ing will generally stop the trouble. With muddy water it is a safe rule to 
blow out 6 or 8 inches every day. If foaming is violent from dirty water, 
or changing from salt to fresh, or from fresh to salt, in addition to follow- 
ing tiie above directions, check draught, and cover the fires with ashes or 
fresh fuel. 

Great watchfulness is necessary when steam is raised, the safety valve 
fixed, the fire strong, and the engine at rest. In every case there is a rapid 
and dangerous absorption of heat, the temperature, latent and sensible heat 
included, often rising to 1200° Fahr. Frequently it is but the work of an 
instant to convert the latent into sensible heat, thus generating an irresistible 
force whicli bursts the boiler and destroys life and property. The destruc- 
tion generally coming at the moment of starting the engine, the opening of 
the valve inducing a commotion in tlie water, which flaslies into steam the in- 
stant it touches the heated plates. Steam has been known to rise from a 
pressure of 82 lbs. to the square inch to 90 lbs. to the square inch, in the 
short space of seven minutes, with the engine at rest. It ought to quicken 
the vigilance of every engineer to know that the explosive energy in 
each and every cubic foot of water in his boiler at 60 lbs. pressure, is equal 
to that contained in 1 lb. of gunpowder. 

From avaricious motives it has become quite common to discharge, or 
to decline to employ, qualified and careful engineers. Incompetent men are 
employed because their labor costs a few dollars less than that of the former. 
This is too much of a bad tiling to pass over without notice. Emplo}' good 
skilful men in the management of steam power, or employ none at all, and 
pay them decent wages. If an oversight takes place, and the best and most 
careful men are liable to make mistakes, never scold, reprimand, or exact ser- 
vice during dangerous emergencies, as in the event of lost water in the boiler. 
In no case risk life, limb, or property, and do not let the consideration of 
saving a few dollars debar j'ou from securing intelligent assistance. The Turk- 
ish mode of driving business on a late occasion was to discharge the English 
engineers who brought out the war vessels which were built in England, 
and supply the vacancies by installing cheap green hands. After getting up 
steam the new " Chief " proceeded to start the engines. A lift at a crank 
produced no results, a pull at the lever was equally useless. At length the 
illustrious official espied a bright brass cock, and tliinking he had got hold 
of a sure thing this time, proceeded to give it a twist, when he was suddenly 
saluted with a jet of steam full in the face, which swept the " engineer" 
and his assistants out of the engine room, into the fire room down stairs. 
So much for cheap labor and the consequent results. 

Duties to the Engine when under steam. — Before starting the engine, warm 
the cylinder by admitting steam so as to slowly move the i)iston back 
and forth, letting the condensed water flow from the drip-cocks, which 
should be left open all night for this purpose ; especially should this be done 
during cold and frostj' weatlier, during whicli time all pipes and connections 
should have extra protection. The minimum speed of the piston should be 



574 MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 

240 ft. per minute, and the maximum s.peed 700 ft. in any engine. The 
most economical steam pressure is from 80 to 90 lbs. to the square inch, on 
the piston of any high pressure steam engine. To attain this it is necessary 
that the boiler pressure siioukl be considerably higher, for there is a loss of 
at least 30 i)er cent, arising from tlie irregularity of the steam pipes and 
steam ports, by radiation of lieat, by improper packing, by friction of valve, 
by the effect of the governor and by atmosplieric pressure, which of itself 
entails a loss of 15 lbs. per square incii on the piston. Tlie lower the steam 
pressure per square inch on the piston, the greater the loss of power from 
the atmospheric pressure; for instance, a steam pressure of 30 lbs. per 
square inch on the piston, leaves only 15 lbs. per square inch effective pres- 
sure for actual work, the other 15 lbs. being required to overcome atmos- 
pheric pressure. 

In tightening piston rod packing, screw no tighter than merely to prevent 
Icnkage ; any more consumes power by friction, and will destroy the 
I)acking. Spring packing in the cylinder should be adjusted with great 
care, always kept up to its place, and never allowed to become loose, or 
leakage will ensue, causing loss of power. On the other hand, if it is set 
too tight it will cut the cylinder, and loss will result from friction. Keep 
your packing free from grit, sand, filings, &c., as such substances will cut 
the cylinder and flute the rod. Remove all old packing before inserting 
new, observing to cut the packing into proper lengths, and breaking joints 
by placing eacli joint on opposite sides of the stuffing box. Keep the gov- 
ernor clean, easy in its movements, and avoid excessive tiglit packing 
around the spindle. Use good oils. Avoid waste in the use of oil, as too 
great profusion generates gum and dirt. Use it with judgment in combi- 
nation with concentrated lye when it is required to remove gum or dirt 
from these or otlier parts of the machinery. Do not lubricate the cylinder 
until after starting the engine, and closing the drip cocks. If you have 
occasion to separate a rust joint, or any crank from a sliaft on which it 
has been shrunk, tlie simplest plan is to apply heat, when the bodies being 
of different dimensions will expand unequally and separate. Iron wlien 
heated expands with irresistible force. Railway contractors know that the 
heat of the sun on a warm day will cause such an extension of the iron, 
that the rails, if laid with close joints, will rise with the sleepers from the 
ballast, and form arches 4 or 5 feet high and 50 or 60 feet in length. In ac- 
commodation to this law of expansion, spaces are left between the rails 
on railway tracks. 

The contraction of iron by cold is equally powerful, and has been put 
to good use in trqeing up large bulging buildings by fitting iron girders 
across them witli strong wall plates at each end. Then, by applying giis 
jets all along the girders they will expand ; the screws are then tightened 
up, and the girders allowed to cool, and the strain of these contractions sev- 
eral times repeated is suflScient to bring the walls to the perpendicular. 
Again, in hoisting heavy machinery, &c., by means of pulley-blocks, if the 
ropes stretch and the blocks come together too soon, wet the rope, and the 
object will be elevated by its contraction without any other force. These 
liints will be found useful when occasion offers. 

In driving the kegs on the crank-pin and cross-head, use a leaden mallet, 
or interpose a piece of leather, or a sheet of soft metal for protection, if a 
steel hammer is used. 

The piston slioidd be removed everj'- 6 months, and the parts injured by 
friction, &c., carefully ground, fitted, and, if need be, turned, trued, and made 
steam tight. It knocking occurs in the engine it may arise by the crank 
being aliead of the steam ; if so, move tlie eccentric forward to give more 
lead on the valve ; if caused by too much lead move the eccentric further 
back; if caused by the exhaust closing too soon, enlarge the exhaust cham- 
ber in the valve ; if caused by the engine being out of line, or by hard or 
tight piston rod packing, these faults must bo corrected ; if caused by lost 
motion in the jam nuts on the valve, uncover the steam chest and adjust them 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 575 

correctly. It may be that knocking is caused by lost motion in the crank- 
pin, pillow-blocks, key of tlie piston in the cross-liead, or boxes on the cross- 
head, if so, tigliten the key, or file off the edges of the boxes if tiiey are too 
tight. Should knocking arise from shoulders becoming worn on the ends 
of the guides from any cause, replace the guides. Knocking may be caused 
by insufficient counterboring in the cylinder, causing derangement in the 
movements of tlie piston. The remedy for this is to re-counterbore the cyl- 
inder to the proper depth. 

Keep a close watch over the journals of tlie crank and cross-Iiead, if they 
are loose in the boxes, or too tight, they will run badly, if tightened too 
much, they will heat and wear out the brass shoes, if not tight enough 
there is danger of the keys flying out and breaking the engine. 

Be sure that your steam gauge indicates truthfully. It ought to tell ac- 
curately the /wessM?^ o/'s^eaw in the boiler when the water is hotter than 
212° Fahr., and indicate the variation in the pressure of steam from time to 
time ; but many gauges are much worse than the contrivance used by the 
colored engineer, who, disdainfully dispensing with a gauge altogether, used 
to ascertain the critical moment when steam was up, or danger at hand, by 
clapping his open hand on the outside of the boiler. 

Steam Packing. — Many varieties of packing are used, such as metallic 
packing, packing composed of a mixture of duck, paper and tallow in pro- 
per proportions, soapstone and loose twisted cotton coils, asbestos, jute, 
&c. An excellent packing is composed of hemp in long, loosely twisted 
coils, well saturated with melted grease or tallow, witli as much pulverized 
black lead as it wiU absorb. Packing is always applied with the best effect 
when the parts of tlie engine are cold, and its efficiency is promoted by 
soaking it in beeswax and tallow previous to use. 

To Work Steam Expansively. — Tlie volume of steam at 15 lbs. pres- 
sure to the square inch or atmospheric pressure is 1700 times greater than 
that of any given quantity of water from wliich it may be derived. When 
confined under pressure, as in tiie cylinder of a steam engine, it is always 
in the effort to expand itself to the fullest extent, and a vast saving of fuel 
is effected by cutting off the supply of steam from the piston by means of 
the main valve, before it reaches the end of its stroke, instead of allowing 
it to flow during the full length of its stroke. 




The most available points at which to cut off steam is J, -J- and f of the 
full travel or stroke of the piston. If steam at 75 lbs. pressure to the square 
inch is applied to the piston and cut off at half stroke, tlie average pressure, 
during the whole stroke, owing to tlie expansive quality of the steam, 



576 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 



would be ^o^ lbs. or only 11^ lbs. less than the full pressure, altliougli but 
half tlie quantity of steam is used, requiring fully ^ less fuel. 

Imagine the diagram to be a eyliiuler of o feet in length, with steam at 
(50 lbs. pressure, enteriiig the open port. During tlie first 4 inches of the 
travel of the piston the steam port is open, permitting tlie full pressure of 
the steam to ojjerate on the piston ; but at the twelfth inch, marked C, the 
steam lap on the valve V closes tlie port. The imprisoned steam will now 
propel the piston to the end of the stroke, driving out the liberated steam 
througli tiie port A into the exhaust cavity B, but by the time the piston 
reaches D, 12 inches from C, the original pressure of 60 lbs. per square inch 
will have decreased one-half, or to 30 lbs., and when it reaches E, 24 inches 
from C, it will have still further decreased to 20 lbs. Average pressure 
39 lbs. Two-thirds of the stroke have thus been made without any supply 
of steam from the boiler, and forms the saving due to working the steam 
expansively. The lack of this contrivance is the true reason why some 
engines use more fuel and steam, than others of the same capacity and 
power. It has been stated tliat the economy of the Corliss cut-off is such 
that it requires only 2 tons of coal instead of 6| tons used by other engines 
of the same power, but the great trouble with that engine is the liability of 
the complex and costly valve-gear to get out of order, entailing difficult 
and expensive repairs. 

Table. — Showing the average Pressure of Steam on the cylinder when cut off 
at ^, ^ and f of the stroke or travel of the Piston, commencing with 25 lbs., 
advancing by 5 lbs. and ending at 100 lbs. 





25 


30 


35 


40 


45 50 


55 


60 


65 


70 


75 


80 


85 


90 95 


100 


k 


15 


171 


202 


23| 


26f 


29| 


32^ 


35^ 


381 


412 


442 


472 


502 


53f 56f 


59| 


i 


21 


251 


29+ 


33f 


38 


42i 


46i 


50i 


55 


59i 


03i 


67S 


72 


76i 80i 


842 


1^ 


24 


28| 


33i 


38i 


43| 


48i 


53 


571 


m 


67i 


72i 


77i 82 


87 9121 96i 



To realize the best results from steam, keep the cylinders, pipes, &c., 
well covered with good non-conductors. Various materials are used, such 
as common felting, asbestos felting, hair, old wool, tow or hemp carpets cut 
up into strips of the proper size and smeared over with a substantial com- 
position of mortar, teased hair, &c., before applying to the pipes. Cover the 
wh.ole with coarse canvas, finishing with several coats of white lead over 
the canvas. Some cover boilers with a thickish composition of clay, inter- 
mixed with grey or brown paper for a bind, to prevent cracking, &c., the 
paper being worked up into shreds along with the water and clay. Others 
use a mixture of mortar, teased hair, &c. Some use asbestos, wood ashes, 
&c., see " composition for covering boilers." Cylinders should be well 
clothed and jacketed, and cased with wood or polislied metal, the latter 
when kept constantly bright being a most powerful protection against loss 
of heat by radiation. Among metals, silver is the best absorbent and con- 
ductor of heat. If we call its power of conduction 100, that of copper is 74, 
gold .53, iron 12, lead 9, bismuth 2. 

To Set the valve of an Engine. — Place the crank at the end of its 
stroke, and give the valve the proper amo>mt of lead ; reverse the crank to 
the other end of its stroke, and if the valve has the corresponding amount 
of lead it is correctly set. The preponderance at either end, if any exists, 
must be equally divided. Be careful in adjusting the nuts attaching the 
valve to the rod, that they do not impinge against the valves, preventing 
it from seating true. In adjusting the slide valve to cut off at any point of 
the travel of the piston, the eccentric should be moved forward in propor- 
tion to the amount of lap given to the valve, without any reference to the 
expansive working of steam, the valve must open at the same point of travel 
of the piston 

To Find the Stroke of the Valve. — Place the crank on the dead 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, AG. 



r>77 



centre, and make a mark on the valve-rod, then reverse tlie movement to 
the opposite end and make another mark. The distance between tlie two 
marks constitutes the stroke of the valve. The stroke of the valve may be 
increased as the bearing in the rocker-arm that carries tlie eccentric hook 
is lengthened ; sliorten the same and the stroke is lessened. 

To Find the Throw of the Eccentric. — Measure the eccentric on 
the heaviest side, then measure on tlie opposite or ligiit side. The differ- 
ence between tlie two measurements will be the throw of tlie eccentric. 

Lead on the Slide Valve. — The lead of a valve is the width of open- 
ing which the valve allows to the steam port when the piston is at the end 
of its stroke, as shown on the diagram at A, which represents outside lead, 
inside lead, being shown into tiie exlinust at B, which ought to be double 
the amount of outside lead in order to liberate the exhaust easily, and thus 
reduce or prevent back pressure. Care should he taken not to liberate tlie 
exhaust too soon, as it will greatly curtail the power of the engine, esjie- 
cially if the labor is heavy and the s]ieed slow, as in engines with heavy 
trains on up grades, &c. To ascertain whether the exhaust opens at the 
right time or not, uncover the steam cliest ; then uncouple the valve from 
the valve rod, place a short batten of wood lengthways on the exhaust 
port ; then with a scratch awl lay off lines on the valve seat, on each side 
of the exhaust port, that will appear above the valve. Next lay the batten 
on the face of the valve and lay off corresponding lines on the exhaust 
chamber that will show on tlie edges of the valve, now replace the valve 
on its seat, and give 1-32 of an inch lead, and if the lines described on the 
face of the valve are past the lines described on the valve seat 1-16 of an 
inch, tlie exhaust opens at the proper time, if it does not the exhaust cham- 
ber in the valve should be enlarged to the right size. 




. 1 1 ^ ^mm /////////'/M/////)/m 
11 



Le;id is given to a valve to enable the steam to act as a cushion on the 
piston, by admitting the steam to it previous to the end of its stroke, in 
order to cause it to reverse its motion easily, witiiout jar or noise, for it is 
not allowed to touch the top and bottom of cylinder for fear of knocking 
them out. The spa<;e between the top and bottom of the cylinder and the 
piston, when the latter is at the end of its stroke, is called the ckarinx-r, 
shown at C C on diagram. The term clearance is also used to desigiuite 
the capacity of the connecting steam ports and passages. It is necessary to 
guard against too much cushion, as it greatly impairs the powers of the 
engine, causing violent thumping or knocking, and sometimes a serious 
breakdown. One-eighth of an inch lead is sufficient for an ordinary freight 
and 1-16 is sufficient for passenger locomotives, the difference being on 
account of the greater speed of the latter. 

25 



578 



MACHINISTS, METAL WOKKERS, &C. 



Lap on the Slide Valve. — Tlie steam lap on the slide valve is the 
amount by which it extends over the extreme width of the cylinder porta, 




as illustrated in tlie diagram, the distance between the dotted lines B B 
L L, and tlie sides of tlie ports P P, being in each case the lap, the lines 
B B indicating the outside lap, and L L denoting the inside lap, E P 
exhaust port, E exhaust cavity in valve. V S valve seat, C C valve face. 
The emission of steam into tlie cylinder is regulated by the outer and inner 
edges of tlie valve and of the steam ports. When the valve is so contrived 
that at half stroke the faces of the valve do not cover the steam ports inter- 
nally, the space by which each face comes short of the inner edges of the 
ports is known as inside clearance. By means of the steam lap given to 
the valve the engine is enabled to use its steam expansively, as elsewhere 
explained. 

Table. — Showing the amount of Lap on the ISllde valve at 
various points of cut off; also, the travel of the valve in inches. 

Travel or stroke of the Piston where steam is cut off. 



Travel 

of the 

Valve in 

inches. 



2 

2i 
3 
3i 
4 

4i 
5 

5i 



61 

7 



9i 
10 
10^ 
11 
lU 
12 



\ 


1^ 


\ 


IV 


f 


1 



2-3- 



Tlie correct amount of Lap. 



M 



- 10 


20 


30 


40 


50 


100 


- 148° 


130° 


130° 


124° 


120° 


110' 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 579 

Gipfaed's Injector, as made by Wm. Sellers & Co., is a novel and 
reliable invention for feeding boilers, economizing tlie heat and dispensing 
with pumps. By a simple and well-known combination of 2 pipes, the one 
conveying steam, the other water, both terminating in a third pipe or tube, 
a jet of steam from the boiler escaping through an orifice of say 1 inch in 
diameter, with 60 lbs. pressure, is condensed in i>erliaps 12 times its weight 
of water, wliich it drives through the third tube, causing it to enter tlie 
boiler througli an orifice much smaller than tlie one by which it escaped. 
The momentum of the steam impels the water vvitli great force and imparts 
all its heat to the water during transmission. The following table shows 
the maximum temperature of the feed-water admissible during different 
pressures of steam ; — 

Pressure per square inch. - 
Temjierature of feed, Fahr. 

To Prevent Incrustation in Boilers. — 1. Charcoal has a great 
affinity for any thing that causes scale or incrustation in boilers. That 
made from hard wood is the best, broken in lumps of X ^^ h inch in size, 
and the dust sifted out. Two bushels of this will generally protect a boiler 
of 30 horse-power for 3 weeks when running, after which the old coal 
should be removed and fresh coal used. 2. Throw into the tank or r.eser- 
voir from which your boiler is fed, a quantity of rough bajk, in the piece, 
such as tanners use, sufficient to turn the water of a brown color ; if you 
have no tank, put into the boiler from a half to a bushel of ground bark 
when you blow off, repeat every month, using only half the quantity after 
the first time. 3. Add a very small quantity of muriate of ammonia, about 
1 lb. for every 1500 or 2000 gals, of water evaporated. It will liave tlie 
effect of softening and disintegrating the carbonate of lime and other im- 
purities deposited by the water during the evaporation. 4. Potatoes and 
some other vegetable substances introduced into the boiler are most effec- 
tual in preventing incrustation, and animal substances, such as refuse 
skins, are still more so. 5. An English firm put oak sawdust into their 
boiler in order to stop a leak, and to their surprise it also resulted in pre- 
venting incrustation. I should say if oak sawdust could prevent scale in 
boilers, that there is no visible reason why hemlock and various other 
kinds of sawdust will not do the same thing. 6. Cow's feet, with the 
shanks attached, are strongly recommended as a preventive of scale. Two 
in a large boiler is amply sufficient, and those who wish to do business 
econoniicallj^ can get their oil for lubricating purposes cheaply by boiling 
the feet and shanks for a few hours in a large kettle, setting it aside to 
cool, and then skinmiing off the oil from the surface of the -water, using the 
feet for the boiler afterwards. If you wish to get rid of the hair on the 
shanks, you can get rid of that by using lime, etc., as done by tanners. 7. 
Sal soda, 40 lbs., gum catechu, 5 lbs., sal ammoniac, 5 lbs., is strongly recom- 
mended by an experienced person, for removing boiler scale ; 1 lb. of 
the mixture being added to each barrel of water in the tank; after scale is 
removed use sal soda alone. By the use of 10 lbs. soda per week, a boiler 
26 feet long, and 40 inclies in diameter was cleaned from scale equal to a 
new boiler. 8. A rapid and effectual but not very good plan to scale 
boilers is to throw in a few wood shavings along the bottom of the boiler 
and set them on fire ; the heat expands the scale more than the shell of the 
boiler, as the heat cannot reach the latter, the scale is loosened ; wliat re- 
mains after this must be removed with a hammer and chisel. 9. Calcareous 
deposits may be entirely prevented by the use of crude pyroligneous acid 
combined with tar. It may be either introduced into the boiler or mixed 
with the feed water in very small quantity ; just enough to redden litmus 
piiper ; consequently it w^ill never injure the boiler. 10. It is on record 
that the engineer of the French ocean steamer, St. Laurent, omitted to re- 
move a bar of zinc when repairing or cleaning out his boilers. On opening 
them at the end of the voyage, to his great surprise he found that the zinc 



580 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 



lijid disappeared, that his hollers vvere entirely free from scale, and the 
boiler plates uninjured. 

Average Proportion of Various Parts of Engines. — Sleani Pipe 
should be i tlie diameter of cylinder, but varies on large engines. Exhaust 
Pipe should be ^ the diameter of cylinder. Piston Rod should be J tlie 
diameter of cylinder if of iron, and smaller if of steel. For high speeds, 
steel piston rods are the best. Steam Ports vary according to speeds, from 
1-16 to 1-10 the area of piston. Safety Valves should possess an area of ^ 
square in. of surface for every foot of grate surface, and should be con- 
structed with loose vibratory stems, for the reason that they are not so 
liable to get out of order as tliose with rigid stems. 

Rule for Size of Cylinder. — Tlie requisite diameter of cylinder for 
a 25-horse beam engine is 28 inclies, and about 6 feet stroke. The nominal 
horse-power of any sized cylinder can be found by the following formulae: 
— For low pressure or beam engines, divide the area of cylinder by 25, 
which will give the number of horse-power. For high pressure horizontal 
engines, divide the area of cylinder's diameter by 12'6, which will give the 
number of horse-power, including all friction. 

Stroke of Engines. — The stroke of an engine varies according to cir- 
cumstances, which the designer must take into consideration ; but the gen- 
eral rule is to make the stroke about twice the diameter of the cylinder. 
Tlie diameter of the fly wheel should be about 4 times the stroke of the 
engine, and the rim should weigh about 3 cvvt. per horse-power. 

Rule to Find the Horse-Pow^er of Stationary Engines. — Multiply 
the area of the piston by the average pressure in lbs. per square inch. 
Multiply this product by the travel of the piston in feet per minute ; divide 
by 33,000, this will give the horse-power. — Roper, 

Example : 

Diameter of cylinder 12 

12 

144 
7854 



Area of piston . 113,0976 
Pressure, 70 ; Average pressure, 50 60 



5654.880 
Travel of piston in feet per min. 300 



33,000)1696464.000 



51. horse-power. 
Horse-power (indicated) required for different processes. 



Blast Furnace 60 

Refining " 26 

Puddling Rolls with squeezers and 
shears 80 



Railway rolling train 250 

Small bar train 60 

Double rail saw 12 

Straightening 7 



Balance Wheels. — Every balance wheel should be speeded up so as to 
run twice or three times as fast as the crank shaft it is intended to balance. 
Wlien a balance wheel is applied in this way it makes the machine run a 
great deal more steadily, for, when the balance wheel is geared into the 
crank shaft, and runs two or tliree times faster than the crank shaft, it 
forms a power of itself when going over the centre, which propels the crank 
shaft until it reaches the quarter, where it again takes its power from the 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, «SjC. 



581 



machine. Although it takes an additional shaft and gears to apply a bal- 
ance wheel in this way, the saving of metal in tlie balance wheel fully com- 
pensates for tiie extra labor ; for, when a balance wlieel is speeded tliree 
times as fast as tlie crank sliaft, it needs onlj- one-third of the metal in it 
tliat it would were it not speeded up at all, and if balance wlieels were ap- 
plied in this way generally it would make all engines run far more 
steadily. 

To Reverse an Engive. — Make a legible mark on the eccentric near 
the shaft, make a similar mark on tlie sliaft at the same place. Now place 
one point of tlie callipers on the mark made on the shaft, and witii the 
other point ascertain the centre of the sliaft on tlie opposite side, making 
anotlier mark there also. Next unscrew tlie eccentric and move it in the 
direction in which you wish the engine to run, until the mark on the eccen- 
tric comes into line with tlie second mark on the shaft, then screw the ec- 
centric fast and the engine will run ^le reverse way. 

Role to Find the Weight Necessary to put on a Lever when the 
AREA of Valve, Lever, &c., are Known. — Multiply the area of valve by 
the pressure in pounds per square incli ; multiply tliis product by the dis- 
tance of tiie lever from the fulcrum ; multiply the weight of lever by one- 
half its length (or its centre of gravity) ; then multiply the weight of valve 
and stem by their distance from tlie fulcrum ; and these last two products 
together, and subtract their sura from the first product, and divide the re- 
mainder by the lengtli of lever; the quotient will be the weight of the 
ball. — Roper. 



Example ; 



Area of valve 7 sq. in. 
Pressure , . 60 lbs. 



Fulcrum 3 in. . . 
Length of lever 24 in. 



60 lbs. 9 lbs. 6 lbs. 

7 in. 12 in. 3 in. 

420 lbs. 108 lbs. 18 lbs. 

3 in. 18 lbs. 

1260 126 lbs. 
126 lbs. 



24) 1134 lbs. 
"Weight of lever 9 lbs. 

47.25 lbs. weight of ball. 
Weight of valve and stem 6 lbs. 




Marine Engines. — Duties to inachinei-y when in Harbor before getting under 
Steam, by a Practical 'Engineer. When an engineer takes charge of tlie ma- 
chinery of a boat his first attention ouglit to be directed to his boilers ; for, 
being the source of power, they may become the source of great danger if 
not properly looked after. In inspecting the boilers, tliree things require 
special attention. 1. The tliickness of the plates above the fires 
and other places of importance. 2. The state of the stays. 3. The position 
of the gauges, viz. : the water gauge, cocks, and glass water gauges. Re- 
specting the first, a general plan is to drill a small hole through the jilate, 
and thus find its real thickness, for it is often the case that a boiler plate m&y 



582 MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, AC. 

be far thicker at tlie spams tlian in the miildle. At tlie seams the proper 
thickness cannot always be correctly ascertained on account of the way in 
which tliey are caulked by which a plate may appear considerably 
thicker than it really is. After the hole has served its purpose, it is tapped 
and packed tightly up again. 

As regards the stays, they require a great amount of attention ; for they 
arfe very apt to get eaten through, near the plates, by oxidation. Tlie gauge 
cocks are often placed just above the highest row of tubes. Now this is a very 
dangerous practice, for it is possible for an engineer to lose his water, let 
him be ever so careful, when great danger follows ; while if the cocks were 
placed a little higher, the loss of water would not be attended by so much 
danger. 

Duties to Machinerii when Steam is getting up. — The water in the boiler, 
when the fires are lighted, ought to be just above the bottom of the glass. 
In a large or even moderate sized boiler, the water will expand, and there is 
also not so much water to heat at first;' and we know, by reason of conduc- 
tion and radiation, tliat snuiU bodies of water are heated comparatively 
more rapidly than larger. On first lighting the fires they should not be kept 
too large, but just sufficient to cover the bars. A large thin surface of fire 
is found to be the most effective in getting under way. When the fires are 
lighted, and the steamer is going on a long voyage, it is the practice to rub 
the polished parts of the engine over with a composition of tallow and white 
lead. This prevents any rust forming on the rods, etc., from water drop- 
ping on them which may have been used for keeping the bearings cool. 

The discharge valve is also opened now, or else on starting the engine 
something will give way. Several accidents have occurred by neglecting 
to do this. 

The safety valves are now to be inspected to find whether they are fast 
or corroded to their seatings. If so, they must be freed and made ready to 
act before starting. 

It is a good plan and one much practiced, to give the engines a good 
blowing through whilst the steam is getting up. This warms the cylinder 
and tries any joints that may have been made since the engines were work- 
ed last. It also saves the steam, for if not done now (when the engine is 
starting) a great amount of steam is wasted in heating the cylinder, instead 
of imparting its elastic force to the piston. 

Starting the Engines. — All steamships are now fitted with the double ec- 
centrics of " Stephenson's Link Motion," by which the engines are started, 
or rather by this the slide valves are under the control of the engineer, and 
can be worked b'ack or forward as command is given, by either a bar, lever, 
or generally, in large engines, by a wheel. 

The handles, by which steam is turned on and off, with the injection cock 
handles, are placed beside the wheel, so that one man cau now generally 
start the engine. 

Some large ships have a steam piston so fitted that it rises and falls by 
steam admitted above or below, thus raising or lowering the link in its mo- 
tion. This is what is called steam starting gear, and is very handy when 
the link is of great weight. There is always hand gear fitted as well, which 
can be used in cases of emergency. In giving injection to a common con- 
denser, it should be opened just after the steam is turned on to the cylind- 
ers, or else if going slowly the condenser may become too full of water, 
and the air pump not able to perform its work properly. 

In starting an engine that is fitted witli surface condensers, the only 
thing requiring attention before going on, is to open both valves communi- 
cating with the sea above or below the condenser, viz. : suction to the cir- 
culating pumps and delivery from them. 

Duties -when under Steam. — Always keep looking at the water level. This 
is sometimes a source of great anxiety, for some boilers require the water to 
be kept at a certain fixed level. If water be too liigh they will not keep 
steam, and if too low the steam will generate too fast. Some boilers require 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 583 

a high water level ; nothing but practice can determine it. A safe rule is to 
keep the glass gauge about tvvo-tiiirds full. Blowing out marine boilers 
should be practiced every two or three hours. Practice has proved this to 
be a good rule, on account of not so mucii water being required to be blown 
out at a time, and tiierefore the steam pressure is not reduced to a very 
great extent. 

In steamers fitted with surface condensers, a little sea water is supplied 
to the boiler to make up for the loss in the steam pipes, jackets, caps, in the 
condensers, etc. Tiiis in time may injure the boiler if not counterbalanced 
some way or other. The general rule is to blow out about two or three 
inches every twelve hours. The water in these boilers is never allowed to 
reach more than 2-30 of saltness. 

The fires require much consideration. A furnace is best worked with a 
heavy fire, but not too heavy, thicker towards the back than front. The 
fresh fuel should be placed in front, and then pushed back after being 
thoroughly heated. Every four hours (at the least) the fires should be 
cleaned out, as large clinkers or refuse of the coals adhere to the fire bars 
and prevent the drauglit, making the fires burn dead, especially towards the 
back of the furnace. Sometimes the slag will stick fast to a furnace bar, 
and cannot be removed from it. This causes a great amount of trouble, as 
in trying to remove it, the fire bars are occasionally pulled out of their 
places, and the greater part of tiie fire falls through, causing much waste and 
often danger. 

The principal thing to pay attention to when the engines are under 
steam, is to keep the bearings cool and the glands steam tight. Oil is gene- 
rally used for keeping bearings cool, but wlien larger ones are working hard, 
a jet of water is kept playing on them. This is found to answer very well 
when the water is turned on before they iiave had time to heat. It should 
not be used after thej' have been allowed to get heated, for it may crack 
them by too sudden contraction. A good stream of water should be kept 
running on the thrust block from the time of starting, this with the tallow, 
which is always put into it before starting, keeps this all-important bearing 
cool. The cap of tlie thrust block requires great care in adjusting. If 
screwed on too tightly it is almost sure to heat, or fire as it is termed, and 
if not screwed down sufficiently tight the unpleasant jumping shake so often 
experienced in our screw ships is sure to follow. The packing of the gland 
at the stern tube should be well looked after, and kept quite tight and well 
tallowed. 

In paddle-wheel steamers there is frequently not sufficient care taken 
about the outer bearings of the shafts. In very few ships are proper means 
provided for lubricating tliese important parts. Attlie commencement of a 
voyage, the outer bearings are well tallowed, and often put down, screwed 
up, and left to look after themselves as best they may. Very few ships, in- 
deed, being provided with tubes leading down from the paddle-boxes to the 
oil holes of the blocks, or in which means are provided for their lubrica- 
tion. 

The coals in the bunkers must be carefully watched, to prevent sponta- 
neous combustion. The stoppers over the holes should be kept open as 
much as possible, and care taken not to keep damp coals longer in the bunk- 
ers than can be avoided ; for it is only damp coal that is liable to sponta- 
neous combustion. 

In new fast-running engines, castor oil is a very good thing to use on first 
starting. When new brasses have been fitted into the bearings, till they 
form a good bearing for themselves, the same should be used. It appears 
to have a much finer body in it to lubricate than other oils have. The dif- 
ference in the cost of the oil is not very much, coarse castor oil being very 
little dearer than good machine oil. 

Duties to Machinerij ivhen the Ship has arrived in Port. — The white lead and 
tallow slioruld be rubbed off with a piece of oily waste, and then the bright 
work of the engines will give no trouble by rusting. The engines should 



584 MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, AC. 

liave a good blowing through to driv'e out all water in the condensers, then 
tlie Kingston's valves, communicating with the sea, should be shut, next 
open the condenser drain cocks, wliich let out all water left in tliem. This 
is allowed to run into tiie bilges, which can be pumped out by the donkey 
pump, or the hand pump if no steam is left in the boilers. 

Some engineers always blow out their boilers after steaming, others do 
not, the latter only let the fires out and shut the valves in the steam pipes ; 
botli plans have their advantages and disadvantages. Perhaps the major- 
ity keep tlie water in the boilers, only blowing out when repairs or an ex- 
amination of the boiler is required. An engineer should always examine for 
himself, whether all the fires are properly out, and not take the word of the 
stokers for it. A great amount of damage may be done by the fire not being 
properly put out in the ash pits. A frequent practice is to get a heap of hot 
aslies together and dash some water over it. This makes it black outside 
and leaves it burning inside. The ashes should rather be spread out evenly, 
and the water thrown over gradually and gently, to put out the fire effectu- 
ally, and to create as little dirt and dust as possible. 

Engineers' Bell Signals IN Use ON Steamers. — Go ahead, 1 stroke; 
Back, 2 strokes ; Stop, 1 stroke-; Slowb/, 2 short strokes ; Full Speed, 8 short 
strokes ; Go <i]mid Slowly, 1 long and 2 short strokes ; Back Sloiuli/, 2 long 
and 2 short strokes ; Go ahead Full Speed, 1 long and 3 short strokes ; Back 
Fast, 2 long and 3 sliort strokes ; Hurrij, 3 short strokes repeated. 

To find the amount of Lap on the Slide Valves (before setting the slides). 
Take a batten of wood, and place it on the cylinder slide face at right 
angles to and over the ports. Mark off on it the edges of the steam and 
exhaust ports with a square and scriber. By placing this on the face of 
the slide valve, the amount of lap can at once be found. 

To Set the slides. — Put the piston at the top or bottom of its stroke. If 
the eccentric is rightly fixed on the shaft, simply fasten the slide valve on 
the spindle with the required amount of lead. Then turn the engine to the 
other end of its stroke, and see if the lead is the same ; or in some engines 
more lead is given at the bottom than at the top (as in vertical engines). If 
tlie engine is fitted with the link motion, the reversing eccentric is then con- 
nected and the valve tested in like manner. Also with the link motion, the 
slide rod is placed in the centre of the link ; and although the position of 
the eccentrics on the shaft ought to destroy any motion of the valve, yet 
there is a little with a sliort link. This is tested to see that the steam ports 
are always closed and thus the engines can be stopped, even if the full pres- 
sure of steam be admitted to the back of the slide by the stop or throttle 
valves. , 

Steam Fire Engines are or should be constructed with steel boilers and 
blast tubes, copper tubes and large water spaces, together with a good fit 
out of gauges, safety valves, injectors, &c., with facility of getting up steam 
in from 6 to 10 minutes from cold water, and in about 5 minutes from water 
at 130°. These machines as now constructed are of great elegance and 
power, some of them having projected a continuous, solid stream of water 
over 300 feet, through 100 feet of hose, fitted with IJ inch nozzle. Steam 
pressure about 80 lbs. per square inch. The principle is that of a steam 
pump, being fitted with the usual air chamber to induce a continual 
stream. 

Portable Engines are constructed as light as possible, consistent with 
proper strength of parts, in order to render them available for easy trans- 
portation. Sometimes they are mounted on wheels, and are in quite exten- 
sive use for driving light saw-mills, threshing, brick-making, pumping, chafif- 
cutting, &c. 

Instructions to Engineers and Firemen on Locomotives. — Keep 
the fire evenly and uniformly spread over the grate without eleva- 
tions or depressions. Fire from large coal, as it leaves wider openings 
between the lumps for the admission of air, may be deejier thim when the 
coal is small and lies close together. Remove all incombustible materi.'il 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 585 

and clinkers from the furnace as soon as possible, tliey prevent the draught 
from producing proper results. Tlie bulk of fuel on tlie grate should always 
be in proportion to the quantity of fuel consumed. The dampers in the 
front and rear of the ash-pan regulate the draught admitted to the furnace, 
and require very careful attention, as the stream of air issues witli a velocity 
of 72 ft. per second when tlie dampers are open and train under full head- 
way. At a speed of 60 miles per hour the pressure of tlie current of air 
amounts to 9 lbs. on every square foot. One ton of bituminous coal 
requires 300,000 cubic feet of air for its combustion, of whicli 100,000 is 
required to consume the gases evolved from it. Anthracite coal requires 
310,480 cubic feet of air per ton for its combustion. It burns without smoke, 
requires a good supply of oxygen and intense heat to burn it, but makes a 
very fierce fire. Good practice requires complete combustion of the carbon 
and hydrogen available in tlie fuel ; insufficient air causes a dense black 
smoke to issue from tiie chimney, and tiie loss of heating effect, and too 
niucli air, lowers the temperature of the flame and dissipates the heat. Of 
good coal, 62.2 per cent, go to form steam, and 1 lb. will in good practice 
evaporate 72 lbs. of water. In practice the greatest evaporative power of 
1 lb. of coke is 9^ lbs. of water, in common practice it is 8J lbs. and 78 per 
cent, of its products go to form stream, 22 per cent, being lost by products 
of combustion, aslies, etc. The lieating power of coke as compared with 
that of coal is in the proportion of about 14 : 12. The temperature pro- 
duced by the combustion of coke in the hottest part of the fire box, ma\' be 
estimated at 1606° Centigrade. The temperature produced by wood is 
usually less than 1111° Centigrade (100° Centigrade is equivalent to 212" 
Fahr.). Tiie proper combustion of coal requires the admission of air both 
through and above the grate, the right proportion depending upon the 
percentage of the gaseous components in the coal : In the combustion of 
coke the air may be admitted through the grate only, 1 lb. of coke requir- 
ing about 200 cubic feet of air. For receiving the best effects from the 
fuel, tlie emission of the gases from the furnace sliould be retarded, in order 
to promote complete combustion under higli temperature, for this reason 
the grate surface should be as large as possible to induce a slower current, 
and tiie weight of the steam exhausted and the air inhaled should be in 
every case tlie same. For the prevention of smoke, engineers usually rely 
on the damper, the asli-pan and the fire door, with careful stoking. Tliey 
endeavor to prevent the formation of smoke by controlling the admission 
of air tlirough the grate, adjusting it exactly to the demands of tlie fuel, 
also by tlie fire door for the admission of air above the fuel, by firing with 
large pieces of coal, and deep fires for heavy duty, and smaller coals with 
shallow fires for ligliter duty, by firing more frequently to lighten the duty, 
and at all times by keeping the bars covered witli fuel to prevent excessive 
local draugiits through the grate. Fresh coal should be thrown on under 
the fire door directly inside, and, when partly burned, pushed forward to- 
wards the tubes ; but when the grates are inclined, it will work downwards 
by gravitation. Never fill a hot boiler with cold water, and alwaj's allow it 
to cool off before running the water out ; never blow out a boiler while hot, 
under any circumstances, as the heated plates will be sure to bake the de- 
posits of mud into a compact scale of great tenacity ; if allowed to cool, 
these deposits will settle down in a soft mass easily swept out with a hose 
and water. Frequent duty sliould be made of washing out all deposits of 
foreign matter from the barrel of the boiler, the tubes, and from the crown 
sheets between the crown bars, especially while using bad water, and after 
heavy rains ; and screw-plugs, made of hard brass, should be fitted to every 
boiler near the sides of the fire box, to permit the use of a hose with water 
for this purpose. 

To avert danger from intense heat, to save fuel, and keep up a free 
circulation, engineers should adjust the injector so that the boiler will lose 
a little water while running between stations, if the injector is kept at work 
during stoppages, this loss will be compensated, and a full supply always 

2.5* 



586 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, AC. 



kept up, absorbing tbe surplus lie.it and preventing explosion. Incessant 
■watcbfiiliiess is nec;essary to look out for impending danger in every possi- 
ble direction, and no engine driver, wiiile on duty, should relax his energy, 
care, caution, watchfulness, decision, and presence of mind for a single 
moment. If vigilance and endurance were ever necessary in any business 
or calling, most certainly they are of paramount importance in this above 
all others. See that the safety valves are properly acting, and that the 

+3 «*H • J^ 1 CO ^ 

oiB^ B'^ So 

i^ t/2 K_ 'it- ^ J2 

a aJ ^j S -'t ■* 
. o s M -) "-^ •^•o 







91^: 



gag" ^^53 

"" H B ■^ -S "fl 

X s cs S a5 
^^"5^ ^5 . (D o3 <B a> 

-< V> — r^ (1) ^ 

^ i^ .^2 .rs <i> 'So <» 

w g 2 bp-g g S S 

2 CO s H^ -g o t»'g 



•'"Is! 



, aioo 

(15 Or-I 

O >-. CO 



O K *i « 



13 



J; ^ 



-3 






3 cS a^s O'm i?--'^ 



bO 



■« (U 00 t» .J3 -^ P 

indications of the steam gauge are correct. In experiments made with a 
locomotive boiler, the fire being kept regular, and the engine, at rest, in 9 
minutes the pressure increased from 32 lbs. to 74| lbs. per square inch, being 
mucli more tlian double, a most suri)rising increase, and one whicli will 
enable us to account for many explosions which have happened while 
engines were at rest. 

Pay tlie closest attention to the cylinder and piston rod packing, and 
exercise judgment and care in selecting the best kinds and also in 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 



587 



applying them when selected. Use due precaution against making mistakes 
either in packing tootiglit oi- too looseT as eacli extreme in its degree is pro- 
ductive of much mischief, waste, and loss of power. It requires tiie exer- 
cise of considerable intelligencte and care to make the best possible adjust- 
ment of either spring or steam packing. 

Equal vigilance is necessary in guarding against incrustation and scale 
in boilers. In order to rai.<e steam to a pressure of 120 lbs. to tlie square 
inch, a very common pressin-e in locomotive boilers, the water must be 
heated to a tem])erature of 345''. This involves a high temperature in the 
furnace plates and otiier parts of the boiler, imposing a very severe duty at 
any time, but doubly destructive in the event of the existence of incrus- 
tation or scale. 

The annexed figures are inserted with a view to render assistance in 
adjusting the valves of locomotives. The first diagram represents the 




position of the valve as it should be when at half stroke. The second 
figure indicates the proper position of the valve when at the end of its 
stroke with the crank at the dead centre. A represents exhaust cavity 




in valve. F ditto in valve seat. P P steam ports. E lead. The third cut 
represents the position of the valve when the line is exactly under the 
saddle-pin and the reverse latch in the outer notch in the quadrant or sector. 
V V shows the lap. Full steaju is tlie position of the valve when fully 
open, and the engine in motion. Cut-off is the position of the valve when 
it has just closed the port against the admission of steam. Angular Advance 
is the angular measurement of the arc described by the centre of the eccent- 
ric while passing from the place it occupies when the valve is at half stroke, 
to that which it occupies at the conmiencement of the stroke of the piston- 




58fi MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 

Z?»ear ^(/vance is the distance whicli the valve moves wliile the centre of 
tlie eccentric is describing the above angle. See diagram of Eccentric, Link 
and valve motion. A majority of railways allow for the travel of valves, vii 
Express Passenr/er Enf/ines, 5 inclies, for outside lap, | inch, for inside 
lap, I inch, for lead in full gear, 1-10 inch. On Express Accommodation 
Engines, for travel of valve, 5 inches, for outside lap, f inch, for inside lap, 
^ incli, for lead in full gear, 1-10 inch. On Heavy Freigid Engines, for 
travel of valve, 5 inches, for outside lap, § inch, for inside lap 1-16 inch, 
for lead in full gear 1-16 inch. 

Power of Engines. — Horse-power in steam engines is calculated as the 
power which would raise 83,000 ll)s. a foot high in a minute, or 90 lbs. at 
the rate of 4 miles an hour. One-horse power is equal to the lifting, by a 
pump, of 250 hogsheads of water ten feet in an hour. Or it would drive 100 
spindles of cotton yarn twist, or 500 spindles of No. 48 mule yarn, or 1000 of 
No. 110, or 12 power looms. One horse power is produced by 19 lbs. of 
Newcastle coals, 50 lbs. of wood, or 34 lbs. of culm. Coals 1, wood 3, and 
culm 2, give equal lieats in the production of steam. 

Sixteen lbs. of Newcastle coal converts 100 lbs. of water into steam. A 
bushel of coal per hour raises ."^team to 15 lbs. the square inch, whose 
velocity is 1350 feet per second, and 2 bushels raise it to 120 lbs., or velo- 
cit3' of 3800 feet per second. A horse-power requires from 5 to 7 gallons of 
water per minute for condensation of steam. A steam engine whose cylin- 
der is 31 inches, with 17 double strokes per minute, performs the constant 
work of 40 horses with 5 tons of coal per day. One of 19 inches and 25 
strokes, of If horses, with 1| tons per day. They raise 20,000 cubic feet 
of water 24 feet for every hundredweight of coals. One bushel of good 
coals raised from 24 to 32,000,000 lbs. one foot per minute. Four bushels of 
coal per hour witli cjiinder of 31J inches and 172 strokes of 7 feet per 
minute, is a force equal to 40 horses constantly. A rotative double engine, 
with a cylinder of 23.75 inciies, making 21.5 strokes of 5 feet per minute, is 
a 20 horse-power ; and a cylinder of 17.5 making 25 strokes of 4 feet, is a 
10 horse-power ; the consumption of coals being proportional. 

^^^^^s5^5^j^«j^ Proportion of Locomotive Boilers, 

"'""'^''^'^s^^^^^^P^^ &c.— Boiler sheets, best cold blast char- 

__ «n„^ ClPffi I W coal iron ^ in. thick, or best cast steel 5-16 

^'''P^l^^^^^WlillimliH'^^^ftii in., double rivets along horizontal seams 

|rii8lia86MgBWLJll«B|PM and junction of fire box to be double riv- 

)^^^^—^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^-^ etted. Waist formed of 2 sheets rolled 

"^^^^^^^ in the direction of the fibre of tiie iron or 

steel. One longitudinal seam in each, 
above the water line to be double rivetted. All iron sheets y% in. thick, riv- 
etted with % inch, rivets placed 2 inches from centre to centre. Steel plates 
5-16 in. thick rivetted with ji inch rivets, placed \% inch from centre to 
centre. Extra welt pieces, rivetted to side of side sheets, giving double 
thickness of metal for stud bolts and expansion braces. Furnace Plates, — if 
of iron, 5-16 inch, if of copper f in., if of steel, crown sheets, ^ in., side and 
back sheets (steel) 5-16 in., flue sheets (steel) 5 in., water space, 3 ins., sides 
and back, 4 ins. front. Stay Bolts, ]/% in. diam. screwed and rivetted to 
sheets, 4^ in. from centre to centre. Crown Bars, made of 2 pieces of 
wrought iron, 4^ in. by ^ in., set If i"- from centre to centre, and secured by 
bolts fitted to taper holes in crown-sheets, with head on under side of bolt 
nut on top, bearing on crown bar. Crown Sheets braced to dome, and 
outside shell. Furnace Door opening formed by hanging and rivetting to- 
getlier the outer and inner sheets. Tubes, 11 feet long, and 2 in. diam. set 
in vertical rows ^' of an inch apart, give the best results. Giate Bars, for 
burning wood or soft coal, should have f in. openings. Smoke Stack for 
wood burning engines should have the "bonnet stack," from 6 to 5f ft. 
diam. at top, with wire netting ; for engines burning soft coal, a much 
smaller area of cone is required ; but for engines burning anthracite coal, 
lase a plain open stack without cone or netting. Safety Valves. Every 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 580 

locomotive should be provided witli two safety valves fitted to brass seats, 
and secured by springs of sufficient elasticity to allow a lift of the valve 
adequate to permit the emission of all tiie steam tlie boiler will generate 
after it exceeds the maximum pressure. Tlie bearing or mitre on tlie valve 
face sliould not exceed }i in. Mud P/ucjs should be provided on tlie side of 
the shell on a level with tlie crown sheet. To avoid weakening tlie boiler, 
rivet a welt on the inside of the sliell in tlie line of the holes. Steam Room, 
6 to 7 cubic feet per square ft. of growth surface. Good work has been 
obtained from boilers possessing 1 cubic foot of steam room to 1 square foot 
of water surface, and a water surface 1-13 that of heating surface. 

Average Proportion of the Various Parts of Locomotives. — 
Cylinders of locomotives vary in size, ranging all the way from 8 in. up to 20 
in. diam. Crank Pin should be i the diam. of cylinder. Valve Stems should 
be 1-10 the diam. of cylinder. Piston Rods should be ye the diam. of cylin- 
der. Pump Plunger should 1-9 the diam. of cylinder. Main Steam Pipe. 
Area should be from ^ to X t^'e diam. of cylinder. Steam Ports. Area 
should be 1-12 the area of cylinder. Exhaust Port. Area should be equal 
to Ye the area of cylinder. The width of bridges for different sized cylinders 
of locomotives vary from f^ to 1^ inches. Chimney. Height should not 
exceed 14 ft., diameter a little less than the diam. of cylinder. Diam. of 
Boilers vary from 3 ft. to 4 ft. 3 in. Tubes vary in number from 100 to 220, 
top row should be 8 inches under water. Heating surface. Total should be 
from 1000 to 1500 square ft. Fire Grate Surface ranges from 12 to 30 sq. 
ft., usual rule 15 sq. ft., with about 90 sq. ft. of heating surface in fire box. 
Evaporative Power should range from 100 to 200 cubic ft. of water per hour. 
Proportion of heating surface to each sq.foot of grate, should be from 68 to 80 
feet. Petticoat Pipe should be % the diam. of the inside pipe of the stack. 
Ash Pans, should be 9 inches below bottom of grate for wood burning en- 
gines, 10 in. for soft coal, and 12 to 14 in. for anthracite coal burners, and 
should be as nearly air tight as possible wlien dampers are shut. Dampers, 
sliould when shut stand at an angle of 35° from perpendicular. Smoke 
Box, diam. should equal diam. of boiler, length from flue sheet to inside of 
front door IJ times the length of the stroke of the engine. Tires, when new 
2^ to 5^ in. thick, must not be worn down to less than IJ to l|in. Wrought 
iron tires wear about 1-12 of an incli per annum. 

Role to find the Horse-Power of a Locomotive. — Multiply the area 
of the piston by tlie pressure per square inch, which should be taken as % 
of the boiler pressure ; multiply tliis product by tlie number of revolutions 
per minute. Multiply this by twice the lengtli of the stroke in feet or 
Indies ; if in inches they must be divided by 12), multiply this product by 
2 and divide by 33,000 ; the result will be the power of the locomotive. — 
Roper. 

Example : 

Cylinder 19 inches 

Stroke 24 " 

Diameter of Drivers ... 54 " 

Running Speed, 20 miles per hour. 

Area of piston, 283.5 square inches. 

Boiler pressure, 130 lbs. per square inch 

Maximum pressure in cylinders, 80 lbs. 

283.5X80X4X124X2 _ gg^ g i.orse-power. 
33,000 
Fire Cement. — Fire clay, wet, 100 parts, ^white lead, 3 parts, powdered 
asbestos, ^ part, mix all together and use as mortar. 

Railway Train Speed Table. — A train going 1 mile an hour travels 
one and seven-fifteenths — say one and a half foot per second. To form a 
table of speed from tliese data is a mere matter of multiplication. Exam- 
ple : — A train going 70 miles an hour travels per second 1 and 7-15 ft. multi 
plied by 70=102 and two-thirds feet. 



590 MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 

Cement for Steam-pipe Joints, etc., with Faced Flanges. — "White 
lead, mixed, 2 parts ; red lead, dry, 1 part ; grind, or otlierwise mix them 
to the consistence of thin putty ; apply interposed layers witli 1 or 2 thick- 
nesses of canvas, or gauze wire, as tlie necessity of the case may be. 

Soft Ckment for Steam-boilers, Steam-pipes, etc. — Red or white 
lead, in oil, 4 parts ; iron borings, 2 to 3 parts. 

Hard Cement.— Iron borings and salt water, and a small quantity of sal- 
ammoniac, witli fresh water. 

Application for Burns and Scalds. — The following has been tested in 
the severest cases of burning and scalding from railway and steamboat 
accidents. Glycerine, 5 oz. ; white of egg, 4 oz. ; tinct. of arnica, 3 oz. ; mix 
the glycerine and white of egg thoroughly in a mortar and gradually add 
the arnica. Apply freely on linen rags night and morning, previously wash- 
ing with warm castile soap suds. In urgent cases, if nothing better can be 
had, clap on a mud poultice, a favorite and very effectual remedy with 
school boys who are stung while making war on hornets' nests. 

Blowing Engines for Smelting. — The volume of o.xygen in air is dif- 
ferent, at different temperatures. Tims dry air at 57°, contains 10 per cent, 
less oxj'gen tlian when it is at the temperature of 32° 
and when it is saturated with vapor it contains 12 per 
cent. less. If an average supply of 1500 cubic feet per 
minute is required in winter 6150 feet will be required 
in summer. In the manufacture of Pig iron witli Coke 
or Anthracite coal, 18 to 20 tons of air are required for 
each ton ; with Charcoal, 17 to 18 tons are required for 
eacli ton (1 ton of air at 340° = 29,751, and at 60° = 
31,366 cubic feet). The Pressure ordinarily required for 
smelting purposes is equal to a column of mercury from 3 
to 7 inches. The capacity of the Reservoir, if dry, should be 
15 times that of the cylinder, if single acting, and 10 times 
if double acting. The area of the Pipes leading to the reservoir should be 
.2 that of the blast cylinder, and the velocity of the air should not exceed 
35 feet per second. A ton of pig iron requires for its reduction from the ore 
310,000 cubic feet of air, or 5.3 cubic feet of air for each pound of carbon 
consumed. Pressure, 7 lbs. per square inch. An ordinary eccentric fan, 
4 feet in diameter with 5 blades 10 inches wide, and 4 inches in length, set 
1 9-16 inches eccentric, with an inlet opening of 17.5 inches in diameter, and 
an outlet of 12 inches square, making 870 revolutions per minute, will sup- 
ply air to 40 tuyeres, each of If inches in diameter, and at a pressure per 
square inch of .5 inch of mercur.v. An ordinary eccentric fan blower, 50 
inches in diameter, running at 1000 revolutions per minute will give a pres- 
sure of 15 inches of water and require for its operation a power of 12 horses. 
Area of tuyere discharge 500 square inches. A non-condensing engine, 
diameter of cylinder 8 inches, stroke of piston 1 foot, pressure of steam, 18 
lbs. (mercurial gauge), and making 100 revolutions per minute will drive a 
fan, 4 feet bj- 2, opening 2 feet by 2, 500 revolutions per minute. The width 
and length of the blades should be at least equal to :i or | the radius of the 
fan. The inlet should be equal to the radius of the fan ; and the outlet, or 
discharge, should be in depth no less than J the diameter, its width being 
equal to the width of the fan. When the pressure of a blast exceeds .7 inch 
of mercury per square inch, .2 will be a better proportion for the width and 
lengtli of the fan than that above given. The pressure or density of a blast is 
usually measured in inches of mercury, a pressure of 1 lb. per square inch 
at 60°"=20.376 inches. Wlien^water is used as the element of measure, a 
pressure of 1 lb. =27.671 inches. The eccentricity of a fan should be 1. of 
its diameter. A Smith's forge requires 150 cubic feet of air per minute. 
Pressure of blast J to 2 lbs. per square inch, 1 ton of iron melted per horn- 
in a cupola, requires 3500 cubic feet of air per minute. A finery forge re- 
quires 100,000 cubic feet of air for eacli ton of iron refined. A blastfurnace 
requires 20 cubic feet per minute, for each cubic yard, capacity of furnace. 




MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 591 

On Saw-Mills. — To Get the Most Lumber from Saw-Logs. — Experi 
ence has abundantly proved to our satisfaction that this can be done only 
by the use of the circular saw. Some parties are in favor of the Mulay 
saw. Human ingenuity has been so prolific in the invention and 
construction of this kind of machinery, that tlie principal ditiiculty with 
the intended purchaser seems to be an inabilitj' to decide whose nia- 
ciiine is really the best. Every buikler or inventor appears to claim 
for his machine sucli a perfect constellation of valuable features, that 
a certain amount of hesitation in coming to a decision seems to be inevi- 
table. In the stationary form of saw mills, the saws are arranged either 
single or in gangs. Some of tlie portable kind (circular saw mills) have an 
upper saw to complete the cut made but partially through large logs by the 
lower saw. See diagram. By the single movement of a lever, the head- 
blocks on which tlie log rests, are simultaneously moved up, moving the 
log a distance nearer the saw, adequate to the thickness of board desired, 
with an overplus the width of the cut made by tlie saw. By moving another 
lever, a pinion mesliing into a rack beneath the log-carriage is made to im- 
pel the log against the saw, and run the log backwards after the board is 
cut. These movements, on the best constructed machines, are made with 
surprising velocity, some of them being accredited with having cut over 
60,000 feet of lumber in one day. 

Occasionallj' we listen to a great deal of rant regarding the beatitudes 
of " the good old times," during the lives of our forefathers. These times 
proved very disastrous to the enterprising Dutchman, who, in 1663 started 
the first saw-mill in England, which he was finally obliged to abandon, and 
fly to save his life. In 17G7 anotiier saw-mill, at Lime-house, near London, 
was demolished by a mob of sawyers, who considered that their business 
would be ruined to a dead certainty if things were allowed to go on. 

The old method of manufacturing lumber and dimension stuff by rip- 
ping logs lengthways on the savvpit, is still fresh in the remembrance of 
many. One man mounted the log and pushed the saw downwards and 
pulled it upwards, assisted by another man in the pit below, with a veil 
over his face to keep the sawdust out of his ej'es. We hail with gratitude 
the modern improvements which enable us to dispense with every such 
form of labor. 

Having tried the up and down saw and the circular saw also, we would 
again repeat our conviction that the last mentioned is the best for manufac- 
turing lumber, and should any person act on this expression of opinion, let 
them in the first place be very careful to get, if possible, the best machine, 
bring it to the mill, and set it perfectl}' level and true. When you get it 
in operation, see that you handle it carefully. If you have been used to 
running tlie up and down saw only, you will soon find out that your former 
experience avails almost nothing in the management of the rotary macliine ; 
but when you get the hang of running it, the compensation in the way of 
convenience, rapidity, and quantity of work is immense. Some prefer to 
use the inserted tooth saws, and will use no other. They seem to possess 
many advantages, and are entirely safe. A late invention of spreading the 
upper part oi t]\e tooth towards the /(o/h^ during the process of manufacture, 
spreading it out so as to make the point of the tooth the thickest part of the 
circumference of the saw, enables the sawyer to dispense in a great mea- 
sure with the use of the swage. Those inserted tootii saws which do not 
possess this improvement must be carefully swaged and filed at least twice 
per day, and sometimes as often as six or seven times per day, depending 
upon the kind of lumber being cut. In filing or swaging the saw, be careful 
to form the point of the teeth absolutely square, and even across, the sliglit- 
est deviation from perfect truth in this respect being apt to cause the saw 
to run, as it is termed, or varj' from its proper course while passing through 
the log. Some prefer to form the point of the tootli a little hooking, just 
enough so as to be barely perceptible, and in swaging to use that part of the 
die belonging to the swage, wliich gives the tootii of the saw a slightly 



592 MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 

curved or rainbow form, sonietliing: in tliis shaped or scarcely so much 
curved. One sawyer of 20 years' experience in running macliinery, inform- 
ed us that he never did better or more rapid work witli his mill than when 
lie kept his saws exactly right on these two points just stated. If you can 
run a No. 7 gauge saw on your mill, the loss resulting from sawdust will be 
very slight, and as large saws are generally tliickest at the centre, tapering 
off towards the circumference, this size or No. 6 will, as a general rule, be 
found sufficiently strong for most purposes. Make sure at all times, especi- 
ally during frosty weather, that the dogs have a secure hold of the log 
before tlie saw enters it. It is only a few days ago that a case came to my 
knowledge of a firm near Fredericton, N.B., liaving sustained a severe loss 
by a log (insufficiently secured of course) canting over on the saw as it was 
passing through it. Tiie effect was to break off the saw from the mandril, 
twist off the nut at the end near the saw, and break away the two iron 
pins used for securing the saw in the collar, causing a stoppage of the mill, 
and the consequent expense of repair and delay. When you get the mill in 
operation, see that you handle it carefully, and maintain unceasing watch- 
fulness over it while in operation. Give it plenty of power ; if you don't you 
may as well shut up shop at once ; cjood attendance, and with a good ma- 
chine, the attendants will not have much time to play themselves, I can 
assure you. Keep all the parts well oiled — that has a great deal to do with 
the smooth and successful running of the machine. In order to facilitate 
calculations regarding the velocity of saws, herewith is appended a reliable 
table to serve as a guide in ascertaining the proper speed for running : — 

TABLE OF SPEED FOR CIRCULAR SAWS. 

36 inches in diameter, 1000 revolutions per minute 



38 






950 


40 






900 


42 






870 


44 






840 


46 






800 


48 






760 


50 






725 


52 






700 


54 






675 


56 






650 


58 






625 


60 






600 


62 






575 


64 






560 


66 






545 


68 






530 


70 






515 


72 






500 


74 






485 


76 






475 


lingle machine saws 




1400 



The march of improvement in the manufacture of shingle machines has 
been truly wonderful, and they can now be procured from the manufac- 
turer, of almost any capacity and power, at very reasonable rates. Shingle 
machines are now in use, which cut over 30,000 shingles per day, carrying 
two or more bolts. Some of tliem possess very complex machinery, and are 
positively dangerous to operate unless continual vigilance is maintained. 
One gentleman, well known to the writer, was crippled for life by having his 
liand terribl}' lacerated, during an unguarded moment, by one of these ma- 
chines. As a rule the less gearing and the more simplicity there is about 
the mechanism of a shingle machine the more satisfaction will be derived 
from it. 



MACHINISTS, ^lETAL WORKERS, <fcC. 593 

In the manufacture of shingles, as well as in anything else, it is the 
wisest policy to use the best materials. Get good rift, free from knots, 
sand, bark, &c., and you will inevitably get good merchantable stuff, witli 
less waste and more pleasure every way, botii with tiie machinery in the 
first place, and the satisfactory state of your excliequer, in the last. It is 
all the better if you can lay in a good stock one year ahead, as it cuts 
much easier when properly seasoned, to say nothing of tlie saving in 
weight during transportation. In edging shingles, many prefer the saw to 
the revolving knives, as it enables tiie operator, in many cases, to get a 
shingle of extra quality by trimming a poor shingle down, and selecting the 
best part. This can be done by a smart hand with marvellous rapidity, but 
still, to use a modern piirase, many persons can't see it, and so they use the 
knives, giving what they conceive to be good reasons for so doing. 

Velocities of Wood Working Machinery. — Circular Saivs at peri- 
phery, GOOO to 7000 ft. per minute ; Bcmd Saws, 2500 feet ; Ga7ig Saws, 28 
inch stroke, 120 strokes per minute ; Scroll Saws, 300 strokes per minute ; 
Planing Machine Critters, at periphery, 4000 to 6000 feet. Work under plan- 
ing maciiine l-20tii of an ii\ch for each cut. Moulding Machine Cutters, 
3500 to 4000 feet ; Si/miring-np Machine Cutters, 7000 to 8000 feet ; Wood 
Carving Drills, 5000 rev olnUons; Machine Augurs, H in. diam., 900 revolu- 
tions ; ditto, I in. diam., 1200 revolutions ; Gang Saws, require for 45 super- 
ficial feet of pine per hour, 1 horse-power. Circular Saws require 75 super- 
ficial feet per hour, 1 horse-power. In oak or hard wood f ths of the above 
quantity require 1 horse-power ; Sharpening Angles of Machine Cutters. Adzing 
soft wood across the grain, 30° ; Planing Machines, ordinary soft wood, 35° ; 
Gauges and Ploughing Machines, 48° ; Hardwood Tool Cutters, 50° to 55°. 

Cement for Belting. Waterproof. — Dissolve gutta percha in bisul- 
phide of carbon to the consistence of molasses, slice down and thin the ends 
to be united, warm the parts, and apply the cement, then hammer lightly 
on a smooth anvil, or submit tlie parts to heavy pressure. 

Filing Saws. — The grand secret of putting any saw in the best possi- 
ble order, consists in filing the teetli at a given angle to cut rapidly, and of 
a uniform length so that tlie ])()ints will all touch a straight edged rule with- 
out showing a variation of tiie hundredth part of an inch. Besides tliis, 
there should be just set enough in the teeth to cut a kerf as narrow as it 
can be made, and at tlie same time allow the bl.'ide to work freely without 
jiincliing. On tiie contrary, the kerf must not be so wide as to permit the 
lilade to rattle when in motion. The ver3' points of tlie teeth do tlie cut- 
ting. If one tooth is a twentieth of an inch longer than two or three on 
each side of it, the long tooth will be required to do so much more cutting 
than it should, tliat the sawing cannot be done well, hence the saw goes 
jumping along, working hard and cutting slowly ; if one tooth is longer 
than those on either side of it, tlie short teeth do not cut although their 
points may be sharp. When putting a cross-cut saw in order, it will pay 
well to dress the points with an old file, and afterwards sharpen them witli 
a fine whetstone ; mucli mechanical skill is necessary to put a saw in prime 
order; one careless thrust with a file will shorten the point of a tooth so 
much that it will be utterly useless, so far as cutting is concerned ; ihe teeth 
should be set with much care, and the filing done with the greatest accuracy. 
If the teeth are uneven at tlie points, a large flat file should be secured to a 
block of wood in sucli a manner that the very points only may be so jointed, 
80 that the cutting edge of the same may be in a straight line, or circle, if it 
is a circular saw ; every tooth sliould cut a little as the saw is worked. The 
teeth of a hand saw for all kinds of work should be filed fleaming, or at an 
angle on the front edge, while the back edges may be filed fleaming or 
square across the blade. 

As regards such saws as are used for cutting up large logs into lumber, 
it is of the utmost importance to have them filed at such an angle as will 
ensure the largest amount of work with the least e.xpenditure of power. 
The following diagrams will help to illustrate our meaning. Fig. 1 shows 



59! 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, AC. 



tlie sliape of teeth which nearly all experienced mill-men consider as that 
standard form which combines the greatest amount of strength and capa- 
city for rapid work, with the minimum of driving power while doing the 
work. 

Figure No. 2 represents a passable form of teeth which are capable of 




Fig. 1. 

doing a good deal of work, but their great weakness lies in their slender 
points. Look out for " breakers " when teeth of this description are pass- 
ing through dry spruce or hemlock knots. 




Fig. 2. 



Fig. No. 3 illustrates the appearance of one of those intolerable wood 
rasps which are altogether too common in saw-mills. Only think what an 
appalling waste of valuable power is required to drive a " jigger " like this 
through a large log ! 




Fig. 3. 



Fig. 4, at a, is intended to show the metliod of ascertaining the proper 
angle, that of sixty degrees, at wliieh such saws should be filed. The dia- 
gram being self-explanatory requires but little further elucidation here. 
A quarter circle with lines radiating from the centre towards the circum- 
ference is represented near tlie verge of the segment of a circular saw. The 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 



595 



lower part corresponds with tlie level of the horizon, and the liigher part 
at 90° corresponds witli the zenitli or meridian, where tlie sun appears at 
noon-da}'. Exacth^ lialf-way up is 45° ; look up a little higher and j'ou 
will find 60°, indicated by the radiating line which runs parallel with the 
angle of the tooth of the saw, and this is the guide j'ou must follow in 
filing. Tlie same rule is seen applied to a straight mill saw at b. 

Many good authorities contend that mill saws should in no case be set 
with the instrument commonly used for that purpose, but that in lieu 
thereof the teeth should be spread out at the points witli the swage or up- 
set to a sufficient extent to permit the body of the saw to operate without 
binding. Both instruments require to be skilfully handled, and the swage, 
when used in this way, has proved itself equal to every emergency without 
the risk of breaking the teeth. It would be quite safe to say that the saw-set 
should only be used on saws of this description with the most extreme cau- 
tion and care. Every manufacturer, however, has his own opinion, and 




consequent practice on the subject, some contending that one way is right, 

and the other directly the reverse. 

To Repair Fractuked Circular Saws. — The best way to do tliis is 



596 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 



to drill a small round liole at tlie termination of the crack, which effectually 
prevents its further extension. I save seen some circular saws very neatly 
repaired by riveting tiiin clamps to each side of tlie fracture, both clamps 
and rivets being countersunk so they will be level with the surface of the 
saw, and placed in sucli a position across tiie crack as to impart tlie greatest 
possible strength to the weakest place. 

To Mend Broken Cross-cut Saws. — In the first place scarf off the 
broken edges in such a manner that wlien lapped over each other the}' will 
be about the same thickness as the rest of tlie plate, and rivet them to- 
gether loosely with iron rivets inserted through holes which must be 
punched for that purpose ; the ends must be united with great accuracy so 
tliat the teeth, &c., of the saw may range truly. Now place tlie saw in the 
fire, then a flux of powdered borax and sal ammonia is flowed all over it 
after having it raised to tlie proper heat. See page 270 for preparing and 
using the composition, lleturn tlie saw to tiie fire and when it is raised to 
the proper welding heat, place it on tiie anvil and unite the joint as rapidly 
as possible witli tlie hammer ; be careful not to heat so liot as to injure the 
steel. When tlie job is well done, and the part properly tempered, it will 
be found as strong as the rest of the plate. I know one blacksmitii in Can- 
ada who told me that this class of work was the best paying part of his 
business. 

Quantity and Cost of Supplies for Horses and Lumbering 
Crews in the Woods. — Tlie following figures have been kindly furnished 
for this work by the obliging manager of Messrs. Gilmour's mill on the 
Gatineau, near Ottawa, Canada, and are most valuable as affording a basis 
for calculating the quantity and quality of the supplies required for men 
and horses engaged in this branch of industry. Tliese calculations are the 
result of long experience in the business, and are based on actual consump« 
tion. 

Quantity of Oats for each span of horses, 51 lbs. per day. 
" Hay " " 40 " 



Flour used by each 


man 


2.80 


Pork 




1.22 


Beef " 




0.85 


Beans " 




0.33 


Fish 




0.12 


Onions " 




0.13 


Potatoes " 




0.47 



Total daily consumption per man 4.92 

Quantity of Tea used " 1^ lbs. per month. 

The daily allowance of oats for each span of horses may appear large, 
but it must be remembered tiiat the labor is extremely severe, and more 
hay will be required if any part of the oats ^ withlield. On making inquiry 
M'ith reference to the item of molasses, so largely used by our lumbering 
friends in New Brunswick and Maine, the answer returned was that owing 
to the heavy cost of the commodity, it was entirely omitted from the list of 
supplies. The following exhibits tiie comparative value of Mess and Prime 
Pork, calculated from actual consumption : — 



Affss Pork. Prime Mess. 

$26 $18 80 

25 18 08 

24 17 35 

23 16 62 

22 15 89 

21 15 16 

20 14 43 



Mess Pork, Prime Mess 

$19 $13 70 

18 12 97 

17 12 24 

16 11 51 

15 10 78 

14 10 05 

13 9 32 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 597 

12 8 59 I 10 7 13 

11 7 86 I 9 6 46 

1 Barrel Mess averages 37 lbs, grease, 6 lbs. bones, when cooked. 
1 " Prime Mess 24 " 13 

To Mend Broken Saws. — Pure silver, 19 parts ; pure copper, 1 part ; 
pure brass, 2 parts ; all to be filed into powder, and thoroughly mixed ; 
place the saw level on the anvil, broken edges in contact, and hold them so ; 
now put a small line of the mixture along the seam, covering it with a larger 
bulk of powdered charcoal ; now with a spirit lamp and a jeweller's blow- 
pipe hold tlie coal dust in place, and blow sufficient to melt tiie solder mixture ; 
then with a hammer set the joint smootli, and file away any superfluous 
solder, and you will be surprised at its strength ; the heat will not injure 
the temper of the saw. 

Fitting A New Back on an Old Millstone. — Block your stone up with 
a block of wood, having its face down until it lies even, solid, and perfectly 
level ; then pick and scrape off the old plaster down to tlie face blocks, so that 
none remains but what is in the joints of the face blocks ; then wasli these 
blocks and keep them soaked with water. Keep a number of pieces of burr 
blocks at the same time soaked with water. Take a pail half filled with clean 
water, and mixed with 2 tablespoonfuls of glue water, boiled and dissolved ; 
mix in with your hand plaster of Paris until it be thick enough tliat it will 
not run ; and, breaking all the lumps, pour this on tlie stone, rubbing with 
your hand ; the stone being at the same time damped; and place small 
pieces of stone all over the joints of the face blocks ; you then, witli more 
plaster, mixed in the same way but more stiff, with this and pieces of burr 
stones, build walls around the eye and verge 4 or 5 inches high, leaving the 
surface uneven and the eye larger, as it will be brouglit to its proper size 
by the last operation. It is better to build up the wall of the running 
stone round the verge for 3 inches witliout any spalls, so that the lioles may 
be cut in to balance it. If you wish to make your stone heavier, you will 
take small pieces of iron, perfectly clean and free from grease, and lay them 
evenly all around the stone in the liollow place between the two walls just 
built ; and, with plaster mixed a little tliicker than milk, pour in under and 
all the crevices in the iron until the surface is nearly level with the two 
walls. If the stones do not require additional weight added, instead of iron 
use pieces of stone the same way, leaving the surface rough and uneven. 
Again, as before, build walls around the verge of the stone, and round tlie 
eye of the stone, mitil they are within 2 inches of the thickness you want 
your stones to be, the wall around the eye being 2 inches higher than that 
round the verge, and filling the space between the walls with stones ; and 
pouring in plaster again, make it nearly level witii the walls, but leaving 
the surface rough and jagged, to make the next plaster adhere well to it. 
Let it stand until the back is dry and perfectly set, when you raise the 
stone upon its edge, and, with a trowel, plaster around the edge of the 
stone neatly, giving it a taper of half an inch from tlie face to the back of 
the stone. When cased round in this way, lay the stone down on the cock- 
head ; it being in the b.alance ryne, put the driver off, then raise the spindle 
and balance the stone as already directed before putting on the remainder 
of the back. Then have a tin made the size of the eye, and to reach from 
the balance ryne to the thickness you want the stone to be at the eye. 
This tin should be exactly fitted to its place, and made fast; then fit a 
hoop of wood or iron round the verge, having the upper edge of the thick- 
ness from the face you want the stone to be at the verge, and equal all 
round. This hoop should be greased ; and all the cracks round it and the tin 
in the eye, being stopped, you pour thin plaster (with more glue water 
than in previous operations, to prevent it from setting so quickly, and to 
gives time to finisli off tlie back correctly) until it be level with the hoop round 
the verge, and with a straight edge, one end resting on the hoop, and the 
other end resting on the tin at the eye ; then by moving it round and work- 
ing the plaster with a trowel, make the surface of the back even and 



598 MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 

smooth between tliese two points. The hoop is then taken off, and the 
back and edges planed smootli ; then lower tlie spindle vnitil your runner 
lies solid, and put 3'our band or hoop on, it being first made nearly red hot, 
and taking care that it is of sufficient size not to require too much driving ; if 
fitting too tightly, it may loosen the back in driving it to its proper place ; 
it may be cooled gently by pouring water on it ; and wlien cool it should fit 
tight. 

Balancing a Millstone. — First, take off the driver, that the stone may 
have full play on the cock-head ; then raise the spindle so that there may 
be room between the stone to see the balance. Find the heaviest parts, 
and near the verge lay on sufficient weight to balance it. Cut a hole in 
the back of the stone, as deep as you can make it and as near the verge as 
possible that the binding iron hoop of the stone may keep the lead in its 
place. This hole should be wider at the bottom than the top in order to 
retain the lead when the stone is in motion, and into this the melted lead 
should be poured until it brings the stone completely into balance. When 
the lead is cold, cover over with mixed plaster even with the back of 
the stone. 

Composition to Keep Millstones Clean. — Hot water, 1 gal. ; borax 
2 oz. ; washing soda, i lb. and three balls of the size of a hazel nut each, 
of sal prunel. Mix and apply it to burrs with a scrubbing brush. When 
grinding garlic wheat it is not necessary to take up tlie burrs at all. It is 
sufficient to drop through the eye of the burr twice per day one of tlie 
above described balls of sal prunel, and that will keep the burrs sharp and 
clean, enabling the miller at all seasons to use the No. 13 bolt, to make finer 
flour and in greater quantity than usual. 

Holes in Millstones are filled with melted alum, mixing burr sand 
with it. If tile hole is large, put some pieces of burr mill stones in it first, and 
pour in melted alum. Tliese pieces of block should be cut exactly to fit. 
There should be small joints, and fastened with plaster of Paris. These holes 
should be cut at least 4 inches deep ; there is then no danger of their get- 
ting loose. 

Rock Dams are incomparably the best in use, if there is plenty of ma» 
terial at hand for building, and a rock bottom to the stream ; if there is not 
a rock bottom you should dig a trench in the bottom, deep enough, so that 
the water cannot undermine it. This should be the same as if you were 
building the foundation of a large building. The wall to be built should be 
of a small circular form, so that the back of the circle should be next to the 
body of water,. which may by its pressure tighten it. To secure the water 
from leaking through at the ends of the dam, dig a ditch deeper than the 
bottom of the river ; then fill this with small pieces of rock, and pour in 
cement. This cement is made of hydraulic cement, and is made of one 
part of cement to five parts of pure sand. It will effectually stop all crev- 
ices. A rock dam if well built will be perfectly tight. Use as you con- 
veniently can move; building this wall 4 to 6 feet tliick, according to the 
length of the dam, witii jam or buttresses every place where they are 
needed to strengthen it ; make true joints to these rocks, especially on tlie 
ends so that they may join close together. When you have the outside 
walls laid in cement for every layer fill the middle up with pieces of small 
rock, pouring in your grout, so that there may not be a crevice but what is 
filled. If there is any crevice or hole left open, the water will break through, 
wearing it larger and larger. If the stream is wide and large, it is neces- 
sary to build the dam in two sections, which should be divided by a waste 
way, necessary for the waste, or surplus water, to run over, to keep the 
head in its proper place or height. Let each section, next to where the 
water is to be run over, be abutments, built to strengthen the dam. The 
last layer of rock, on tlie top where tlie waste water runs over, should pro- 
ject 5 or 6 inches over the back of the dam so that the water may not 
undermine it. This last layer should be of large rocks and jointed true ; 
then laid in hydraulic cement, in proportion of 1 of cement to 3 of sand. 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, AC. 599 

When the dam is built, the front should be filled up with coarse gravel or 
clay ; this is best done with teams, for the more it is tramped the mora 
durable it becomes. 

Frame-Dams.— In building a frame dam, commence with a good foun- 
dation, laying the first sills in the bottom, of sufficient depth. Tliey should 
be large square timbers that will last in the water witliout rotting. Wliere 
there is a soft foundation, the bottom should first be made level ; then dig 
trenches for tlie mudsills, about 7 or 8 feet apart, lengtliwaj's of the stream, 
and 10 or 12 feet long. Into these first sills other sills must be framed, and 
put crosswise of the stream, 6 or 8 feet apart, to reacii as far across the 
stream as necessary. Then two outside sills should be piled down with 
2- inch plank driven down to a depth of 4 or 5 feet. If this can be done 
conveniently, they are to be jointed as closely as possible. It would be 
better to line with some stuff 1 inch thick ; then with posts their proper 
length, about 12 or 14 inclies square, which should be framed into the 
uppermost sill, in botii sides, and all the way across the dam, from bank to 
bank, at a distance of 6 feet apart. Then, with braces to each post, to 
extend two-thirds of the length of the post, where they should be joined 
together witli a lock, instead of a mortise and tenon, with an iron bolt 1 or 
li inches in diameter, going through both, and tightened with a screw and 
nut. When mortises and tenons are used, they often become rotten and 
useless in a few years. These braces should be set at an angle of 50 or 60" 
with the other end mortised into the mud silL These braces require to be 
about 6 to 8 inches, and as long as 3'ou find necessary ; being covered with 
dirt it will not decay for a long time, as the air is excluded. These posts 
should be capped from one to the other, plate fashion. The posts should 
be lined with 2 or 2^ inch plank on the inside, pinned to the plank, and 
sliould, in the middle, be filled in with dirt. 

If the stream is large and wide, the dam should be built in two sections, 
which should be divided by a waste-way for the surplus water, which should 
be in the centre of the dam, and sufficient for all the waste-water to run 
over. Let each section of the dam form an abutment next to the waste- 
way, placing cells or sills 4 feet apart the length of the waste-waj' ; in each 
of these sills, posts should be framed with a brace for the sides. These 
rows of posts, standing across the dam, will form the sectional abutments; 
the middle one may be constructed by being lengthways of the stream, with 
short braces, so tliat they will not be in the way of drift-wood passing down 
the stream ; it being necessary for strong pieces for a bridge. Tlien cover 
the sills with an apron of 2-inch plank joined perfectly straight, to extend 
30 or 40 feet below the dam, to prevent undermining of the dam. The 
planks which are used for the purpose of lining the posts which form the 
abutments of each section of the dam, and tlie ends of the waste-way, 
should be truly pointed, so as to prevent any leakage. The dam being 
built, the dirt should be filled in with teams, as the more it is tramped the 
better. Clay or coarse gravel is the best. Then place your gates on the 
upper side of the waste-way, the size that is necessary to a level with low- 
water mark ; which gates are not to be raised except in times of high water, 
as the proper height of the mill-pond should be regulated by boards placed 
over the gate for the desired head, as tlie water should be allowed to pass at 
all times freely over them. To strengthen the dam, if you think necessary, 
2-inch plank may be used in lining the front side of the dam, long enough 
to reach from the bottom of the stream on an inclined plane, and next to 
the body of water to the top of the dam, and filled up nearly to the top of 
the dam with clay or gravel well trampled down. 

Brush or Log Dams are very often used in small, muddy streams. 
When the bottom of the stream is of a soft nature, take a flat boat where 
you want to fix your dam, and drive piles the whole lengtli of the stream, 
about 3 or 4 feet apart, as deep as you can. Take young oak saplings 
pointed at the end, for the purpose. If you can, construct a regular pile- 
driver, similar to those in use for making trestle-work on the railways. 



600 MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, AC. 

The weight maj' be pulled up by horses instead of an engine. When you 
have finished driving piles, make some boxes or troughs of 2 or 3 inch 
plank, about 8 feet wide and as long as the plank is. Sink these in the 
water the lengtli of the (lain, close to the piles, by loading them with rock, 
until they are at the bottom of the stream, filling in the front part of the 
dam with dirt and brush, nearly to the height you want it. This kind of a 
dam will last a long time. 

Whenever there is a small break in the dam or race, cut up some willows 
and brush, put them in the break along with some straw and dirt, and ram 
them down with clay. 

In regard to the flume, the greatest care must be taken to insure strength 
and durability combined with tightness. Every step taken in its construc- 
tion must be of such a nature as to unite these qualities in the highest 
possible degree, otherwise the whole is, in a manner, labor lost. 

Mill Dams. — When building a dani, you should select the most suitable 
place. If yon can, place it across the stream near a rocky bluff so that the 
end of the dam may run into the bluff. This will prevent the water run- 
ning by at the ends of the dam. Build your dam very strong ; if this is 
not done, they are breaking up often, causing ruinous expense in money 
and loss of time. 

Flour Mill Machinery. — For each pair of 4 feet stones, with all tlie 
necessary dressing machinerj^ etc., there is required 16 horses' power. 
Stones, 4 ft. diam., 120 to 140 revolutions per minute. Dressing Machines, 
21 ins. diam., 450 to 500 revolutions per minute. Elevator, 18 ins. diam., 40 
revolutions per minute. Creepers, Z\ ins. pitch, 75 revolutions per minute. 
Screen, 16 ins. diam., 300 to 350 revolutions per minute. 788 cubic feet oi 
water, discharged at a velocity of 1 foot per second, are necessary to grind 
and dress a bushel of wheat per hour = 1.40 horses' power per bushel. 200 
feet per minute for the velocity of a stone 4 feet in diam. may be consider- 
ed a maximum speed. 

Velocity of Wheels, Pulleys, Drums, &c. — When wheels are applied 
to communicate motion from one part of a machine to another, their teeth 
act alternately on each other ; consequently, if one wheel contains 60 teeth 
and another 20 teeth, the one containing 20 teeth will make 3 revolutions 
while the other makes but 1 ; and if drums or pulleys are taken in place of 
wheels, the effect will be the same ; because their circumferences, describ- 
ing equal spaces, render their revolutions unequal ; from this the rule is 
derived, namely : — 

Multiply the velocity of the driver by the number of teeth it contains, 
and divide by the velocity of the driven. The quotient will be the number 
of teeth it ought to contain ; or, multiply the velocity of the driver by its 
diameter, and divide by the velocity of the driven. 

Example 1. If a wheel that contains 75 teeth makes 16 revolutions per 
minute, required the number of teeth in another, to work into and make 24 
revolutions in the same time. According to rule, you multiply 16 by 75, 
and divide the product, which is 1200, by 24, and you have the answer, 50 
teeth. 

Example 2. Suppose a drum, 30 inches in diameter, to make 20 revolu- 
tions per minute, required the diameter of another to make 60 revolutions 
per minute. According to rule, you multiply 20 by 30, and divide the 
product, which is 600, by 60, and you have the answer, 10 inches. 

Example 3. A wheel 64 inches in diameter, and making 42 revolutions 
per minute, is to give motion to a shaft at the rate of 77 revolutions in the 
same time ; find the diameter of a wheel suitable for that purpose. Ac- 
cording to rule, multiply 42 by 64, and divide the product, which is 2688, 
by 77, and you will have for the answer 35 inches nearly. 

231 



378 
308 70 



MACHXNISlS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 601 

Example 4. Suppose a pulley 32 inclies diameter to make 26 revolutions ; 
find the diameter of another to make 12 revolutions in the same time. 
According to rule, 26X32-1-12 = 69^ 
26 and 12) 832. Tliis will be seen to be 69^ 
22 

— 69 4-12 ^ i 

832 

Example 5. Find the number of revolutions per minute made by a 
wheel or pulley 20 inclies in diameter, when driven by anotlier 48 inches in 
diameter, and making 46 revolutions in the same time. According to rule, 
48X45-^20=: 108. Tiiat is, 48 multiplied by 45 = 2160, divided by 20, gives 
the answer, 108 revolutions. 

Cotton Factory. — Condensiiui Engine, Ci/,lindei; 37 in. diam. Stroke of 
piston, 7 ft. Volume of piston space, 53.6 cubic ft. Average pressure of steam 
16.73 lbs. per square inch. Revolutions, 17 per minute. Friction of Engine 
and Shafting (indicated), 4.75 lbs. per sq. inch of piston. Indicated Horses 
Power, 125. Total power = 1. Available, deducting friction, = 717. 

(The foregoing has reference to an English Mill, fordriving 22,060 hand 
mule spindles, witii preparation, and 260 Looms, with common sizing.) 

Remarks. — Eacli indicated horse's power will drive 305 hand-mule 
spindles, with preparation. 
or 230 self acting " 
or 104 throstle " 

or 10.5 looms with common sizing. 

Including preparation : 

1 throstle spindle = 3 hand-mule, or 2.25 self acting spindles. 
1 self acting spindle = 1.2 hand-mule spindles. 

Exclusive of preparation, taking oidy the spindle : 

1 throstle spindle = 3.5 hand-mule, or 2.56 self acting spindles. 
1 self acting spindle = 1.375 hand-mule spindles. 

The throstles are the common, spinning 34 twist for power loom wear 
ing; the spindles revolve 4000 times j)er minute. Tiie self-acting mules 
are, one-half spinning 36's weft, spindles revolving 4800 ; ithe other halt 
spinning 36's twist, spindles revolving 5200. The iiand-mules spinning about 
equal quantities of 36's weft and twist. Weft spindles 4700, and twist 
spindles 5000 rev. per minute. Average breadth of looms 37 ins. (weaving 
37 ins. cloth), making 123 picks per minute. All common calicoes about 
60 reed, Stockport count, and 68 picks to the inch. No power consumed 
by the sizing. Wiien the j'arn is dressed instead of sized, one horse's 
power cannot drive so many looms, as tlie dressing machine will absorb 
from .17 to .14 of the power. 

Size for Dressing Cotton Yarn or Warps. — Flour, 280 lbs. ; tallow, 
1 lb. ; add J4 to 2 per cent, of the amount of flour employed of paraffine. 
The paraffine maj' be made to replace the whole, or a part of the tallow 
emploj'ed. 

Beautiful Sizing for Linen. — Crystallized carbonate of soda, 1 part ; 
white wax, 4 to 6 parts ; stearine, 4 to 6 parts ; pure wliite soap, 4 to 6 parts ; 
fine Paris white or carbonate of magnesia, 20 parts ; potato starch, 40 parts ; 
fine wheat starch, 160 parts ; boil witii sufficient water to form 1600 parts 
altogether, adding, if desired, some ultramarine to counteract tlie yellow 
tint of the linen. The linen is starched with this ])reparation, afterwards 
steamed and dried, then sprinkled witli soap-water and placed in tlie stamp- 
ing mill, afterwards steamed and calendered. 

To Improve Poor Iron. — Black oxide of manganese, 1 part ; copperas 
and common salt, 4 parts each ; dissolve in soft water, and boil till dry ; 
wlien cool, ptdverize, and mix quite freely witli nice welding sand. When 
yon have poor iron which you cannot afford to throw away, heat it, and 
roll it in this mixture ; working for a time, reheating, etc., will soon free it 
from all imj)urities, which is the cause of its rottenness. By this process 
you can make good horse nails out of common iron. 

26 



002 MACHINISTS, MKTAL WORKERS, &C. 

Case-Habdening for Ikon. — Cast iron may be case-hardenefl hy Iieat- 
ing to a red lieat, and tlien rolling it in a composition composed of equal 
parts of prussiate of potash, sal-ammoniac, and saltpetre, all pulverized 
and thoroughly mixed, Tliis must be got to every part f>f the surface; 
then plunged, wliile yet hot, into a bath containing 2 ozs. prussiate of pot- 
ash, and 4 ozs. sal-ammoniac to eacli gallon of cold water. 

Moxon's Case-Hardening Process. — Cow's horns or hoofs are to be 
baked, dried and pulverized in order that more may be got into tlie box 
with tlie articles, or bone dust answers very well. To this add an equal 
quantity of bay salt; mix them witli stale chamber lye, or wliite wine 
vinegar ; cover the iron with this mixture, and bed it in tlie same in loam, 
or enclose it in an iron box, lay it on the hearth of the forge to dry and 
harden ; tlien put it into the fire, and blow till the lump has a blood red 
heat, and no higher, lest the iron mixture be burnt too much. Take the 
iron out and throw it into cold water. 

EoR Malleable Iron. — Put the articles in an iron box, and stratify 
them among animal carbon, that is, ])ieces of horns, hoofs, skins, or leather, 
just sufficiently burned to be reducied to powder. Lute the box with equal 
parts of sand and clay ; then place it in tlie fire, and keep at a light red 
heat for a length of time proportioned to the depth of steel required, when 
the contents of the box are emptied into water. 

Another for Wrought Iron. — Take prussiate of potash, finely pul- 
verized, and roll the .article in it, if its shape admits of it ; if not, sprinkle 
the powder upon it freely, while the iron is hot. 

To Make Iron take a Bright Polish like Steel. — Pulverize and 
dissolve the following articles in 1 qt. hot water; blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; borax, 
1 oz. ; prussiate of potash, 1 oz. ; charcoal, 1 oz. ; salt, -J pt. ; then add 1 
gal. linseed oil, mix well, bring your iron or steel to tlie proper heat and 
cool in tlie solution. It is said the manufacturers of the Judson governor 
paid $100 for this receipt, the object being to case harden iron so that it 
would take a bright polisli like steel. 

To Weld Cast Iron. — The best way of welding cast iron is to take it 
at a very intense heat, closel}' approaching the melting point. In this state 
it will be found sufflcientl}' malleable to stand welding by the hannner. 
There are other methods, but most of them are attended by almost insur- 
mountable difficulties. 

To Soften Malleable Iron. — When your furnace is charged witli fuel 
and metal, get the fire up to a dull red heat, tlien pour fluoric acid all over 
the coke ; use -J pt. or even 1 qt. adding a handful of fluor spar ; it will 
make the metal much softer. 

Iron Manufacture. — Charcoal, 138 bushels, limestone, 432 lbs., and ore 
2612 lbs., will produce 1 ton of pig iron. In England temperature of hot blast 
is 600", density of blast and of refining furnace 2| to 3 lbs. per square inch. 
Kevolutions of puddling rolls, 60 per minute; rail rolls, 100; rail saw, 800. 

To Galvanize Gkey Iron Casings. — Cleanse the articles in an ordi- 
nary chaffing mill, which consists of a barrel revolving on its axis, contain 
ing sand ; when the sand is all removed, take them out and heat one by 
one, plunging, wliile hot, in a liquid composed as follows : 10 lbs. hydro- 
chloric acid and sufficient sheet zinc to make a saturated solution. In 
making this solution, when the evolution of gas has ceased, add muriate, 
or preferably sulphate of ammonia, 1 lb., and let it stand till dissolved. 
The castings should be so hot that when dipped in this solution, and in- 
stantly removed, they will immediately drj^ leaving the surface crystal- 
lized like frost work on a window pane. Next plunge them while hot, but 
perfectly dry, in a bath of melted zinc, jireviously skimming tlie oxide on 
the surface away, and throwing thereon a small amount of powdered sal 
ammoniac. If the articles are very small, inclose them in a wrought iron 
basket on a pole, and lower them into the metal. When this is done, shake 
off the superfluous metal, and cast them into a vessel of water to prevent 
tiiem adhering when the zinc solidifies. 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. G03 

To Soften Cast Iron for Turning. — Steep it in 1 part of aquaforiis 
to 4 of water, and let it remain in 24 hours. 

Cast Iron Ornaments are rendered susceptible of being finislied witli 
a scraper, vvbere they cannot be reached witli files, after liaviug the fol- 
lowing liquid applied to tlieni. 

Scaling Cast Iron.— Vitriol, 1 part ; water, 2 parts ; mix and lay on 
the diluted vitriol with a cloth in the form of a brush, enough to wet the 
surface well ; after 8 or 10 hours, wash off with water, when the hard, 
scaly surface will be comjiletely removed. 

To Chill Cast Iron vert Hard. — Use a liquid made as follows: soft 
M'ater, 10 gallons; salt, 1 peck; oil vitriol, i pt. ; saltpetre, J lb.; prus- 
siate of potash, ^ lb. ; cyanide of potash, | lb. Heat the iron a cherry 
red and dij) as usual, and if wanted harder repeat tlie process. 

Another to Harden Cast Iron. — Salt, 2 lbs. ; saltpetre, i lb. ; roche 
alum, i lb. ; ammonia, 4 ozs. ; salts of tartar, 4 ozs. ; pulverize all together 
and incorporate thoroughly, use by powdering all over the iron while it is 
hot, tlien plunging it in cold water. 

Russia Sheet Iron. — Russia sheet iron is, in the first instance, a very 
pure article, rendered exceedingl}' tough and flexible by refining and an- 
nealing. Its bright, glossy surface is partially a silicate, and partially an 
oxide of iron, and is })roduced by passing the hot sheet, moistened \wth a 
solution of wood-ashes, through polished steel rollers. 

Japanning Castings. — Clean them well from the sand, then dip them 
in or paint them over with good boiled linseed oil ; when moderately dry, 
heat them in an oven to such a temperature as will turn the oil black, witli- 
out burning. The stove should not be too hot at first, and the heat should 
be gradual!)' raised to avoid blistering ; the slower the change in the oil is 
effected the better will be the result. The castings, if smooth at first, will 
receive a fine black and polished surface by this method. 

Burning Iron Castings Together. — The usual mode is by imbedding 
the castings in the sand, having a little space left vacant round about the 
joint where it is to be burned. Two gates must then be provided, one 
lying on a level with the lower side of this space, and the other raised so 
that the metal, which must be very hot, is poured in at the higlier one ; it 
passes round, fills up the space, and runs off at the lower gate. A constant 
supply of metal is thus kept up, till the parts of the casting are supposed 
to be on the eve of melting. The lower gate is then closed, and the suj)ply 
stopped. When cool, and the superfluous metal chipped off, it forms as 
strong a joint as if it had been original. 

To Mend Cracked Cast-Iron Vessels. — Drill a hole at each extreme 
end of the crack, to prevent its further extension, plug rivet the holes with 
copper, and, with fine iron filings saturated with urine, caulk the crack. 
Four parts of pulverized clay and one part of iron filings made into a paste 
with boiling linseed oil and applied hot is a good cement for the same pur- 
pose. 

Welding Cast Steel. — Silver sand, 2 lbs.; plaster of Paris, 1 lb. ; mix 
thoroughly. Heat -your article and dust it with the above, place it in the 
fire again imtil you get a red heat and it will weld. 

Respirator. — An excellent respirator may be made of a thick sheet "of 
carded cotton wool placed between two pieces of muslin. Unequalled for 
arresting dust, steel particles, &c. 

Annealing Steel. — For small pieces of steel, take a piece of gas pipe 2 
or 3 inches in diameter, and put the pieces in it, first heating one end of the 
pipe, and drawing it together, leaving the other end open to look into. 
When the pieces are of a cherry red, cover the fire with saw dust, use a 
charcoal fire, and leave the steel in over night. 

To Drill Hardened Steel. — Cover your steel with melted beeswax, 
when coated and cold, make a hole in the wax with a fine pointed needle or 
other article the size of hole you require, put a drop of strong nitric acid 
upon it, after an hour rinse off, and apply again, it will gradually eat through. 



604 MACHINISTS, MICTAL WORKERS, &C. 

Welding Cast Steel. — Rock saltpetre, ^ lb. ; dissolve in J lb. oil vitriol ; 
and add it to 1 gal. water. After scarfing the steel, get it liot ; and quench 
in the ])reparation. Tlieii weld the same as a piece of iron, hammer it 
very quick with light blows. It answers the purpose much better than 
borax ; cork it in a bottle, and it will keep for years. Another. — Borax, 15 
parts ; sal-ammoniac, 2 parts ; cyanide of potassium, 2 parts ; dissolve all 
in water, and evaporate the water at a low temperature. 

German Welding Powder. — Iron turnings, 4 parts ; borax, 3 parts, 
borate of iron, 2 parts ; water, 1 part. 

Damascus Steel. — It is said that this steel consists of a highly car- 
buretted metal whicli, by undergoing careful cooling and annealing, sep- 
arates into two compounds of iron and carbon, giving it the peculiar 
appearance known as "Damascening." Tlie wonderful strength of this 
steel is no doubt owing to careful manipulation. 

Working Steel for Tools. — In working steel for tools, great care 
should be taken to liammer all sides alike, for if one side is hammered more 
than another, it will cause it to spring in liardening. Again, steel, when 
being hammered, should be lieated as hot as it will stand, until finishing, 
and should then be hammered until almost black hot, for the reason that 
it sets the grain finer, and gives the tool a better edge. Tlie reason for 
heating the steel so hot wliile hammering is simply because it makes the 
steel tougher when hardened, and softer when annealed, wliile if it were 
worked at a low red heat, the continued percussive shocks of the hammer 
would so harden it as to make it almost impossible to anneal it, and at the 
same time render it brittle when hardened. 

To Soften Iron or Steel. — Either of the following methods will 
make iron or steel very soft ; — 1. Anoint it all over with tallow, temper it 
in a gentle charcoal fire, and let it cool of itself. 2. Take a little cla}"^, 
cover your iron with it, temper in a charcoal fire. 3. Wiien the iron or steel 
is red hot, strew hellebore on it. 4. Quench the iron or steel in the juice 
or water of common beans. 

Composition for Welding Cast Steel. — Pulverized borax any quan- 
tity, and slightly cover it with dragon's blood. Heat the steel red hot, 
shake the borax over it ; place it again in the fice till the borax smokes on 
the steel, which will be much below the ordinary welding heat, and then 
hammer it. 

Water Annealing. — Heat the steel to a red heat, and let it lie a few 
minutes, until nearly black hot ; then throw it into soap-suds ; steel in this 
way may be annealed softer than by putting it into the ashes of the forge. 

Belgian Welding Powder. — Iron filings, 1000 parts ; borax, 500 parts ; 
balsam of copaiba, or other resinous oil, 50 parts ; sal-ammoniac, 75 parts. 
Mix all well together, heat, and pulverize completely. The surfaces to be 
welded are powdered with the composition, and then brought to a cherry 
red heat, at which the powder melts, when the portions to be united are 
taken from the fire and joined. If the pieces to be Avelded are too large to 
be both introduced into the forge, one can be first heated with the welding 
powder to a cherry red heat, and the other afterwards to a white heat, after 
wliich the welding may be effected. 

Composition Used in Welding Cast Steel. — Borax, 10 parts ; sal- 
ammoniac, 1 part; grind or pound them roughly together; then fuse them 
in a metal pot over a clear fire, taking care to continue the heat until all 
spume has disappeared from the surface. When the liquid appears clear, 
the composition is ready to be poured out to cool and concrete ; afterwards 
being ground to a fine powder, it is ready for use. To use this composition, 
the steel to be welded is raised to a heat which may be expressed by 
"bright yellow ; " it is then dipped among the welding powder, and again 
placed in the fire until it attains the same degree of heat as before; it is 
then readj' to be placed under the iiammer. 

To Restore Burnt Steel and Improve Poor Steel. — Borax, 3 ozs. ; 
sal-ammoniac, 8 ozs. ; prussiate of potash, 3 ozs. ; blue clay, 2 ozs. ; resin. 



MACHINISTS, METAL AVORKERS, &C. 605 

Jib. ; water, 1 gill; alcohol, 1 gill. Put all on the fire, and simmer till it 
dries to a powder. The steel is to be heated, dipped in this powder, and 
afterwards hammered. 

To Restore Burnt Cast Steel. — Borax, 1|^ lbs. ; sal-ammoniac, ^ lb.; 
prussiate of potash, ^ lb. ; resin, 1 oz. Pound the above fine, add a gill 
eacli of water and alcohol, and boil all to a stiti paste in nn iron kettle. Do 
not boil too long, or it will become hard wlien cool. The burnt steel is 
dipjjed while quite hot in the composition and slightly hammered. 

Restoring Burnt Steel. — It is not generally known that burnt steel 
may be almost instantaneously restored by i)lungiiig it while hot in cold 
water, and hammering it with light strokes on tlie anvil, turning it so as to 
hammer all over it, again dipping in the cold water, and repeating the 
hammering process as before. Try it ; if you don't succeed the first time, 
you will soon do so. 

Composition to Restore Burnt Steel. — Two parts horn filings ; 10 
parts tallow ; 1 part sal-ammoniac ; 1 part pulverized charcoal ; 1 part 
soda; pulverize the hard ingredients separately, mix all thorougldy with 
the tallow. Bring your burnt steel to a cherry red and dip it in the mix- 
ture ; when it gets coUl it may be hardened in tiie usual manner. 

Composition to Toughen Steel. — Resin, 2 lbs. ; tallow, 2 lbs. ; black 
pitch, 1 lb. ; melt together, and dip in the steel when hot. 

Gearing a Lathe for Screw Cutting. — Every screw-cutting lathe 
contains a long screw called the lead screw, wliicli feeds tbe carriage of the 
lathe, while cutting screws ; upon the end of this screw is placed a gear to 
which is transmitted motion from another gear placed on the end of the 
spindle ; these gears each contain a different number of teeth, for the pur- 
pose of cutting different threads, and tlie threads are cut a certain number 
to the inch, varying from 1 to 50. Therefore, to find the proper gears to 
cut a certain number of threads to the inch, you will first multiply the 
number of threads you desire to cut to the inch, by any small number, 4 for 
instance, and this will give yon the proper gear to put on the lead screw. 
Then with the same number, 4, nmltiply the number of threads to the inch 
in the lead screw, and this will give you the proper gear to put on the spin- 
dle. For example, if you want to cut 12 to tlie inch, multiply 12 by 4, and 
it will give 3'ou 48. Put this gear on the lead screw, then with the same 
number, 4, multiply the number of threads to the inch in tiie lead screw. 
If it is five, for instance, it will give you 20 ; put this on the spindle, and 
your lathe is geared. If the lead screw is 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8, the same rule 
holds good. Always multiply the number of threads to be cut first. Some, 
indeed most small lathes, are now made with a stud geared in the spindle, 
which stud only runs half as fast as the spindle, and in finding the gears for 
these lathes, you will first multijjly the number of threads to be cut, as be- 
fore, and then multiply the number of threads on the lead screw, as double 
the number it is. For instance, if you want to cut 10 to the inch, multiply 
by 4, and you get 40 ; put this on the lead screw, then if your lead screw is 
5 to the inch, you call it 10 ; and multiply by 4 and it will give you 40. 
Again put this on your stud and your lathe is geared ready to commence 
cutting. 

Cutting a Screw in an Engine Lathe. — In cutting V thread-screws, 
it is only necessary for you to practise operating the shipper and slide-screw 
handle of your lathe, before cutting. After having done this, until you get 
the motions, you may set the point of the tool as high as the centre, and if 
you keep the tool sharp, j'ou will find no difficulty in cutting screws. You 
must, however, cut very light chips, mere scrapings in finishing, and must 
take it out of the lathe often, and look at it from both sides, very carefullj^ 
to see that the threads do not lean like fish scales. After cutting, polish 
with an emery stick and some emery. 

Cutting Square Thread-Screws. — In cutting square thread-screws, it 
is always necessary to get the depth required, with a tool somewhat thinner 
than one-half the pitch of the thread. After doing this, make another tool 



606 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 



exactly one-half tlie pitch of the tlireaJ, and use it to finish with, cutting a 
slight chij) on eacli side of the groove. After doing tliis, polish with a pine 
sti(;k, and some emery. Square tiireads for strength sliould be cut one-liulf 
the depth of their pitch, while square threads, for wear, may, and should, 
he cut three-fourths the dejjth of tlieir i)itch. 

Mongrel Threads. — Mongrel, or half V, half-square threads are usually 
made for great wear, and should he cut the deptli of their pitch, and for 
extraordinary wear, tiiey may even be cut 1^ the depth of the pitch. Tiie 
point and the bottom of tiie grooves should he in width one-fourth the depth 
of their pitch. What is meant here by the point of the tliread, is the outside 
surface. And the bottom of the groove is tiie groove between the threads. 
In cutting these threads it is necessar}' to use a tool about the shape of the 
thread, and in thickness about one-fifth less than the thread is when finisiied. 
As it is impossible to cut the whole surface at once, you will cut it in deptli 
about one-sixteenth at a time, then a chip off the sides of the thread, and 
continue in tiiis way alternately till yo\i have arrived at tiie dei)th required. 
Make a gauge of tiie size required between the threads, and finish by scrap- 
ing with water. It is usually best to leave such screws as these a little 
large until after they are cut, and then turn off a light chip, to size them ; 
this leaves tliem true and nice. 

Planing Metals. — Tiie first operation about planing is to oil your planer 
and find out if the bed is smooth. If it is not, file oil tlie rough places ; 
then change the dogs to see if thej' will work well, and find out the move- 
ments of the planer. After doing this, bolt your work on the bed, and if it 
is a long, tiiin {)iece, plane ot^ a chip, then turn it over and finish the other 
side, taking two chips, the last of which should be very liglit. Great care 
should be taken, in bolting it to the bed, not to spring it. After finishing 
this side turn it to the other side, and take off a liglit cut to finish it. 

Table Showing Proportions of the Various Parts of Locomotive 
Engines, from the Best Authorities. 



m. 
2h 
2| 
3 
3 

3i 
3h 

3i 

4 

4^ 

4i 

42-5 



5 
5i 
5h 
5h 

!;| 

8 

7 
7 

7| 



Deptli of Main 
Rods. 



25 

3 

3 

ok 
3i 
3I 

3| 

4 

4i 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, AC. 



6o; 



Diameter of 


Steam 


Exhaust 


Bridges. 


Cylinder. 


Port. 


Port. 


8 


7ix i 


nxH 


1 


9 


7|X i 


7|xii 


1 


10 


7|X i 


7^X14 


i 


11 


10 XI 


10 X2 


] ' 


12 


10 XI 


10 X2 


g 


13 


12 Xli 


12 X2i 




14 


13 Xlk 


13 X2S 

14 X2| 


1 


15 


14 Xli 




16 


15 xii 


15 X2h 




17 


16 xn 


16 X2| 




18 


17 Xli 


17 X2i 




19 


17 xii 


18 X2S 




20 


18 Xli 


18 X2i 


li 



Planing Perpendicularly. — In planing perpendicularly, it is necessary 
to swivel the bottom of the small iiead around, so it will stand about tliree- 
fourths of an incli inside of square, towards the piece you are to plane. Tiiis 
prevents breaking the tool when tlie bed runs back. 

Gear Cutting. — In cutting gears, the.y are reckoned a certain number of 
teetli to tlie inch, measuring across tlie diameter to a certain line whicii is 
marked on tiie face or sides of tlie gear witli a tool. Tliis line is one-half 
tlie depth of the teeth from tlie outer diameter. Tiiat is, if the teeth of the 
gear are two-tentlis of an incli deep, this line would be one-tentii of an inch 
from tlie edge and is called the pitcii line. 

Depth of Teeth. — Every gear cut with a different number of teeth to 
the inch, should be cut of a depth to the pitch line, lo correspond with the 
number of teeth to the inch. This is called proportion. Therefore, if you 
cut a gear eight to the inch, the deptii to the pitcli line should be one-eighth 
of an inch, and the whole deptli of tlie tooth would be two-eighths. Again, 
if you cut a gear twelve to the inch, the deptii to pitch line sliould be one- 
twelfth of an inch, and the whole deptii of tooth two-twelfths. And again, 
if you cut a gear twent}' to the inch, the depth to pitch line should be one- 
twentieth of an inch, while the whole depth should be two twentieths, and 
60 on att injinitum. 

Measuring to find the Number of Teeth. — To find the size a certain 
gear should be for a certain number of teeth is an easy matter, if you study 
carefully these rules. It' \'ou want a gear with thirty-two teeth and eight to 
the inch, it should be four inches measuring across the diameter to the pitch 
line, and the two-eighths outside of the pitch line would make it four inches 
and two-eighths. Again if you want a gear with forty teeth and ten to the 
inch, it should measure across the diameter to pitch line four inches, and the 
two tenths outside the pitch line would make the whole diameter four inciies 
and two-tenths. And again, if you want a gear with eighty teeth, and 
twenty to the inch, it should measure to the pitch line, across the diameter, 
four inches, and tlie two twentieths outside the pitch line would make it 
four inches and two-twentieths, and these examples will form a rule for the 
measurement of all except bevel gears. 

Bevel Gears. — These are turned a certain bevel tocori-espond with each 
other, according to the angle upon which the shafts driven by them are set. 
For instance, if two shafts are set upon an angle of ninety degrees, the sur- 
faces of the faces of these gears will stand at an angle of forty-five degrees. 
To get the surface of these gears, in turning them, put a straight edge across 
the face. Then set your level on an angle of fortj'-five degrees, and try the 
face of the teeth by placing the level on the straight edge. After turning 
the face of the teetli, square the outer diameter by the face of the teeth ; 



608 MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 

iind to get tlie size to which you wisli to <'ut, measure from tlie centre of the 
face of tiie teetii. Tlius, if a bevel gear is six inclies in diameter, and the 
face of the leeth is one incli, yon will measure from tiie centre of tlie face, 
and find it is five inches. On this line you calculate the nuuiber of teeth to 
the incii, and if you want a gear with twenty teetii, and ten to tlie inch, i-t 
should measure two inches across the face to the centre of the surface of 
the teeth ; and if the face of the teeth were one inch in length, the diameter 
of the gear would he three inches, and the inside of tiie teeth would measure 
only one inch. Again, if you want to cut a gear with forty teeth, and ten 
to the inch, it would measure four inches to the centre of the teeth on the 
surface. And if the surface of the teeth were one inch long, the diameter 
of the gear would he five inches, while it would only measure three inches 
inside the teeth. These examples will form a rule for all bevel gears. 

Vulcanite Emery Wheels. — Use a compound of India rubber, and 
Wellington mills emery, as little of the former as will sutHce to iiold the 
particles of emei'y together. The materials must be thoroughly incorpo- 
rated together, then rolled into sheets, cut into wheels of the desired size 
anil pattern, juessed into the iron moulds, and vulcanized or cured by 
being subjected to a high degree of steam heat for several hours, making it 
almost as hard as cast iron. 

To Braze A Band Saw. — Whitney's method. — The tools required are a 
small portable forge, brazing clamps, &c, and a straight edge, 3 or 4 feet 
long, also some brass wire and powdered borax. Take the saw and cut it 
to the projier length, scarf the ends from one-half to three-fourths of an 
inch, then put the saw in the clamps. I would say that I use a very small 
and simple clamp in the shape of a double vise. Keep the back of the saw 
out of the jaws of the vise, or clamps, and apply the straight edge to the 
back, as it is very necessary to braze it straight ; make the fire in as small 
a compass as possible; place the clamps directly over the centre of the fire, 
and then put on three pieces of brass wire, bent in the form of the letter U, 
so that they will pinch the laps together ; put as much borax as will lie on 
the saw, cover the whole with a piece of charcoal: melt the brass so that it 
will flow over the saw before taking it off the fire, and cool very slow so as 
not to make the braze brittle. File off what remains on the saw and it is ready 
for use. 

To Remove Rust. — If you immerse the articles in kerosene oil and let 
tliem remain for some time, the rust will become so much loosened as to 
come off very easy 

Burglar and Drill-Proof Diamond Chill. — Take 1 gal. urine, and 
add to it 1 oz. b6rax and 1 oz. salt. 

To Re-siiarpen Old Files — Remove the grease and dirt from your 
files by washing them in warm potash vvater, then wash them in warm 
water, and dry with artificial heat ; next, place 1 pt. warm vvater in a 
wooden vessel, and i)ut in your files, add 2 ozs. of blue vitriol, finelj' pulver- 
ized, 2 ozs. borax, well mixed, taking care to turn the files over, so that 
each one may come in contact with the mixture. Now add 7 ozs. sulphuric 
acid and i oz. cider vinegar to the above mixture. Remove the files after 
a short time, dry, sponge them with olive oil, wrap them up in porous paper, 
and put aside for use. Coarse files require to be immersed longer than flue. 
Substitute for Borax. — Copperas, 1 oz. ; saltpetre, 1 oz. ; common 
salt, 6 ozs. ; black oxide of manganese, 1 oz ; prussiate of potash, 1 oz. ; all 
pulverized and mixed with 3 lbs. nice welding sand, and use the same as 
3'ou would sand. High-tempered steel can be welded with this at a lower 
heat than is required for borax. 

Dipping Tools when Hardening. — To harden a pen-knife blade, lan- 
cet, razor, ch.isel, gouge-hit, plane, spoke-shave, iron shaving knife, three or 
four square files, and round and flat files, dip them endwise or perpendicu- 
larly. Tills keeps them straight, which would not be the case were they 
dipped in the water obliquely. 

Substitute for Borax. — Alum, 2 ozs. ; dilute with water and mix with 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. GOO 

2 ozs. potnsli, boil in ;i pot lialf an lionr over a gentle fire, take it out of 
tlie water, add 2 ozs. gem salt in powder, as much of alkaline salt, 3 lbs. 
lioney, and one of cow's milk, mix all together, set it in the sun for 3 dnys 
and the bor:i.\ is ready for use. This will go twice as far in a blacksmith's 
shop as common borax. 

To Harden Metals. — Iron, GO parts ; chrome, 40 parts ; form a compo- 
sition as i'ard as tlie diamond. A high degree of hardness may also be 
imparted to iron or steel b}' adding | part of silver. Copper may be 
externally hardened by the fumes of zinc and tin. The si)eculum of Lord 
Rosse's telescope is 1 part tin and 1 part copper, this is as hard as steel, and 
takes a very liigh polish ; if more than this be added it will scarcely coliere. 

Dkaw-filing and Finishing. — To draw-file a piece of work smoothly 
and quicklj% it is best to first draw-file it with a medium fine file, and finish 
with a superfine file. After doing this, polish the work with dry emery 
paper and then with emery paper and oil. 

Lining Boxes with Babbit Metal. — To line boxes properly, so as to 
insure their filling every time, it is necessary to heat the box nearly red hot, 
or at least hot enough to melt the metal. Then smoke the shaft where the 
metal is to be poured upon it. This insures its coming out of the box 
easily, after it is cold. After smoking the shaft, put it into the box or 
boxes, and draw some putty around the ends of them, for the purpose of 
stopping them, taking care not to press upon it, for if you do it will go into 
the box and fill a pl.-ice that ought to be filled with metal ; and, in the 
meantime, your metal ought to be heated, and after you have poured it, let 
the box stand till it is nearly cold ; drive out your shaft, and it is done. 

Compositions to Fill Holes in Castings. — Mix 1 part of borax in 
solution witli 4 parts dry clay. — Another ; Pulverized binoxide of man- 
ganese, mixed with a strong solution of silicate of soda (water clay) to form 
a thick paste. 

Moulding Sand for Casting Brass or Iron. — The various kinds ot 
good moulding sand employed in foundries for casting iron or brass, have 
been found to be almost uniform chemical composition, varying in grain 
or the aggregate form only. It contains between 93 and 96 parts siiex, oi 
grains of sand, and from 4 to 6 parts clay, and a little oxide of iron, in each 
100 parts. Moulding sand which contains lime, magnesia, manganese and 
other oxides of metal, is not applicable, particularly for tlie casting of iron or 
brass. Such sand is either too close, will not stand or retain its form, or it 
will cause the metal to boil through its closeness. 

To File a Square Hole. — To file a hole square, it is necessary to re- 
verse the work very often ; a square file should first be used, and the holes 
finislied with either a diamond-shaped file, or a half round. This leaves the 
corners square, as they properly should be. 

To Turn Chilled Iron. — At Lister's Works, Darlington, England, some 
articles required turning in the lathe, and cast steel could not be made hard 
enough to cut them. One man proposed cast metal tools. He was laughed 
at, of course, but his plan liad to be tried. Well, cast metal tools were tried, 
with points chilled, and tiiey cut when cast steel tools were of no use. The 
article was turned up with metnl tools. 

Drilling Holes in Cast Iron. — By means of carbolic acid a hole ^ of 
an inch in diameter has been drilled througii \ inch thickness of cast iron, 
with a common carpenter's brace ; judge, then, what can be done by using 
the acid and pressure drill. 

Hardening Wood for Pullets. — After a wooden pulley is turned and 
rubbed smooth, boil it for about eight minutes in olive oil; then allow it to 
dry, and it will become almost as hard as copper. 

To Solder Ferrules for Tool Handles. — Take your ferrule, lap 
round the jointing a small piece of brass wire ; then just wet the ferrule, 
scatter on the joining ground borax, put it on the end of a wire, and hold it 
in the fire till tlie brass fuses ; it will fill up the joining, and form a perfect 
solder. It m.ny afterwards be turned in the lathe. 

26* 



61C MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 

Making Dies for Screw-Cutting. — In making dies for screw-cutting, 
tliey should, whenever practicable, be lapped with a taper tap, as they cut 
more easil\' and wear longer tlian tliose whicli are cut straight, and then tai> 
ered off to make the sci-ew " take." 

Very fine threaded screws, however, cut well with straight dies. Small 
di^s, or dies below one-fourth of an incli in size, should only have three lips 
in them. Dies from one-fourth to one-half should have four lips in them. 
Dies from three-fourths to one inch sliould have six lips in them ; and dies 
from one incii to one and a half sliould have seven lips in them. The cuts 
through dies sliould be only twice the depth of the thread, which is sufficient 
to make them free themselves from chips ; for when cut too deep they are 
liable to break on the face. Harden and draw to a straw color. 

To Dip a Fluted Heamer Properly. — Dip it perpendicularly to a short 
distance beyond the tinting — that is to say, about half an inch, and withdraw 
and return it several times. This hardens all the lips, and prevents it crack- 
ing off at the water's edge, wiiicli is the case when a piece of steel is dipped 
into a certain de])th, and allowed to cool without moving. 

Anti-Friction Metal. — Copper, 4 lbs. ; regulus of antimony, 8 lbs. ; 
Banca tin, 9G lbs. 2. Grain zinc, 7^ lbs. ; purified zinc, 7^ lbs. ; antimony 
lib. 3. Zinc, 17 parts; copper, 1 part ; antimony,!^ parts. This possesses 
unsurpassable anti-friction qualities, and does not require the protection of 
outer casings of lianler metal. 4. Block tin, 8 lbs. ; antimony, 2 lbs. ; cop- 
per, 1 lb. If the metal be too hard, it may be softened by adding some lead. 
6. The best alloy for journal boxes is composed of copper, 24 lb. ; tin, 24 
lbs. ; and antimony, 8 lbs. Melt the copper first, then add the tin, and lastly 
the antimony. It should be first run into ingots, then melted and cast in 
the form required for the boxes. 6. Melt in a crucible l^ lbs. of copper, 
and, while the copper is melting, melt in a ladle 25 lbs. of tin and 3 of anti- 
mony, nearly red hot, pour the two together, and stir until nearly cool. 
This makes the finest kind of lining metal. 7. Verij cheap — Lead, 100 lbs. ; 
antimony, 15 lbs. This costs about 10 cents per lb. 8. For hearings to sus- 
tain great iveir/hts. — Copper, 1 lb. ; zinc,^oz. ; tin, 2-^ oz. 9. Hard Bearings for 
machinery. — Copper, 1 lb.; tin, 2 ozs. 10. Vertj Hard ditto. — Coi>per, lib.; 
tin, 2^ ozs. 11. Lining metal for Boxes of Raiiioaij Cars. — Mix tin, 24 lbs. ; 
copper, 4 lbs. ; antimony, 8 lbs. ; (for a hardening) tlien add tin 72 lbs. 12. 
Lining Metal for Locomotive Axle Trees. — Copper, 86.03 ; tin, 13.97. 13. Another 
French. — Copper, 82 parts ; tin, 10 parts ; zinc, 8 parts. 14. Another, (Stephen- 
son's). — Copper, 79 parts ; tin, 8 parts ; zinc, 5 parts ; lead, 8 parts. 15. Another 
(Belgian). — Clipper, 89.02 parts ; tin, 2.44 parts; zinc, 7.76 parts ; iron, 0.78. 
16. Another (English). — Copper, 73.96 parts ; tin, 9.49 parts ; zinc, 9.03 parts ; 
lead, 7-09 parts ; iron, 0.43 parts. 17. Another. — Copper, 90.0i5 parts ; tin, 3.56 
parts ; zinc, 6.38 of Nickel Anti-friction Metnl. — A late improvement in tlie 
manufacture of anti-friction metal is the introduction of a small percentage 
of nickel into either of the above, or an}- other anti-friction composition. 

Liquid Black Lead Polish. — Black lead pulverized, 1 lb. ; turpentine, 1 
gill ; water, 1 gill ; sugar, 1 oz. 

Copperas Dip for Cast Iron. — Dissolve 3 lbs. of sulphate of copper, and 
add 2 fluid ozs. sulphuric acid. 

To Enamel Cast Iron and Hollow Ware. — 1. Calcined flints, 6 parts; 
Cornish stone or composition, 2 parts ; litharge, 9 parts ; borax, 6 parts, argil- 
laceous earth, 1 part; nitre^ 1 part; calx of tin, 6 parts; jiurified potash, 1 
part. 2. Calcined flints, 8 parts ; red lead, 8 parts ; borax, 6 jiarts ; calx of 
tin, 5 parts ; nitre, 1 part. 3. Potter's composition, 12 parts ; borax, 8 parts ; 
white lead, 10 parts ; nitre, '2 parts; white marble, calcined, 1 part; purified 
potash, 2. parts ; calx of tin, 5 parts. 4. Calcined flints, 4 parts ; potter's 
composition, 1 part; nitre, 2 parts ; borax, 8 parts ; white marble, calcined, 
1 part ; argillaceous earth, | part; calx of tin, 2 parts. Whichever of the 
above compositions is taken must be finely powdered, mixed and fused. The 
vitreous mass is to be ground when cold, sifted, and levigated with water; 
it is then made into a pap with water or gum water. The pap is smeared 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 611 

or brushed over tlie interior of tlie vessel, dried, and fused with a proi)er 
heat in a muffle. Clean the vessels perfeetlv before applying. 

To Enamel Copper Vessels. — Pulverize finely 12 p.irts of fluor spar, 12 
parts unground gypsum, and 1 part bora.K, and fuse together in a crucible ; 
wlien cold mix witli water to a });iste, and apply to the interior with a paint 
brush ; when dry the vessel should be thoroughly baked in a muffle or 
furnace. 

To Enamel Copper and other Vessels. — Flint glass, 6 parts ; borax, 
3 parts ; red lead, 1 part ; oxide of tin, 1 part. Mix all togetlier, frit, grind 
into powder, make into a tliin paste with water, ai)ply with a brusii to the 
surface of the vessels, after scaling by lieat and cleaning them, repeat with 
a second or even a third coat; afterwards dry, and lastly fuse on by heat of 
an enamelled kiln. 

To Weld Steel Axles. — To insure a good weld, prepare the composi- 
tion described on page 604 for welding cast steel. Use a strong fire, and 
vvlien the axle is brouglit to what may be termed a briglit red heat, apply a 
sufKciency of the composition and return it to the fire until tlie her.t is 
regained, once more, then place it under the hammer. Be careful not to put 
on too much of the composition; otherwise it might waste in the fire, and by 
its affinit}' for metal obstruct the tweer iron, thereby preventing the fire from 
receiving the full energy of the blast, and thus retarding if not spoiling 
the job. 

Compression of an India-rubber Buffer of 3-ins. Stroke.^— 1 ton, 1.3 
inches ; b^ tons, If inches ; 2 tons, 2 inches ; 3 tons, 2i inches ; 5 tons, 
2^ inches ; 10 tons, 3 inches. 

To Prevent Iron Rusting. — Give it a coat of linseed oil and whiting 
mixed together in the form of a paste. It is easily removed and will pre- 
serve iron from rusting for .years. 

To Coat Iron with Emery. — Give the iron a good coat of oil and white 
lead ; when this gets hard and dry, apply a mixture of glue and emery. 

Squaring or Facing up Cast Iron Surfaces. — A round end tool is best 
for this. A rough chip should first be taken off, over the entire surface to 
faced. Then speed your lathe up and taking a light chip, merely enough 
to take out the first tool mark, run over the entire surface again. In turning 
up surfaces it is always best to begin at the centre and feed out, as the tool 
cuts freer and will wear twice as long. 

Writing Inscriptions on Metals. — Take J lb. of nitric acid and 1 oz. 
of muriatic acid. Mix, shake well together, and it is ready for use. Cover 
the place you wish to mark with melted beeswax ; when cold, write your 
inscription plainly in the wax clear to the metal with a sharp instrument ; 
then apply the mixed acids with a feather, carefully filling each letter. 
Let it remain from 1 to 10 minutes, according to appearance desired ; then 
throw on water, which stops the process, and remove the wax. 

Etching Fluids. — For copper. Aquafortis, 2 ozs. ; water, 5 ozs. For 
steel. — Iodine, 1 oz. ; iron filings, ^ dr. ; water, 4 ozs. Digest till the iron is 
dissolved. For fine touches. — Dissolve 4 parts each of verdigris, sea salt, and 
sal-ammoniac, in 8 parts vinegar, add IG parts water ; boil tor a minute, and 
let it cool. 

Engravers' Border Wax. — Beeswax, 1 part ; pitch, 2 parts ; tallow, 1 
part. Mix. Engraver's cement. — Kosin, 1 part ; brick dust, 1 part. Mix 
with heat. 

Moulds and Dies. — Copper, zinc, and silver in equal proportions ; melt 
together under a coat of powdered charcoal, and mould into the form you 
desire. Bring them to nearly a white heat, and lay on the thing j'ou would 
take the impression of, press with sufficient force, and you will get a per- 
fect and beautiful impression. 

Polishing Powder for Specula. — Precipitate a dilute solution of sul- 
phate of iron by ammonia in excess; wash the precipitate; press it in a 
screw press till nearly dry ; then expose it to heat until it appears of a dull 
red color in the dark. 



61 "2 MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, AC. 

To Engrave on Copper. New Method. — Coat tlie copper with any 
of tlie silvering solutions discovered in this work, cover this with colored 
viirnisli, then draw the lines with a sharp point in tlie manner of using 
a diamond for stone engraving, and etch tliem in with perchloride of 
iron. 

Cast Engravings. — Take tlie engraved plate you wish to copy and ar- 
range a support of suitable materials round it : then pour on it the following 
alloy in a state of perfect fusion ; tin, 1 part ; lead, 64 parts ; antimony, 12 
parts. These " cast plates " maj' be worked oil on a coumion printing press, 
and offer a ready mode of procuring cheap copies of the works of our cele- 
brated artists. 

Good Brass for Machinery. — 1. Copper, 2 lbs.; tin, 2J ozs. ; zinc, ^ oz. 
2. Tough Brass. — Copper, 10 ozs.; tin, IJ ozs. ; zinc, 1^ ozs. 3. Wheels and 
Valves. — Copper, 90 lbs. ; tin, 10 lbs. 4. Brass, very tenacious. — Copper, 88.9 
parts ; tin, 8.3 parts ; zinc, 2.8 parts. 5. Lathe Bashes. — Copper, 80 parts ; 
tin, 20 parts. 6. Machinery Bearings. — Copper, 88 i)arts ; tin, 12 parts. 7. 
Boxes for Engines Running at High Speed. — Copper, 7 lbs. ; tin, 1 lb. ; add 
spelter, 1 lb. to every 40 lbs. of the mixture. Use steel piston rods for higli 
speed and lignum vita3 or apple-tree wood for shoes or gihbs on the cross- 
lieads. Iron for cylinders and guides, if made from pig iron should be melt- 
ed at least 8 or 9 times previous to use. 

Bronze. — 1. Co{)per, 83 parts ; zinc, 11 parts ; tin, 4 parts ; lead, 2 parts ; 
mix. 2. Copper, 14 parts ; melt and add zinc, 6 parts ; tin, 4 parts ; mix. 3. 
Ancient Bronze. — Copper, 100 parts; lead and tin, of each, 7 parts; mix. 
4. Alloy for Bronze Ornaments. — Copper, 82 parts; zinc, 18 parts; tin, 3 
parts ; lead, 3 parts ; mix. 5. Statuary Bronze. — Copper, 88 parts ; tin, 9 
parts ; zinc, 2 parts ; lead, 1 part. 6. Another. — Copper, 82^ parts ; tin, 5 parts ; 
zinc, 10^ i)arts ; lead, 2 parts. 7. Another. — Copper, 90 jiarts ; tin, 9 parts ; 
lead, 1 part. 8. Bronze for Medals. — Copper, 89 parts; tin, 8 parts ; zinc, 3 
l)arts. 9. Bronze. — Copper, 7 lbs. ; zinc, 3 lbs. ; tin, 2 lbs. 10. Another. — 
Copper, 1 lb. ; zinc, 12 lbs. ; tin, 8 lbs. 

Superior Bell Metal. — 1. Copper, 100 lbs. ; tin, 23 lbs. 2. Copper, 25 
parts; tin, 5 parts. 3. Copper, 79 parts ; tin, 2G parts; mi.x. 4. Copper, 78 
parts; tin, 22 parts, mix. 5. Parisian Bell Metal. — Copper, 72 parts ; tin, 26.} 
l)arts ; iron, 1^ parts. Used for the bells of small ornamental clocks. 6. Clock 
Bell Metal.— Copper, 75.19 parts ; tin, 24.81 parts. 7. Bell Metal for Large 
Bells.— Copper, 100 lbs. ; tin, from 20 to 25 lbs. 8. Bell Metal for Small 
Bells. — Copi)er, 3 lbs. ; tin, 1 lb. 9. White Metal for Table Bells. — Copper, 
2.06 parts ; tin, 97.31 parts ; bismuth, 0.63 parts. 

Yellow Bra'ss {for casting). — 1. Copper, G1.6 parts ; zinc, 35.3 parts ; 
lead, 2.9 parts; tin, 0.2 j)arts. 2. Brass of Jemappcs. — Copper, 64.6 parts; 
zinc, 33.7 parts; lead, 1.4 parts ; tin, 0.2 parts. 3. Sheet of Stolberg near Aix, 
la Chapelle. — Copper, 64.8 parts ; zinc, 32.8 parts; lead, 2.0 parts; tin, 0.4 
parts. 4. D'Arcet's Brass for Gilding. — Copper, 63.70 parts ; zinc, 33.55 
parts ; lead, 0.25 parts; tin, 2.50 parts. 5. Another. — Copper, 64.45 parts ; 
zinc, 32.44 i)arts ; lead, 2.86 parts ; tin, 0.25 parts. 6. Sheet Brass of Romilly. 
— Copper, 70.1 parts ; zinc, 29.9 parts. 7. English Brass Wire. — Copper, 70.29 
parts; zinc, 29.26 ])arts ; lead, 0.28 ; tin, 0.17 parts. 9. Augsburg Brass Wire. 
Copper, 78.89 parts; zinc, 27.63 parts ; tin, 0.85 parts. 

Red Brass, for Gilt Articles. — 1. Copper, 82.0 parts ; zinc, 18.0 parts ; 
lead, 1.5 parts ; tin, 3.0 parts. 2. Another. — Copper, 82 parts ; zinc, 18 parts; 
lead, 3 parts ; tin, 1 part. 3. Another. — Copper, 82.3 parts ; zinc, 17.5 parts ; 
tin, 0.2 parts. 4. French Tomhac for Sivord Handles. — Co]iper, 80 parts ; 
zinc, 17 parts ; tin, 3 parts. 5. For Parisian Ornaments. — Cojiper, 85 parts ; 
zinc, 15 parts ; tin, a trace. 6. Used for German Ornaments. — Copper, 85.3 
parts ; zinc, 14.7 parts. 7. ChrysochalL — Copper, 90.0 parts ; zinc, 7.9 parts ; 
lead, 1.6 parts. 8. AW Tombac from Paris. — Copper, 92 parts; zinc, 8 
parts. 

Brass. — 1. Yellow Brass for Turning (common article). — Copper, 20 lbs. ; 
zinc, 10 lbs. ; lead, 4 ozs. 2. Another Brass for Turning. — Copper, 32 lbs. ; 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, AC 613 

zinc, 10 lbs. ; lead, 1 lb. 3. Red Brass free, for Tarninfj. — Copper, 160 lbs.; 
zinc, 50 lbs. ; lead, 10 lbs. ; aiitimonj', 44 ozs. 4. Best Red Brass for fine 
Castings. — Copper, 24 lbs. ; zinc, 5 lbs. ; bismutli, 1 oz. 5. Red Tombac. — • 
Copper, 10 lbs.; zinc, 1 lb. 6. Tombac. — Copper, 16 lbs. ; tin, 1 lb.; zinc, 1 
lb. 7. Brass for Heavy Castings. — Copper, 6 to 7 parts; tin, 1 part; zinc, 
1 part. 8. Maileable Brass. — Copper, 70.10 parts ; zinc, 29.90 parts. 9. 
Superior ^fall^■able Brass. — Copper, 60 parts ; zinc, 40 parts. 10. Brass. — 
Copper, 78 parts ; zinc, 27 parts. 11. Copper, 6-5 parts ; zinc, 35 parts. 12. 
Copper, 70 parts; zinc, 30 parts. 13. German Brass. — Copper, 1 lb. ; zinc, 
1 lb. 14. Watchmakers' Brass. — Copper, 1 part ; zinc, 2 parts. 15. Brass 
for Wire. — Copper, 34 parts; calamine, 56 parts. 16. Brass for Tabes. — 
Copper, 2 parts; zinc, 1 part. 17. Brass for Heavy Work. — Copper, 100 
parts; tin, 15 parts; zinc, 15 parts. 18. Another. — Copper, 112 parts; tin, 
13 parts ; zinc, 1 part. 19. Tombac or Red Brass. — Copper, 8 parts ; zinc, 1 
part. 20. Brass. — Copper, 3 parts ; melt, tlien add zinc, 1 part. 21. But- 
tonmakers' Fine Brass. — Brass, 8 parts ; zinc, 5 parts. 22. Buttonmakers' 
Common Brass. — Button brass, parts ; tin, 1 part ; lead, 1 part ; mix. 23. 
Mallet's Brass. — Copper, 25.4; zinc, 74.6; used to preserve iron from o.xy- 
dizing. 24. Best Bra^isfor Clocks. — Rose copper, 85 parts ; zinc, 14 parts ; 
lead, 1 part. 

Good Britannia Metal. — 1. Tin, 150 lbs.; copper, 3 lbs.; antimony, 10 lbs. 
2. Britannia, 2d Qnaliti). — Tin, 140 lbs. ; Copper, 3 lbs. ; antijiiony, 9 lbs. 3. 
Britannia Metal, for Casting. — Tin, 210 lbs. ; copper, 4 lbs.; antimony, 12 lbs, 
4. Britannia Metal for spinning. — Tin, 100 lbs. ; Britannia liardening, 4 lbs. ; an- 
timony, 4 lbs. 5. Britannia Metal for Registers. — Tin, 140 lbs. ; hardening, 8 
lbs.; antimony, 8 lbs. 6. Best Britannia for sjmuts. — Tin, 140 lbs.; cop]>er, 3 
lbs.; antimony, 6 lbs. 7. Best Britannia for spoons. — Tin, 100 lbs., hardening, 
5 lbs. ; antimony, 10 lbs. 3. Best Britannia for Handles. — Tin, 140 lbs. ; cop- 
per, 2 lbs. ; antimony, 5 lbs. 9. Best Britannia for Lamps, Pillars, and Spouts. 
— Tin, 300 lbs. ; copper, 4 lbs. ; antimony, 15 lbs. 10. For Casting. — Tin, 100 
lbs.; hardening, 5 lbs. ; antimony, 5 lbs. 11. Tin, 82 parts; lead, 18 parts; 
brass, 5 parts ; antimony, 5 parts ; mix. 12 Another Britannia. — Tin, 20 
parts ; antimony, 4 parts ; brass, 1 part; mi.x. 13. Hardening for Britannia. 
— Brass, 4 parts ; tin, 4 parts; when fused, add bismuth, 4, and antimony, 4 
parts. Another Hardening. — Antimony, tin, bismuth, and plate brass, of each, 
equal parts. Add this mixture to melted tin until it acquires the pro])er color 
and hardness. 15. Britannia. — Tin, 89.70 parts; antimony, 9.70 parts ; cop- 
per, 0.30 parts ; zinc, 0.30 parts. 16. Tin, 81.64 parts ; antimony, 16.51 parts ; 
copper, 1.85 parts. 17. Tin, 89.97 parts; antimony, 9.12 parts; copper, 0.91 
parts. 18. Tin, 90.00 parts ; antimony, 10 parts. 19. Tin, 89.30 parts ; anti- 
mony, 7.14 parts ; copper, 1.78 parts ; bismuth, 1.76 parts 

German Silver, First quality for Casting. — 1. Copper, 50 lbs,; 
zinc, 25 lbs.; nickel, 25 lbs. 2. Second Quality, for Casting. — Copper, 50 lbs. ; 
zinc, 20 lbs.; best pulverized nickel, 10 lbs. 3. German Silver for Rolling. — 
Copper, 60 lbs. ; zinc, 20 lbs. ; nickel, 25 lbs. 4. German Silver for Bells and 
other Castings. — Copper, 60 lbs. ; zinc, 20 lbs. ; nickel, 20 lbs. ; lead, 3 lbs. ; 
iron, that of tin plate is the best, 2 lbs. 5. German Silver for Castings. — 
Lead, 3 parts ; nickel, 20 parts ; zinc, 20 parts ; copper, 60 parts ; mi.x. 6. 
German Silver for Rolling. — Nickel, 5 parts; zinc, 4 i)arts; coi)per, 12 parts; 
mix. 7. Copper, 40.62 parts ; zinc, 43.76 parts ; nickel, 15.62 parts. 8. Cop- 
per, 41.47 parts; zinc, 26.08 parts; nickel, 32.35 parts. 9. Copper, 55.55 
parts; zinc, 5.55 parts ; nickel, 38.90 parts. 10. Copper, 53.40 parts; zinc, 
29.10 parts; nickel, 17.50 parts. 11. Alfenide — Contains a trace of iron, 
copper, 59.60 parts ; zinc, 30.30 parts; nickel, 10.10 parts. 12. Fine Silver 
Colored Metal. — Tin, 100 lbs. ; antimony, 81bs. ; copper, 4 lbs. ; bismuth, 1 lb. 
13. Fine White German Silver. — Iron, 1 part ; nickel, 10 parts ; zinc, 10 parts ; 
copper, 20 parts ; melt. 14. Genuine German Silver. — Iron, 2J parts ; nickel, 
31^ parts ; zinc, 25i- parts ; copper, 40* parts; melt. 15. Bideri/. — Copper, 
48.48 parts; tin, 6.60 jiarts ; zinc. 33.80" parts ; lead, 12.12 parts. 

Sundry Compositions. — 1. Organ Pipe ]\[etal consists of lead alloyed 



614 MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 

witli about lialf its quantity of tin to liarden it. Lead, 100; tin, 83 parts; 
and lead, 100; tin, 20 parts, answer very well. The mottled or crystalline 
ap])earance so uHKdi admired shows an abundance of tin. 2. Cannon Metal. 
— Tin, 10 parts; copper, 90 parts; melt. 3. Allot] for Cymbals. — Copper, 80 
parts ; tin, 20 parts. 4. Chinese Gontj Metal. — Copper, 78 parts ; tin, 22 parts. 
5. Cock Metal. — Copper, 20 lbs. ; lead, 8 lbs. ; litharge, 1 oz. ; antimony, 3 
ozs. 6. Metal for taking Impressions. — Lead, 3 lbs.; tin, 2 lbs.; bismuth, 5 
lbs. 7. Alio}/ fir Gun Mountings. — Co[)per, 80 parts; tin, 3 parts ; zinc, 17 
parts. 8. Pinchbeck. — Copper, 5 lbs. ; zinc, 1 lb. 9. Sjxinish Tutania.-^lron 
or steel, 8 ozs. ; antimony, 16 ozs. ; nitre, 3 ozs. Melt and harden 8 ozs. of 
tin with 1 oz. of the above compound. 10. Rivet Metal. — Copper, 32 ozs. ; 
tin, 2 ozs. ; zinc, 1 oz. 11. Chinese White Copper. — Copper, 40.4; nickel, 
31.6 ; zinc, 25.4 ; and iron, 2.6 parts. 12. Bath Metal. — Brass, 32 parts ; zinc, 

9 parts. 13. Speculum Metal. — Copper, 6 ; tin, 2; arsenic, 1 part. Or cop- 
per, 7 ; zinc, 3 ; and tin, 4 parts. 14. Electrum. — Copper, 8 ; nickel, 4; zinc, 
3J parts. This compound is imsurpassed for ease of workmanship and 
beauty of appearance. 15. Common Pewter. — Tin, 4; lead, 1 part. 16. Best 
Pewter. — Tin, 100; antimon3% 17 parts. 17. Queen's Metal. — Tin, 9; anti- 
mony, 1 ; bismuth, 1 ; lead, 1 part. 18. Chantry's Hard Alloy. — Copper, 1 
lb.; zinc, 2| ozs.; tin, 2h ozs. Razors as hard as tempered steel have been 
made from this alloy. 19. Alloy for Mechanical Instruments. — Copper, 1 lb. ; 
tin, 1 oz. 20. Bivet Metal for Hose. — Tin, 46 lbs.; copper, 1 lb. 21. Hard 
White MeUil. — Sheet brass, 32 ozs. ; lead, 2 ozs. ; tin, 2 ozs. ; zinc, 1 oz. 22. 
Fusible Alloy, melts in Boiling water. — Bismuth, 8 ozs.; tin, 3 ozs. ; lead, 5 ozs. 
28. Fusible Allot/ for Silvering Glass. — Tin, 6 ozs.; lead, 10 ozs.; bismuth, 21 
ozs.; mercury, a small quantity. 24. Hard White Metal for Buttons.— IBrass, 
1 lb., zinc, 2 ozs.; tin, 1 oz. 25. Button Maker's Metal. — Copper, 43 parts ; 
zinc, 67 parts. 26. ^Jio///f/-.— Copper, 62.22 parts ; tin, 2.78 parts ; zinc, 35 
parts. 27. Another. — Copper, 58.94 parts ; tin, 5.28 parts ; zinc, 35.78 parts. 
28. Metal that e.x/mnds in cooling. — Lead, 9 ; antimony, 2 ; bismuth, 1 part. 
This metal is very useful in filling small defects in iron castings, &c. 29. 
Albata Metal. — Nickel, 3 to 4 parts ; copper, 20 parts ; zinc, 16 parts. Used 
for j)lated goods. 30. Birmitir/kam Plat in. —Copper, 8 parts ; zinc, 5 parts. 
81. Imitation Platinum. — Melt together, 8 parts brass, 5 parts of zinc. This 
alloy closely resembles platinum. 32. Chitiese Silver. — Silver, 2.5 ; copper, 
65.24; zinc 19.52 ; cobalt or iron, 0.12 ; nickel, 13. 33. Tutenag.— Copper, 8; 
zinc, 5 ; nickel, 8 parts. 34. Prince's Metal — Copper, 3 parts ; zinc, 1 part. 
35. Another. — Brass, 8 parts ; zinc, 1 part. 36. Another.— Zinc and copper, 
equal parts, mi.K. 37. Queen's Metal. — Lead, 1 part ; bismuth, 1 part; anti- 
mony, 1 part ; tin, 9 parts. Mix. 38. Another. — Tin, 9 parts ; bismuth, 1 
part ; lead, 2 parts; antimony, 1 ])art; mix. 39. Imitation Gold. — Platina, 
8 parts ; silver, 4 parts ; copper, 12 parts, melt. 40. Imitation Silver. — Block 
tin, 100 parts ; antimony, 8 parts ; bismuth, 1 part; copper, 4 parts ; melt. 
41. S/>urious Silver Leaf. — Tin, 90.09 ; zinc, 9.91 parts; melt. 42. Mirrors 
of Eeflecting Telescope. — Copper, 100 , tin, 50 parts. 43. White Argentine. — 
Cojiper, 8 parts ; nickel, 3 parts ; zinc, 35 parts. This beautiful composition 
is in imitation of silver. 44. Yellow Dipping Metal.— Copper, any desired 
quantity and 6 or 7 ozs. of zinc to every lb. of copper. 45. Shot Metal. — 
Lead, 97,06 parts ; arsenic, 2.94 parts. Another. — Lead, 89.60 parts ; arsenic, 
0.40 parts. 46. White Metal. — Parts by weight ; tin, 82 ; lead, 18 ; antimony, 
5 ; zinc, 1 ; copper, 5. 47. Hard Pewter. — Melt together, 12 lbs. of tin ; 
regulus of antimony, 1 lb. ; copper, 4 ozs. 48. Common Pewter. — Melt in a 
crucible, tin, 7 lbs. ; when fused throw in lead, 1 lb. ; copper, 6 ozs. ; zinc, 2 
ozs. 49. British Plate. — Nickel, 5 to 6 parts ; copper, 20 parts ; zinc, 8 to 

10 parts. Used for plated goods. 50. Composition for Strong Pumps, <$-c. — 
Copper, 1 lb.; zinc, |, and tin, Ig ozs. 51. Com/josition for Toothed Wheels. — 
Copper, 1 lb. ; brass, 2 ozs.; tin, 2 ozs. 52. Another. — Copper, 1 lb. ; brass, 2 ozs. ; 
tin, \\ ozs. 53. For TurnitigWork. — Copper, 1 lb.; brass, 2 ozs.; tin, 2 ozs. 54. 
For Nuts of coarse Threads and Bearings. — Copper, 1 lb.; brass, 1^ ozs.; tin, 
2i ozs. 55. Pewtevers Temper. — Copper, 1 lb. ; tin, 2 lbs. Used to add in 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 615 

email quantities to tin. 56. Alloy for Cylinders of Locomotives. — Copper, 
88. Go j)arts ; tin, 2.88 parts ; zinc, 6.99 parts. 67. Metal for Slidiny Levers 
of Locomotives. — Copper, 85.-5 parts; tin, 12.75 parts ; zinc, 2.00 parts. 58. 
Another (Fcnton's). — Copper, 5.50; tin, 14.50; z'inc, 80 parts. 59. Duron 
Wctterstec/t's Patent Shcathiiif! for Ships. — Consists of lead with from 2 to 8 
per cent, of antimony, about 3 jier cent, is the usual quantity. The alloy 
is rolled into sheets. 60. Mmitz Metal for Ships. — Best selected copper, 60 
p.arts; best zinc, 40 parts. Melt tofjether in tlie usn;d manner and roll into 
sheets of suitable thickness. This composition resists oxidation from ex- 
posure to sea water, and prevents the adhesion of barnacles. 61. Mvtal for 
Anatomical Injections. — Tin, 16.41 parts ; lead, 9.24 parts ; bismuth, 27.81 
parts ; mercury, 41.41 parts. 62, Fusible Metal for casts. — Bismuth, 8 parts ; 
lead, 5 parts ; tin, 3 parts. It will melt at 200" or under boiling water. For 
male casts use tin only. 63. Pot Metal. — Copper, 40 lbs ; lead, 16 lbs. ; tin, 
1| lbs. 64. Metal for Models. — Tea lead, 6 lbs. ; tin, ^ lb. ; antimony, ^ lb. 
65. Imitation of Silver. — Copper, 1 lb. ; tin, 3 ozs. 66. Von Bibra's Alloy for 
Medals. — Bismuth, 27.27 parts ; lead, 59.09 parts ; tin, 13.46 parts. If the 
cast objects be bitten with diluted nitric acid, washed with water, and 
rubbed with a woollen rag, the elevated spots become bright, while the 
sunken portions are dull and the castings acquire a dark grey appearance 
with an antique lustre. Without bitjng the color is light grey. 67. New 
Sheathing Metal. — This alloy is made by melting 2i parts of copper in one 
crucible, in another, 9 parts of zinc, 87 of lead, 1 part of mercury, and ^ 
part of bismuth, then mi.x the contents of both crucibles, covering the sur- 
face witli charcoal dust, and stirring well till all are incorporated. The 
mercury in this alloy protects both the zinc and copfier from the action of 
sea water. The contents of the crucibles are run into ingots and rolled into 
sheets. 68. Spelter. — Natural impure zinc, which contains a portion of lead, 
iron, copper and a little manganese and plumbago. 

Amalgam for Mirrors. — 1. Tin, 70 parts; mercury, 80 parts : 2. {For 
curved mirrors) Tin, 80 parts ; mercurj', 20 parts ; 3. Tin, 8.33 parts ; lead, 
8.84 parts ; bismuth, 8.33 parts ; mercury, 75 parts. 4. (For Spherical Mir- 
rors) Bismuth, 80 parts; mercury, 26 parts. 

Reflector Metal. — 1, [Duppler's] Zinc, 20 parts; silver, 80 parts ; 2. 
Copper, 66.22 parts; tin, 88.11 parts; arsenic, 0.67 parts; 8. (Cooper's.) 
Copper, 57.86 parts ; tin, 27.28 parts ; zinc, 3.30 parts ; arsenic, 1.65 parts ; 
platinum, 9.91 parts ; 4. Copper, 64 parts ; tin, 82.00 parts ; arsenic, 4,00 
j)arts. 5. Copper, 82,18 parts; lead, 9.22 parts; antimony, 8.60 parts. 6. 
(Little's) Copper, 69.01 parts ; tin, 30.82 parts; zinc, 2.44 parts; arsenic, 
1.83 parts. 

Metal for Gilt Wares. — 1. Copper, 78.47 parts ; tin, 2.87 parts ; zinc, 
17.23 parts ; lead, 1.43 parts. 2. Copper. 64.38 parts ; tin, 0.25 parts ; zinc, 
32.44 parts ; lead, 2.86 parts. 8. Copper, 72.48 parts ; tin, 1.87 parts ; zinc, 
22.75 parts ; lead, 2.96 parts. 4. Copper, 70,90 parts ; tin, 2.00 parts ; zinc, 
24.05 parts ; lead, 3.06 jiarts. 

Amalgam for Electrical Machines. — 1. Tin, 25 parts; zinc, 25 
parts ; mercury, 50 parts. 2. Tin, 11.11 parts ; zinc, 22.22 parts ; mercury, 
66.67 parts. 

Type Metal. — 1. For smallest and most brittle types. — Lead, 8 parts ; an- 
timony, 1 part. 2. For small, hard, brittle type. — Lead, 4 parts ; antimony, 1 
part. 3. For types of medium size. — Lead, 5 parts ; antimony, 1 part. 4. 
For large types. — Lead, 7 parts ; antimony, 1 part. 6. For largest and softest 
types.— Lq?h\, 7 parts ; antimony, 1 part. In addition to lead and antimony, 
type metal also contains 4 to 8 per cent, of tin, and sometimes 1 to 2 per 
cent, of copper. 6. Stereotype plates are made of lead, 20 parts; antimony, 
4 parts ; tin, 1 part. 7. Another do. — Lead, 25 parts ; antimony, 4 parts ; 
tin, 1 part. 8. Type metal. — Lead, 4 parts; antimony, 2 parts. 9. Tough 
type metal. — Lead, 100 parts ; antimony, 32 parts; tin, 8 parts. 

DovvLAis Iron Works, (England.) Furnaces. — Eight, diameter 16 to 18 
feet, 1300 Tons Forge Iron per week ; discharging 44,000 cubic feet of air 



61 G MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 

minute. Eiu/ine {non-condensiny) . Cylinder, 55 ins. in diiim. by 13 feet stroke 
of piston. Pressure of steam, GO lbs. per square inch, cut off at J the 
stroke of tlie piston. Valves, 120 ins. in area. Boilers. Eijilit. (Cylindri- 
cal flue, internal furnace,) "7 feet in diam. and 42 feet in length ; one flue, 
4 ft. in diam. Grates, 288 square feet. Fly trheel. Diam. 22 feet, weiglit, 25 
tons. Blowing Cylinder, 144 ins. dinm. by 12 ft. stroke of piston, lievoln- 
tions, 20 i)er minute. Blast, 3| lbs. per square inch. Discharge jnpe, di'ini. 5 
ft. and 420 feet in length. Valves, Exhaust, 56 square feet, delivery, 16 
square feet. 

Oejiolu Coloking, Lacquers, &c. — 18 kinds. — Ormolu Coloring. — 1. 
Alum, 30 parts : nitrate of potassa, 30 parts ; red ochre, 30 parts; sulphate 
of zinc, 8 parts ; common salt, 1 part ; sulphate of iron, 1 part. It is ap- 
plied with a soft brush. The articles are placed over a clear charcoal fire 
imtil the salts, melted and dried, assume a brown aspect. They are then 
suddenly cooled in nitric acid water, containing 3 per cent, of hydrochloric 
acid, afterwards washed in abundance of water and dried in sawdust. 2. 
To Prepare Brass \]'ork for Ormolu Dipping. — If the work is oily, boil it in 
lye, and if it is finished work, filed or turned, dip it in old acid, and it i.s 
then ready to be ormolued, but if it is unfinished and free from oil, pickle 
it in strong sulphuric acid, dip in pure nitric acid, and then in the old acid, 
after wiiich it will be ready for ormoluing. 3. To Repair Old Nitric Acid 
Ormolu Dips. — If the work after dipping appears coarse and spotted, add vit- 
riol till it answers the purpose ; if the work after dijiping appears too 
smooth, add muriatic acid and nitre till it gives tlie right appearance. The 
other ormolu dips should be repaired according to the receipts, putting in 
the proper ingredients to strengthen them. Tiiey should not be allowed to 
settle, but should be stirred often while using. 4. Directions for making 
Lacquer. — Mix the ingredients, and let the vessel containing them stand in 
the sun, or in a place slightly warmed, 3 or 4 days, shaking it frequently till 
gum is dissolved, after which let it settle from 24 to 48 hours, when the 
clear liquor may be poured off for use. Pulverized glass is sometimes used 
in making lacquer to carry down the impurities. 5. Lacquer for Dipped 
Brass. — Alcohol (95 per cent.), 2 gals. ; seed lac, lib.; gum copal, 1 oz. ; 
Englisli saffron, 1 oz. ; annatto, 1 oz. 6. Ljucquer for Bronzed Brass. — To 1 
pt. of the above lacquer add gamboge, 1 oz., and, after mixing it, add an 
equal quantity of the first lacquer. 7. Deep Gold Colored Lacquer. — Best 
alcohol, 4 ozs. ; Sjjanisli annatto, 8 ozs. ; turmeric, 2 drs. ; sliellac, ^ oz. ; 
red Sanders, 12 grs. ; when dissolved, add spts. of turpentine, 30 drops. 8. 
Deep Gold Colored Lacquer for Brass not Dipped. — Alcohol, 4 gals. ; tur- 
meric, 3 lbs. ; gamboge, 3 ozs. ; gum sandarac, 7 Ihs. ; shellac, IJ lbs. ; tur- 
pentine varnish, 1 pt. 9. Gold Colored Lacquer for Dipped Brass. — Alco- 
hol, 36 ozs. ; seed lac, 6 ozs. ; amber, 2 ozs. ; gum gutta, 2 ozs. ; red sandal 
wood, 24 grs. ; dragon's blood, 60 grs. ; oriental saffron, 36 grs.; pulverized 
glass, 4 ozs. 10. Gold Lacquer for Brass. — Seed lac, 6 ozs. ; amber or copal, 
2 ozs. ; best alcohol, 4 gals. ; pulverized glass, 4 ozs. ; dragon's blood, 40 
grs. ; extract of red sandal wood obtained by water, 30 grs. 11. LMcquer, 
for Dipped Brass. — Alcohol, 12 gals. ; seed lac, 8 lbs. ; turmeric, 1 lb. to a 
gal. of the above mixture ; Spanish saffron, 4 ozs. The saffron is to be 
added for bronzed work. 12. Good Lacquer. — Alcohol, 8 ozs. ; gamboge, 

1 oz. ; shellac, 3 ozs.; annatto, 1 oz. ; solution of 3 ozs. of seed' lac in 1 pt. 
alcohol. When dissolved, add ^ oz. Venice turpentine, i oz. dragon's 
blood, will make it dark. Keep it in a warm place 4 or 5 days. 13. Pale 
I^arquer, for Tin Plate. — Best alcohol, 8 ozs. ; turmeric, 4 drs. ; hay saffron, 

2 scrs. ; dragon's blood, 4 scrs. ; red sanders, 1 scr. ; shellac, 1 oz. ; gum 
sandarac, 2 firs. ; gum Tuastic, 2 drs. Canada balsam, 2 drs. ; when dissol- 
ved, add spts. turpentine, 80 drops. 14. Bed Lacquer for Brass. — Alcohol, 
8 gals. ; dragon's blood, 4 lbs. ; Spanish annatto. 12 lbs. ; gum sandarac, 13 
lbs.; turpentine, 1 gal. 15. Pale Lacquer, for Brass. — Alcohol, 2 gals.; 
cape aloes, cut small, 3 ozs. ; pale sliellac, 1 lb. ; gamboge, 1 oz. 16. Best 
Lacquer for Brass. — Alcohol, 4 gals.; shellac, 2 lbs.; amber gnm, 1 lb. ; 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 617 

eopal, 20 ozs. ; seed lac, 3 lbs. ; saffron to color ; pulverized glass, 8 ozs. 
17. Color for Lacquer. — Alcohol, 1 qt. ; annatto, 4 ozs. 18. Gilder's Pickle. 
— Alum and common salt, eacii, 1 oz. ; nitre, 2 ozs.; dissolved in water, ^ 
pt. Used to impart a rich yellow color to gold surfaces. It is best largely 
diluted witii water. 

Bronzing Compositions, 32 KINDS. — 1. Silver White Bronzinci Pmvder. 
— Melt together 1 oz. each, bismuth and tin, then add 1 oz. quicksilver, cool 
and powder. 2. Gold colored Bronze. — Verdigris, 8 ozs. ; tutty powder, 4 
ozs. ; borax and nitre, of each 2 ozs. ; bichloride of mercury, \ oz. ; make 
into a paste with oil and fuse them together. Used in japanning as a gold 
color. 3. Bemitiful Red Bronze Poivder. — Sulphate of copper, 100 parts ; 
carbonate of soda, 60 parts ; apply heat until they unite into a mass. 4. 
Acid Bronze. — Cobalt, 4 lbs. ; pulverize ; sift tlirough a fine sieve ; put in 
a stone pot ; add h gal. nitric acid, a little at a time, stirring frequently for 
24 hours ; then add about, 5 gals, muriatic acid, or until the work conies 
out a dark brown. 5. Alkali Bronze. — Dissolve 5 lbs. nitrate of copper in 
3 gals, of water ; and 5 lbs. pearlash ; add 1 or 2 i)ts. potash water ; then 
add from 2 to 3 lbs. sal ammoniac or until the work comes out the required 
color. 6. Coaling Dip. — Sulphate of zinc, 8 lbs.; oil of vitriol, 5 gals.; 
aquafortis, | gal. ; To use, warm up scalding hot. 7. Quick Bright Dip- 
ping Arid, for Brass which has been Ormolued. — Sulphuric acid 1 gal. ; nitric 
acid, 1 gal. 8. Dipping Acid. — Sulphuric acid, 12 lbs. ; nitric acid, 1 pt. ; 
nitre, 4 lbs. ; soot, 2 handfuls ; brimstone, 2 ozs. ; pulverize the brimstone 
and soak it in water 1 hour, add the nitric acid last. 9. Good Dipping Acid 
for cast Brass. — Sulidiuric acid, 1 qt. ; nitre, 1 qt. ; a little muriatic acid may 
be added or omitted. 10. Ormolu Dipping Acid for Sheet Brass. — Sulphuric 
acid, 2 gals. ; nitric acid, 1 pt.; muriatic acid, 1 pt. ; nitre, 12 lbs. ; put in 
the muriatic acid last, a little at a time, and stirring tlie mixture with a 
stick. 11. Dipping Acid.- — Sulphuric acid, 4 gals. ; nitric acid, 2 gals. ; sat- 
urated solution of sulphate of iron, 1 pt. ; solution of suljihate of copper, 1 
qt. 12. Ormohi Dipping Acid for cast Brass. — Sulpliuric acid, 1 gal. ; sal am- 
moniac, 1 oz. ; sulphur (in flour), 1 oz. ; blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; saturated solu- 
tion of zinc in nitric acid, 1 gal. ; mixed with an equal quantity of sidpliur- 
ic acid. 13. Vinegar Bronze for Brass. — Vinegar, 10 gals. ; blue vitriol, 8 
lbs. ; muriatic acid, 3 lbs. ; corrosive sublimate, 4 ozs. ; sal-ammoniac, 2 
lbs. ; alum, 8 ozs. 14. Antique Bronze Paint. — Sal-ammoniac, 1 oz. ; cream 
of tartar, 3 ozs. ; common salt, 6 ozs. ; dissolve in 1 pt. hot water ; then add 
nitrate of copper, 2 ozs. ; dissolve in ^ pt. water; mix well and apply it to 
the article in a damp place with a brush. 15. Blue Bronze on Copper. — Clean 
and polish well, then cover the surface with a fluid obtained by dissolving 
Termilion in a warm solution of sodium, to which some caustic potash has 
been added. 16. Bronze Dip. — Sal-ammoniac, 1 oz. ; salt of sorrel (binox- 
alate of potash), ^ oz. ; dissolved in vinegar. 17. Parisian Bronze Dip. — Sal- 
ammoniac, ^ oz. ; common salt, -J oz. ; spirits of hartshorn, 1 oz. ; dissolved 
in an English qt. of vinegar, a good result will be obtained by adding -J oz. 
sal-ammoniac instead of spts. of hartshorn; the piece of metal being well 
cleaned is to be rubbed with one of these solutions, then dried by friction 
with a fresh brush. 18. Green Dip. — Wine vinegar, 2 qts. ; verditer green, 
2 ozs. ; sal-ammoniac, 1 oz. ; salt, 2 ozs. ; alum, 4 oz. ; French berries, 8 
ozs. ; boil the ingredients together. 19. Aquafortis Dip. — Nitric acid, 8 ozs. ; 
muriatic acid, 1 qt. : sal-ammoniac, 2 ozs. ; alum, 1 oz. ; salt, 2 ozs. 20. 
Olive Bronze Dip for Brass. — Nitric acid, 3 ozs. ; muriatic acid, 2 ozs. ; add 
titanium or palladiinn, when the metal is dissolved add 2 gals, pure soft 
water to each pt. of tlie solution. 21. Brown Bronze Paint for Copper Vessels. 
— Tinct. of steel, 4 ozs. ; spts. of nitre, 4 ozs. ; blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; water, ^ 
pt. ; mix in a bottle, apply it witli a fine brush, the vessel being full of boil- 
ing water. Varnish after the application of the bronze. 22. Bronze for all 
kinds of Metal. — Muriate of ammonia (sal-ammoniac), 4 drs. ; oxalic acid, 1 
dr. ; vinegar, 1 pt. ; dissolve the oxalic acid first ; let the work be clean, put on 
the bronze with a brush, repeating the operation as many times as may be 



G18 MACHINISTS^ METAL WORKERS, &C. 

necessary. 23 Green Bronze. — Dissolve 2 ozs. nitrate of iron, and 2 ozs. 
lijposulpliate of soda in 1 pt. of water ; immerse the article until the re- 
quired shade is obtained, as almost any sliade from brown to red can be ob- 
tained according to the time of immersion, then well wash with water, dry 
and brusii. 24. Pale Deep Olive Green Bronze. — Perchloride of iron, 1 part ; 
water, 2 parts. Mix and immerse the brass. 25. Dark Green. — Saturate 
nitric acid with copper and innnerse the brass. 26. Dead Black for Brass 
Work. — Rub tlie surface first with tripoli, then wash it with a solution of 
1 part neutral nitrate of tin, with 2 parts chloride of gold, after 10 minutes 
wipe it off with a wet clotli. 27. Best Bronze for Brass. — Take 1 lb. of ni- 
tric acid, and ^ lb. of white arsenic, put them into an earthen vessel and 
then proceed in the usual manner. 28. Another Bronze for Brass. — 1 oz. 
muriate of ammonia, J oz. alum, ^ oz. arsenic, dissolve together in 1 pt. of 
strong vinegar. 29. Black Dip for Bixiss. — Hydrochloric acid (commonly 
called smoking salts), 12 lbs. ; sulphate of iron, 1 lb. ; and pure white arse- 
nic, 1 lb. This dip is used in all the large factories in Birmingham, but the 
dip used in the London trade is 2 ozs. corrosive sublimate, in 1 pt. of the 
best vinegar, cork both air tight in a bottle, let it stand 24 hours ; then it 
is fit for use. 30. Quick Bright Dip for Brass. — Use strong nitric acid in suf- 
ficient quantity, dip your brass in tlie liquid for an instant, withdraw, and 
immediately immerse it first in cold water, then in boiling water, for a sliort 
time only in each bath, then allow it to dr}^ repeat the process if necessary. 
31. Application of Bronze Powder. — The proper way is to varnish the article 
and then dust the bronze powder over it after the varnish is partly dry. 32. 
• — Black color for Brass Work. — Make a strong solution of nitrate of silver, 
in one disli and nitrate of copper, in another. Mix the two together and 
plunge in the brass. Now heat the brass evenly till the required degree 
of blackness is acquired. Unrivalled as a beautiful color on optical instru- 
ments. 

Graham's Quick Bronzing Liquids. — For immediate action on Copper, 
Brass or Zinc. — 1 Brown or Dark Bronze for Copper, Brass, or Zinc. — Dissolve 
6 drachms nitrate of iron.in 1 pt. water; or, 5 drs. perchloride of iron in 
1 pt. water. A black may also be obtained from 10 ozs. muriate of ar- 
senic in 2 pts. permuriate of iron, and 1 ])t. water 2. Brown or Red Bronzing 
for Brass. — Dissolve 15 drs. nitrate of iron, and 16 drs. hyposulphate of soda 
in 1 pt. water, or, 1 dr. nitric acid may be substituted for the nitrate of iron. 
3. lied Brown Bronzim; for Brass. — Dissolve 1 oz. nitrate of copper, and 
1 oz. oxalic acid in 1 pt. water, brougjit to the boil and then cooled. 4. Dark 
Brown Bronzimj for Brass. — Mix 1 oz. cyanide of potassium, and 3 drs. nitric 
acid, with 1 pt. tvater. 5. Red Bronzing for Brass. Mix 30 grs. tersulphate 
of arsenic, 6 drs. solution of pearlash, and 1 pt. water. 6. Orange Bronzing 
on Brass. — Mix 1 dr. potash solution of sulphur with 1 pt. water. 7. Olive 
Green Bronzing for Brass. — Dissolve 1 pt. permuriate of iron in 2 pts. water. 
8. Slate-colored Bronzing for Brass. — Dissolve 2 drs. sulphocyanide of potas- 
sium, and 6 drs. perchloride of iron, in 1 pt. water. 9. Steel Grey Bronzing 
for Brass. — Mix 1 oz. muriate of arsenic with 1 pt. water, and use at a heat 
not less than 180° Fahr. 10. Bright Red Bronzing for Copper. — Mix 2 drs. 
sulphide of antimony, and 1 oz. pearlasli in 1 pt. water. 11. Dark Red Bronz- 
ing for Copper. — Dissolve 1 dr. sulphur and 1 oz. pearlash in 1 pt. water. 12. 
Copper Colored Bronzing for Zinc. — Agitate tlie articles in a solution of 8 drs. 
sulphate of copi)er, and 8 drs. hyposulphate of soda in 1 pt. water. 

Hardening and Filling for Fire-proof Safes. — Experience has 
shown that the fire and burglar-proof diamond chill for iron or steel, de- 
scribed in another part of this work, has no superior as a hardening for 
security in the construction of safes ; and, as a non-conductor of heat, we 
would recommend a filling of ])Iaster of Paris or alum. It is claimed by 
some that a mixture of both of these articles forms the best known filling 
for safes, as an external application of intense heat is certain to liberate a 
large quantity of water, which is transformed into steam, thus ensuring en- 
tire safety to the contents of the safe. Other manufacturers employ con- 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. G19 

Crete fillinsj for safes, ami extol it very higlily. Mr. Moffat, gas and steam- 
fitter, Boston, lias inforiiied nie tliat lie has applied for a protection in the 
matter of a discovery by wliicdi he claims that he can fully protect a safe 
against a double blast furnace iieat, b}' means of an outside lining of bricks 
composed of asbestos and kaolin, a very small portion of the latter material 
being used. From the well known incombustible nature of these materials, 
there can be no reasonable doubt but that the claim in question is a just 
one. 

CoNCERMNG Saws, Hailwat Springs, &c. — When the saws are wanted 
to be rather hard, but little of the oil tempering composition is burned off ; 
when milder, a large portion ; and for a spring temper the whole is allowed 
to burn away. Saws as well as springs appear to lose their elasticity, after 
hardening and tempering, from the reduction they undergo in grinding and 
polishing. Towards the conclusion of the manufacture, the elasticity of 
the saw is restored principally by hammering, and partly over a clear v.ohe 
fire to a straw color ; the tint is removed by very diluted muriatic acid, 
after which the saws are well washed in plain water and dried. Spring 
manufacture includes the heaviest specimens of hardened steel works un- 
combined with iron ; for example, bow-springs for all kinds of vehicles, some 
intended for railway use measure 3^ feet long, and weigh 50 lbs. each piece, 
two of these are used in combination ; other single springs are 6 feet long; 
and weigh 70 lbs. The principle of these bow-springs will be immediately 
seen by conceiving the common archery bow fixed horizontally with its cord 
upwards : the body of the carriage being attached to the cord sways both 
perpendicularly and sidewaj's with perfect freedom. In hardening them tliey 
are heated by being drawn backwards and forwards through an ordinary 
fire built hollow, and they are immersed in a trough of plain water. In 
tempering them they are lieatod until the black red is just visible at night; 
by tlaylight the heat is denoted l)y its making a ])iece of wood sparkle when 
rubbed on the spring, which is then allowed to cool in the a.r. The metal 
is nine-sixteenths of an inch thick, and some consider five-eighths the limits 
to which steel will harden properly, that is sufficiently alike to serve as a 
spring. Their elasticity is tested far beyond their intended range. 

Lightning Rods. — The conditions that determine a perfect lightning 
conductor are that it shall expose, in some prominent position on a building- 
a metallic point, and that it sliall offer from this point to the moist earth a 
path of little or no resistance to the passage of the current. The ordinary 
galvanized iron wire No. 4, one quarter of an inch in diameter, it is contend- 
ed, is amply suftieient for any dwelling house. The precautions necessary 
in fixing conductors to houses are : 1. The conductor must be solid and 
continuous. There should be no joint, unless it be a well-soldered one. 2. 
The ground connection must be sound and good. 3. Each conductor, if 
there be more than one, should have a separate ground connection ; but they 
should all be connected together. It is unnecessary to insulate these con- 
ductors. There should be no points or acute angle in the conductors — the 
straighter and more direct their course to the earth the belter. It is safest 
to consider that the area protected by the conductor is equal to its height 
above the ground. 

How TO FIT Keys into Locks. — When it is not convenient to take 
locks apart in the event of keys being lost, stolen, or missing, when you 
wish to fit a new key, take a lighted match or candle, and smoke the new 
key in the flame, introduce it carefully into the key-hole, press it firmly 
against the opposing wards of the lock, withdraw it ; and the indentations 
in the smoked part of the key will show you exactly where to file. 

Pptting Machines Together. — In putting machines together no part 
should be finished except where it is necessary to make it fit, as it is some- 
times the case that machinery is miscalculated, and by finishing it would be 
spoiled, while if it were not, it might be saved by slight alterations in design. 
And again, in finishing certain parts before you get a machine together, you 
are unknowingly finishing parts not necessary to be finished, and making 



620 MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 

them of a sliape a,iiy tiling but desirable. This rule, however, is not intended 
to apply to machinery being made to detail drawings. 

To Repair Cracked Bells. — The discordant tones of a cracked bell 
being due to the jarring of tlie nigged uneven eilges of the cracks against 
each other, the best remedy tliat can be applied is to cut a thin slit witli a 
tootldess saw driven at a very higii velocitj', say 300 or 400 revolutions 
per minute, in sucii a manner as to cut awa}' the opposing edges of the 
fracture wlierever they come in contact. This will restore the original tone 
of the belh 

To Break up Old Cannon. — Old cannon and massive castings may be 
cut in two by a continuous stream of hot molten iron, whicli wears away 
the iron as a stream of liot water would eat into a mass of ice. Or the gun 
may be rolled on a frame to tlie mouth of a furnace, and the muzzle end 
shoved in as far as possible among other iron, the opening filled up and 
luted around the gun, the end of wliich is melted off. At the next ciiarge 
shove it in another lengtli, and so on until the breech is disposed of. 

Large masses of cast iron may be broken up by drilling a hole in the 
most solid part, filling it up witli water, fitting a steel plug very accurately 
into the hole, and letting the drop of a pile driver descend on the plug. 

Different Styles of Filing. — To file a surface true, it is necessary 
on commencing, to squeeze the file tightly between the third and fourth 
fingers and palm of your hand until you become used to it. Your position 
in filing should be half left face to your work, with tlie middle of your 
riglit foot fifteen inches behind your left heel ; and to file your work true 
or square, it is necessary to reverse your work often, as liy this means you 
are enabled to see the whole surface you are filing and see while filing, 
whether you are filing true or not. When, however, your work is so heavy 
that you cannot reverse it you had better file first to the right and then to 
the left, as by this means you can plainly see the file marks, and this again 
assists you in filing true. 

To Kemedy Slip of Driving Belts. — Dab on a little of the sticky oil 
which oozes away from the bearings of machinery. 

Tarnish on Electro-Plate Goods may be removed by immersing 
the article from one to ten or fifteen minutes, or until the tarnish has been 
removed, but no longer, in the following solution: Rain water, 2 gals.; 
(ryanuret potassa, i lb. ; dissolve and put into a stone jug or jar and closely 
cork. After immersion, the articles must be taken out and thorougiily 
rinsed in two or three waters, then dried with a soft linen cloth, or, if 
frosted or chasec] work, with fine clean sawdust. Tarnisheil jewellery may 
be sjieedily restored by this process ; but make sure work of removing the 
alkali, otherwise it will corrode the goods. 

Solution for Dipping Steel Articles, Previously to Electro- 
Plating. — Nitrate of silver, 1 jiart ; nitrate of mercur\', 1 part ; nitric acid 
(sp. gr., 1..384), 4 parts ; water, 120 parts. Fur copper articles. — Sulphuric 
acid, 64 parts ; water, 64 parts ; nitric acid, 32 parts ; muriatic acid, 1 part; 
mix. The article, free from grease, is dipped in the pickle for a second or 
two. 

Coating Iron Castings With Gold or Silver. — The articles to be 
gilded are well cleaned and boileil in a porcelain vessel, together with 12 
parts of mercury, 1 of zinc, 2 of iron vitriol, 14- of muriatic acid of 1.2 
specific gravity; and 12 parts of water ; in a short time a la3'er of mercury 
will deposit upon the iron, and upon this the gold amalgam may be uni- 
formly distributed. Iron to be silvered is first jirovided with a coating of 
cojjper, npon which the silver is applied either by means of amalgam or 
silver leaf. 

Brunswick Black for Grates, &c. — •Asphaltnm, 5 lbs. ; melt, and 
add boiled oil, 2 Ihs. ; spirits of turpentine, 1 gal. Mix. 

Bronze Paint for Iron.— Ivorj' black, 1 oz. ; ciirome yellow, 1 oz. ; 
chrome green, 2 lbs. ; mix with raw linseed oil, adding a little japan to 
dry it, and you have a very nice bronze green. If desired, gold bronze 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 621 

may be put on the prominent parts, as on the tips or edges of an iron rail- 
ing where tlie paint is not quite dry, use a piece of velvet or plush to rub 
on the bronze. 

Tinning Iron. — Cleanse tlie metal to be tinned, and rub with a coarse 
cloth, previously dipped in hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid,) and then rub 
on French putty witli tiie same cloth. French putty is made by mixing 
tin lilings witli mercury. 

Tinning. — 1. Plates or vessels of brass or copper boiled with a solution 
of stannate of potassa, mixed with turnings of tin, become, in the course of 
a few minutes, covered with a firmly attached layer of pure tin. 2. A 
similar effect is produced b}' boiling tlie articles with tin-filings and caustic 
alkali, or cream of tartar. In the above way, chemical vessels made of 
copper or brass may be easily and perfectly tinned. 

To Recover the Tin from old Britannia. — Melt the metal, and 
while hot spriidile sulphur over it ; and stir it up for a short time, this burns 
the other metals out of the tin, which may then be used for any purpose 
desired. 

Kdstitien's Metal for Tinning. — Malleable iron, 1 lb., heat to white- 
ness ; add 5 ozs. regulus of antimony, and Malacca tin, 2-4 lbs. 

Preventing of Rust. — Cast iron is best preserved by rubbing it with 
blacklead. For polished work, varnish with wax dissolved in benzine, or add 
a little olive oil to copal varnish and thin with spts. turpentine. To remove 
deep-seated rust, use benzine, and polisli off witli fine emery, or use tripoli, 
2 parts ; powdered sulphur, 1 part. Apply with soft leather. Emery and 
oil is also very good. 

To Purify Zinc. — Pure zinc may be obtained by precipitating its sul- 
phate by an alkali, mixing tlie oxide thus produced with charcoal powdered, 
and exposing the mixture to a bright red heat in a covered crucible in 
which tlie pure metal will be found as a button at the bottom when cold. 

Transparent Blue for Iron or Steel. — Demar varnish, i gal. ; fine 
ground Prussian blue, i oz. ; mix thoroughlj'. Makes a splendid appear- 
ance. Excellent for blueing watch-hands. 

Lead Shot are cast by letting the metal run through a narrow slit into 
a species of colander at the top of a lofty tower ; the metal escapes in 
drops, whicli, for the most part, assume tlie spherical form before tliey 
reach the tank of water into which they fall at the foot of the tower, and 
this prevents their being bruised. They are afterwards riddled or sifted 
for size, and afterwards churned in a barrel with black lead. 

Paint for Sheet Iron Smoke Pipe. — Good varnish, ^ gallon ; boiled 
linseed oil, i gallon ; add red lead suflicient to bring to tlie consistency of 
common paint. Apply with a brush. Applicable to any kind of iron work 
exposed to the weatlier. 

To Copper the Surface of Iron, Steel, or Iron Wire. — Have the 
article perfectly clean, tlien wash with the following solution, and it pre- 
sents at once a coppered surface. Rain water, 3 lbs. ; sulphate of copper, 
lib. 

Lead Pipe, is made by forcing lead, while heated to a plastic state, over 
an annular mandril or die to form the core, by means of hydraulic pressure. 

To Join Broken Lead Pipes during Pressure of Water. — It fre- 
quently happens tiiatlead pipes get cut or damaged wlien the water is run- 
ning at a high pressure, causing much trouble to make repairs, especially 
if tiie water cannot be easily turned off. In tiiis case plug both ends of the 
pipe at the break, place a small pile of broken ice and salt around them. 
In a few minutes tlie water in the pipe will freeze ; next, withdraw the 
plugs and insert a new piece of pipe; solder perfectly, tiiaw the ice, and it 
will be all right. 

To Repair small Leaks in Lead Pipes. — Place the point of a dull 
nail over the leak, give it a gentle tap with the hammer and the flow will 
cease. 

To Prevent Corrosion in Lead Pipes. — Pass a strong solution of 



622 MACniNISTS, MKTaL workicus, &c. 

Bulpliide of potassium and sodium tliroiigli tlie inside of tlie pipe at a tem- 
perature of 212'', and allow it to remain about 10 or 15 minutes. It converts 
the inside of tlie pipe into an insoluble sulphide of lead and prevents cor- 
rosion. 

To Bend Copper or Brass Tubes. — Run melted lead or resin into 
your pipe till full, and you may then bend it gradual!}' into any desired 
sliape ; the pipe may then be heated and the lead or resin melted and run out. 

To Join Lead Plates. — The joints of lead plates for some purposes 
are made as follows : The edges are brought together, hammered down 
into a sort of channel cut out of wood and secured with a few tacks. The 
hollow is then scraped clean with a scraper, rubbed over with candle 
grease, and a stream of hot lead is poured into it, the surface being after- 
wards smoothed with a red hot plumber's iron. 

To Join Lead Pipes. — Widen out the end of one pipe with a taper 
wood rift, and scrape it clean inside ; scrape the end of the other pipe out- 
side a little tapered, and insert it in the former: then solder it with com- 
mon lead solder as before described ; or, if it requires to be strong, rub a 
little tallow over, and cover the joint with a ball of melted lead, holding a 
cloth (2 or 3 plies of greased bedtick) on the underside; and smoothing 
orer with it and the plumber's iron. 

To Prevent Lead Exploding. — Many mechanics have had their 
patience sorely tried when pouring melted lead around a damp or wet joint 
to find it explode, blow out, or scatter from the effects of steam generated 
by the heat of the lead. The whole trouble may be stopped by putting a 
piece of resin the size of the end of a man's thumb into the ladle and allow- 
ing it to melt liefore pouring. Simple as the secret is, many have paid 
$20 for the privilege of knowing it. 

Tabular View of the Processes of Soldering. — Hard Soldering. The 
hard solders most connnonlv used are the spelter solders, and silver solders. 
The general flux is borax, marked A on the table, and the modes of heating 
are the naked fire, the furnace or muffle, and the blow pipe, marked a, l>, </, 
applicable to nearly all metals less fusible than the solders ; the modes of 
treatment are nearly similar throughout. Note. — The examples commejice 
with the solders (the least fusible first) followed by the metals for which 
they are commonly employed. Fine gold, laminated and cut into siireds, is 
used as the solder for joining chemical vessels made of platinum. Silver is 
by many considered as much the best solder for German silver ; for silver 
solders, see Jewellers' alloys. Copper cut in shreds, is sometimes similarly 
used for iron. Gold solders laminated are used for gold alloys. Spelter 
solders, granulated whilst hot, are used for iron, copper, brass, gun metals, 
German silver, &c., see below. Silver solders laminated, are employed for 
all silver works and for common gold work, also for German silver, gilding 
metals, iron, steel, brass, gun metal, &c., when greater neatness is reqaired 
than is obtained from spelter solder. 

White or button solders, granulated, are employed for the white alloys 
called button metals ; they were introduced as cheap substitutes for silver 
solder. Hard Soldering. — Applicable to nearly' all the metals ; the modes of 
treatment are very different. The soft solder mostly used is two parts tin 
and one of lead : sometimes, from motives of economy, much more lead !j 
employed, and 1^ tin to 1 lead is the most fusible of the group, unless bis- 
muth is used. The fluxes B to G, and the modes of heating, a to i, a» all 
used with the soft solders. 

Note. — The examples commence with tlie metals to be soldered. Tlius 
in the list, zinc, 8, c, f, implies that zinc is soldered with No. 8 alloy, by the 
aid of the muriate or chloride of zinc, and the copper bit. Lead, 4 to 8, F, 
d, e, implies that lead is soldered with alloys varying from No. 4 to 8, and 
that it is fluxed with tallow, the heat being applied by pouring on melted 
solder, and the subsequent use of the heated iron, not tinned ; but in general 
one only of the modes of heating is selected, according to circumstances. 
Iron, cast-iron and steel, 8, B, D, if thick, heated by a, b, or c, and also bj (/ 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 623 

Tinned iron, 8, G, T),f. Gold and silver are soldered with pure tin or else witli 
8, E, a, g, or h. Copper and many of its alloys, namely l)rass, gnding naetal, 
gun metal, &o., 8, B, C, D ; when thick, heated by a, b, c, e, or </, when thin, 
byy, or 7. Speculum metal, 8, B, C, D, tlie iieat should be cautiously ap- 
plied ; the sand bath is perhaps the best mode. Zinc, 8 C, /. Lead aud 
lead pipes, or ordinary plumber's work, 4 to 8 F, d, or e. Lead and tin pipe^, 
8, D, and G, mixed 9, and alsoy. Britannia metal, C, D, 7. Pewters, tiie 
solders must vary in fusibilitj' according to the fusibility of tlie metal, gene- 
rally G, and i, are used, sometinies, also G, and 17 or y. Lead is united witli- 
out solder by pouring on red liot lead, and employing a red hot iron, c?, e. 
Iron and brass are sometimes burned, or united by partial fusion, by pouring 
very hot metal over or around them. For table of melting heats, flu.xes, &c., 
see p. 644. 

Solders, 32 Kinds. — 1. Plumbers' Solder. — Leail, 2 parts ; tin, 1 part. 
2. Tinmen's Solder. — Lead, 1 part ; tin, 1 part. 3. Zinc Solder. — Tin, 1 part; 
lead, 1 to 2 parts. 4. Pewter Solder. — Lead, 1 part ; bismuth, 1 to 2 parts. 
5. Spelter Solder. — Equal parts copper and zinc. 6. Peuierers' Soft. Solder. — 
Bismuth, 2 ; lead, 4 ; tin, 3 parts. 7. Another. — Bismuth, 1; lead, 1; tin, 2 
parts. 8. Another Pewter Solder. — Tin, 2 parts ; lead, 1 part. 9. Glazier's 
Solder. — Tin, 3 parts ; lead, 1 part. 10. Solder for Copper. — Copper, 10 parts ; 
zinc, 9 parts. 11. Yellow Solder for Brass or Copper. — Copper, 32 ll)s. ; zinc, 
29 lbs ; tin, 1 lb. 12. Brass Solder. — Copper, 61.25 parts ; zinc, 38.75 parts. 
13. Brass Solder, Yellow and easily fusible. — Copper, 45 ; zinc, 55 parts. 14. 
Brass Solder, White. — Copper, 57.41 parts ; tin, 14.60 parts ; zinc, 27.99 parts. 
15. Another Solder for Copper. — Tin, 2 parts ; lead, 1 part. When the cop- 
per is thick, heat it by a naked fire ; if thin, use a tinned copper tool. Use 
muriate or chloride of zinc, as a flux. The same solder will do for iron, cast 
iron, or steel ; if the pieces are thick, heat by a naked fire, or immerse in the 
solder. 16. Black Solder. — Copper, 2 ; zinc, 3; tin, 2 parts. 17. Another. — 
Sheet brass, 20 lbs. ; tin, 6 lbs. ; zinc, 1 lb. 18. Cold Brazing icUhout Fire or 
Lamp. — Fluoric acid, 1 oz. ; oxy-muriatic acid, 1 oz. ; mix in a lead bottle. 
Put a chalk mark each side where you want to braze. This mixture will 
keep about 6 months in one bottle. 19. Cold Soldering ivithout Fire or Lanijy: 
— Bismuth, 2 oz. ; quicksilver, ]^ oz. ; block tin filings, 1 oz. ; sjjirits salts, 
1 oz. ; all mixed together. 20. To Solder Iron to Steel or either to Brass. — 
Tin, 3 parts ; copper, 39^ parts ; zinc, 7^ parts. When applied in a molten 
state it will firmly unite metals first named to each other. 21. Phnnbers' 
Solder. — Bismuth, 1; leail, 5; tin, 3 parts; is a first class composition. 22. 
White Solder for Raised Britannia. Ware. — Tin, 100 lbs. ; hardening, 8 lbs. ; 
antimony, 8 lbs. 23. Hardening for Britannia. — (To be mixed separately 
from the other ingredients). Copper, 2 lbs. ; tin, 1 lb. 24. Best Soft Solder 
for Cast Britannia Ware. — Tin, 8 lbs. ; lead, 5 lbs. 25. Bismuth Solder. — 
Tin, 1 ; lead, 3 ; bismuth, 3 parts. 26. Solder for Brass that will Stand Ham- 
mering. — Brass, 78.26 parts ; zinc. 17.41 parts ; silver, 4.33 parts ; add a little 
chloride of potassium to your borax for a flux. 27. Solder for Steel Joints. — 
Silver, 19 parts ; copper, 1 part ; brass, 2 parts. Melt altogether. 28. Hard 
Solder. — Copper, 2 parts ; zinc, 1 part. Melt together. 29. Solder for Brass. 
—Copper, 3 parts ; zinc, 1 part ; with bora.x. 30. Solder for Copper. — Brass, 
6 parts ; zinc, 1 part; tin, 1 part; melt all together well, and pour put to 
cool. 31. Solder for Platina. — Gold with borax. 32. Solder for Iron. — The 
best solder for iron is good tough brass with a little borax. 

N.B. — In soldering, the surfaces to be joined are made perfectly clean and 
Bmooth, and then covered with sal ammoniac, resin or other flux, the solder is 
then applied, being melted on and smoothed over by a tinned soldering iron. 

Soldering Fluid. — Take 2 oz. muriatic acid ; add zinc till bubbles cease 
to rise ; add ^ teaspoonful of sal-ammoniac. 

Tempering Liquids. — 1. Water, 3 gals. ; soda, 2 ozs. ; saltpetre, 2 ozs. ; 
prussic acid, 1 oz.,^)r oil of vitriol, 2 ozs. 2. Water, 6 gals. ; saltpetre, sal- 
ammoniac and alum, of each, 4 ozs., and draw no temper. 3. Water, 4 gals. ; 
saltpetre and alum, of each, 4 ozs. ; sal-annuoniac, pulverized, 1 oz. ; salt, 3 



624 MACHINISTS, MliTAL WORKERS, &C. 

lbs. Heat to a clieiTV red and plunge in, drawing no temper. 4. Water, 4 
gals. ; saltpetre, 1 oz, ; pulverized borax, 1 oz. ; pulverized sal-ammoniac, 1 
oz. ; wliite vitriol, 2 ozs. ; salt, 3 pts. Do not liammer too cold, nor heat too 
liigli. 5. Water, 4 gals. ; salt, 2 teacupf uls ; saltpetre, 2 ozs ; pulverized 
alum, 4 teaspoonfuls ; never heat over a clierry red, nor draw any temper, 
6. Water, 2 gals. ; add corrosive sublimate, 1-| ozs. ; conmion salt, 2 hand- 
fuls ; when dissolved it is ready for use. Tlie first gives toughness to tlie 
steel, while the latter gives the hardness, causing the water to adhere to the 
steel, which otherwise would be repelled by tlie iieat. 7. Tempering Liquid 
for Mill Picks. — Water, 3 gals.; spts. of nitre, 3 ozs.; hartshorn, 3 ozs.; 
white vitriol, 3 ozs. ; alum, 3 ozs. ; sal-ammoniac, 3 ozs. ; salt, 6 ozs., with 2 
liandfuls of tlie parings of horses' hoofs. The steel is to be heated to a 
cherry red. A large jug of this preparation sliould be kept corked tight, in 
order to retain its strength. Use soft water in all these tempering liquids. 

Tempering Mill Picks. — Get double refined cast steel made expressly 
for mill picks. In drawing out the pick, use an anvil and hammer with 
smooth faces, and be careful not to heat the steel higher than a dark cherry 
red. Do not strike the pick on the edge when finishing it, but hammer it on 
tlief!at side, striking light and often, until the steel is quite dark, letting tlie 
blows fall so as to close the pores of the steel. When a dozen picks are 
ready to temper, get 2 gals, of rain water from whicli the chill should be 
taken, if in winter, by dipping a hot iron into it ; add 2 lbs. salt, and it is 
ready for use. Heat j'our pick gradually from the centre ; let the heat run 
to the point, and when it is a dark cherry red, dip tlie point vertically into 
the bath and hold it still. When the heat lias left the part immersed, take 
it out, and cool the balance of the pick in ordinary water. Be sure to heat 
and hammer well. 

To Temper a Drill very Hard. — Heat your drill to a cherry red and 
quench it in mercury. This will drill hardened steel. 

Composition for Tempering. — Resin, 7| parts ; whale oil, 1^ parts ; 
pulverized charcoal, -J part ; tallow, ^ V'Mt. Directions. — Very small tools 
should be dipped in this mixture, the same as in water, then polish and draw 
tlie temper as usual. Large tools sliould be dipped, then lieated up again 
and temper as usual. This composition will also restore burnt steel as good 
as new. If small tools, dip once. If large, dip two or three times; no ham- 
mering is required. 

Tempering Saws. — A late improvement consists in tempering and 
straightening the saws at one operation. This is done by heating the saws 
to the proper degree, and then pressing them with a sudden and powerful 
stroke between two surfaces of cold iron. A drop press is employed for 
the pur})ose. The mechanism is quite simple and inexpensive. Its use effects 
an important economy in the manufacture of nearly all kinds of saws, and 
also improves their quality. 

Tempering Spiral Springs. — Place a piece of roimd iron inside the 
spring, large enough to fill it ; tlien make the spring and iron red hot, and, 
when hot place them quickly into cold water, and stir them about till cold ; 
afterwards rub them with oil or grease, and move them about in a flame 
till the grease takes fire ; the spring will then be reduced to its proper 
temper. 

Tempering Steel Springs. — The steel used should be that called 
" spring " for the large work ; for small work, " double shear." After hard- 
ening in the usual way, in water, or, as some prefer, in oil, dry the spring 
over the fire to get rid of its moisture, then smear it over with tallow or oil, 
hold it over the flame of the smith's forge, passing it to and fro, so that the 
whole of it will be equally heated, holding it there until the oil or tallow 
takes fire. Take the article out of the fire and let it burn a short time, then 
blow it out. The process may be repeated two or three times if the opera- 
tor fancies that any portion of the spring has not been reduced to the prop- 
er temperature, or rather raised to it. 

To Temper Springs.— For tempering cast-steel trap springs, all that is 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, AC (325 

necessary is to lieiit them in tlie dark, just so that you can see tliat tliey are 
red ; then cool them in hike-warm water. You can observe a much lower 
degree of heat in the dark tluiii by daylight, and the low heat and warm 
water give the desired temper. 

Case-Hardening Compound. — Prussiate of potash, 2 lbs. ; sal-ammoniac, 
21bs. ; bone dust, 2 lbs. 

Tempering Swords and Cutlasses. — N. B. Ames, late of Chicopee, 
Mass., after many costly experiments, found that the best means of temper- 
ing swords and cuthisses tliat wouhl stand the U. S. Government test, was 
by iieating in a charcoal fire, hardening in pure spring water, and drawing 
the temper in cliarcoal flame. 

Tempering Tools. — Drawing the temper of tools is usually done in a 
charcoal flame, and to draw the temper of a tool properly it should be held 
in tlie thickest part, or tlie part not requiring any temper, towards the fire 
and in the meantime, should be often wiped with a piece of waste or rag, 
dipped in oil. Tlie oil keeps the temper even, and prevents it drawing more 
to one place than another. And in drawing the temi)er of any tool it sliould 
be drawn very slowly, otherwise it will run too far ere you are aware of it. 
Lancet blades and razors sliould be drawn to a straw color. Knife-blades 
and chisels should be drawn to a copper or almost red color. Plane-irons, 
shaving knives and shoemakers' knives the same temjier ; cold cliisels and 
stone drills sliould be drawn to a dark blue. Fluted reamers should only be 
drawn to a straw color, on the end, as they never break elsewhere, and 
keep their size longer by leaving the lips hard. Half round or tapering 
reamers, also tajis, dies, and drills, sliould be drawn to straw color. Jijucs 
and gauges, also common lathe tools, need no drawing, being tempered 
enough when merely hardened. 

To Temper Taps or Reamers without springing, select your steel for 
the job, an<l forge the tap with a little more than the usual allowance, being 
careful not to heat too hot nor hammer too cold ; after the tap or reamer is 
forged, heat it and hold it on one end of the anvil. If a large one, hit it 
with the sledge ; if a small one, the hammer will do. This will cause the 
tap to bend sliglitly. Do not straigiiten it witli the hammer, but on finish- 
ing and hardening the tap, it will become straight of its own accord. 

To Harden and Temper Cast Steel. — For saws and springs in general 
the following is an excellent liquid ; Spermaceti oil, 20 gals. ; beef suet ren- 
dered, 20 lbs. ; neat's-foot oil, 1 gal. ; j)itcli, 1 lb. ; black resin, 3 lbs. The 
last two articles must be previously melted together, and then added to the 
other ingredients, when the whole must be heated in a proper iron vessel, 
with a close cover fitted to it, until all moisture is evaporated, and the com- 
position will take fire on a flaming body being presented to its surface. 

Metallic Bath for Tempering. — Use a black lead or cast iron crucible 
(of the requisite depth), and place the same, filled with lead, on a fire made 
of coal or charcoal, and surrounded on all sides by a metallic or brick wall, 
level, or nearly so, with the top of the crucible ; but at a sufficient distance 
(sa}' 5 or 6 inches) from it, to receive the fuel necessary to maintain the fire, 
in order to keep the lead in a melted state. Let the crucible rest on iron bars, 
and leave apertures to admit air to the fire. The articles, slightl}' gre.ised 
to prevent the adherence of oxide, are immersed in the melted lead (which 
is kept at a red heat) by means of tongs, two or three pairs being generally 
used, in order that one or two pieces may be heated while the other is un- 
dergoing manipulation by the hardening process. Keep the lead covered with 
charcoal dust or cinders. This plan is used by many cutlers and tile manu- 
facturers forgiving the proper degree of heat in the tempering of their wares. 
The process is highly valued by those who use it. See file manufacture. 

To Temper Small Springs. — In Large Quantities. — First, harden them 
in the usual manner of liardening steel ; then place as many as convenient 
in a vessel containing oil. Heat the oil containing the springs until it takes 
fire from the top, and then'set off the vessel and let it cool. The springs 
will then be found to possess the required temper. 

27 



02G MACHINISTS, MiyiAL \»ORKEKS, &C. 

Tempering. — The article after being completed, is hardened bj' being 
heated gradually to a bright red, and then plunged into cold water : it is then 
tempered by being warmed gradualh' and equably, either over a fire, or on 
a piece of heated metal, till of the color corresponding to the purpose for 
which it is required, as per table below, when it is again plunged into 
water. 

Corresponding Temperature. 
A very pale straw . 430 Lancets | 

Straw 450 Razors ) 

Dark Straw . . . 470 Penknives / All kiinls of wood tools. 

Yellow 490 Scissors ) Screw taps. 

Brown yellow . . . 500 ) Hatchets, Chipping Chisels, 
Slightly tinged purple 520 > Saws. 

Purple 530 ) All kinds of percussive tools. 

Dark purple . . . 550 f c™n„„ 

Blue 570 5 ^P"^'"^^- 

Dark blue '. . . . 600 Soft for saws. 

Tempering Eazors, Cutlery, Saws, &c. — Razors and penknives are 
too frequently hardened without tlie removal of the scale arising from the 
forging : this practice, lahich is never done with the best ivorks, cannot be too much 
deprecated. The biades are heated in a coke or charcoal fire, and dipped in 
the water obliquely. In tempering razors, tiiey are laid on tlieir backs upon 
a clean fire, about half-a-dozen together, and tliey are removed one at a time, 
when the edges, which are as yet thick, come down to a pale straw color. 
Should the backs accidentally get heated beyond the straw color, the blades 
are cooled in water, but not otherwise. Pen-blades are tempered a dozen 
or two at a time, on a plate of iron or copper, about 12 inches long, 3 or 4 
inches wide, and about ^ of an inch thick. The blades are arranged close 
together on their back and lean at an angle against each other. As they 
come down to a temper, they are picked out witii small pliers and thrown 
into water if necessary; other blades are then thrust forward from the 
cooler parts of the plate to take their place. Axes, adzes, cold chisels, and 
other edge tools, in which the total bulk is considerable compared with the 
part to be hardened, are only partially dipped ; they are afterwards let 
down by the heat of the remainder of the tool ; and, when the color indi 
cative of the temper is attained, thej' are entirely quenched. With the 
view of removing tiie loose scales, or the oxidation acquired in the fire, 
.some workmen rub the objects hastily in dry salt before plunging them in 
water, in order to give them a cleaner and brighter face. 

Oil, or resinous mixtures of oil, tallow, wax, and resin, are used for many 
tliin and elastic articles, such as needles, fish hooks, steel pens and springs, 
whicli require a milder degree of iiardness than is giveii by water. Gun 
li)ck-springs are sometimes fried in oil for a considerable time over a fire, in 
an iron tray ; the tiiick jiarts are then sure to be sufficiently reduced, and 
tlie thin parts do not become the more softened from tiie continuan(;e of the 
blazing heat. Saws and springs are generally hardened in various compo- 
sitions of oil, suet, wax, &c. The saws are iieated in long furnaces, and 
tlien immersed horizontally and edgeways into a long trough contain- 
ing the composition. Part of the composition is wiped off the saws with 
a piece of leather, and when they are removed from the trough, and heated 
one by one, until the grease inflames. This is cnWed " blazing off." The 
composition used by a large saw manufacturer is 2 lbs. suet, and ]^ lb. of 
beeswax, to every gallon of whale oil, these are boiled together and will 
serve for thin works and most kinds of steel. The addition of black resin, 
about 1 lb. to each gallon, makes it serve for thicker pieces, and for tliose 
it refused to harden before ; but resin should be added witli judgment, 
or the works will become too hard and brittle. 

Turning and Boring. — For turning, the proper speed for the circum- 
ference is about fifteen feet per minute. The best speed for boring cast- 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 62 < 

iron is about 7}i feet per minute. For drilling, about 10 or 11 feet per 
minute is a good speed for the circumference of the tool. For a 1 incii 
drill, 40 revol'itions =11 feet per minute, other sizes in proportion. 

Boeing a Hole with a Boring Tool. — In borinsj a hole with a boring 
tool, it is usuallj- necessary to drill tlie hole first, and too much care cannot 
be taken in finishing. An iron gauge should be made first ; it is usually 
made of a piece of sheet iron or wire. The hole should then be drilled 
smaller than the size desired, and then bored to the required size, and it is 
impossible to bore a bole perfect without taking two or three light chips, 
mere scrapings with which to finish. Holes, in this wjiy, may be bored as 
nicely as they can be reamed. 

Boring Holes with Boring Arbor. — A boring arbor is a shaft witli 
a set in it, for the purpose of boring holes of great length, and is designed 
to be used in a lathe. In doing this properly, you must first see if 3'our 
latlie is set straight ; if not, adjust it. Having done this, put tlie piece of 
work to be bored in the carriage of your lathe, pass your arbor through the 
hole to be bored, and put it on the centres of your lathe. Having done 
this, adjust your work true to the position desired by measuring from the 
point of the tool, continually turning round the arbor from side to side of 
the piece to be bored, while you are bolting it to the carriage, and measure 
until it is perfectly true. Having done this, bore the iiole, and take for the 
last chip only a hundredth of an inch. This makes a true and smooth hole. 
It is impossible to make a hole true with any kind of a tool wlien 3-011 are 
cutting a large chip, for the tool springs so that no dependence can be 
placed upon it. 

To Drill a Hole where you have no Reamer. — It is sometimes ne- 
cessary to drill a hole of an exact size to fit a certain shaft, and at the same 
time have it smooth without reaming it. This may be done, by first dril- 
ling a bole one hundreth of an inch smaller than the size desired, and then 
making a drill the exact size and running it throtigh to finish with. This 
last drill should have the corners of its lips rounded, like a reamer, and the 
hole siiould be finished without holding tlie drill with a rest. 

To Mai^ a Boring Arbor and tool that will not Chatter. — 
Boring tool*when used in small arbors, are alwaj's liable to chatter and 
make a rough hole. To prevent this, the tool should be turned in a lathe, 
while in its position in the arbor, upon the circle of the size of the hole to 
be bored, and the bearing lengthwise of the arbor, should be only as wide 
as the feed of the lathe ; for if the bearing of a tool is on the face, the 
more it will chatter. 

To Straighten Shafting. — This should be done by centreing, then 
put it into a lathe, and square the ends up with what is called a side tool. 
After doing this, take a i)iece of chalk and try it in several places, to find 
out where the worst crooks are: then, if j'ouhave not a machine for spring- 
ing shafting, spring it with a lever where the most crook is, and continue 
this o])eration until the shaft is straight. 

Turning Shafting. — To do this properly, two chips should always be 
run over the shaft, for the reason that it saves filing, and leaves the sliaft 
truer and more round, and on siiafts thus turned, tlie time saved in filing 
more than compensates for tlie time lost in turning. Before you commence 
you will put your feed lielts or gear on a coarse feed: turn off one a sixty- 
fourth of an inch larger than the size required ; having turned off this chip, 
commence the finishing chip, and turn it small enough to have the pulley 
wring on about an inch without filing. This will leave it large enough to 
file and finish. If there are coujilings to go on a shaft, with holes smaller 
than the holes in the pulleys, the ends of the shaft, where they fit on, 
should be turned down to a sixty-fourth of an inch of the size required 
before any part of the shaft is finished ; that i.s, every part of a shaft should 
be turned to witliin a sixty -fourth of u.. Inoii of the size required before 
any part of it has the finish-chii) taken off. The reason for that is that 
it leaves ever}' part of the shaft perfectly true, whicli would not be the 



028 MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 

case were it done otherwise. Having clone this, you will file tiie sliaf t so 
tliat the pulleys will slide on, and tlie couplings so that they will drive on ; 
l)olisli the shaft witli a pair of polishing-clanips and some emery and it is 
done. 

To Forge a Twist Drill. — It is necessary to forge a flat blade similar 
to a flat drill, and then twist this blade into the resemblance required, 
then, with a light hammer, and careful blows, hammer the twisted edges 
so that they will be thicker than the central line of the tool. This will 
give greater strength and a better drill, and, to cut well, the central line or 
cutting point must be made quite thin. Be careful to get the same t/cist at 
the point of the drill as upon the body of the drill. The inexperienced often 
leave the point straight like a flat drill. 

To Compute the Number of Teeth Required in a Train of Wheels 
TO Produce a Given Velocity. Rule. — Multiply tiie number of teetli in 
the driver by its number of revolutions, and divide the product by the 
number of revolutions of each pinion, for each driver and pinion. For 
speed of Wheel Pull<'i/s,^c., seepage 267. 

Example. — If a driver in a train of three wlieels has 90 teeth, and makes 
2 revolutions, and the velocities required are 2, 10 and 18, wliat are the 
number of teeth in each of the other two. 

10 : 90 : : 2 : 18 = teelh in 2nd wheel. 
18 : 90 : : 2 : 10 = teeth in 8rd wheel. 
To Compute the Diameter of a Wheel. Rule. — Multiply the number 
of teeth by the pitch, and divide the product by 3. 1416. 

Example. — The number of teeth in the wheel is 75, and the pitch 1,675 
ins. : what is the diameter of it ? 

75X1.6755 

= 10 ins. 

3.1416 

To Compute the True orChordial Pitch. Rule. — Divide 180 by the 
number of teeth, ascertain the sine of the quotient, and multiply it by the 
diameter of the wheel. ^ 

Example. — The number of teetli is 75, and the diameter 40 inches; what 
is the true pitch ? 
180 

= 2«24, and sine of 2o24 = 04188, which X 40 = 1.6752 ins. 

75 

Paper Friction Pullets. — These superior mechanical contrivances 
are made by cutting pieces of pasteboard into a circular form, and of the 
desired diameter of the pulley, and placing them in layers one on the top 
of another, cementing properly with a good coat of glue between each 
layer, pounding or pressing them together as close as possible, and leaving 
a perforation in the centre of each, for the shaft. Wiien you have got 
enough of these layers together to give you the proper bn'eadth of pulley, 
allow the glue to harden, then turn it off to a smooth finish in a lathe. 
Secure each side of the pulley with a good stout iron flange large enough to 
cover the entire diameter, or nearly so, and with proper usage it will last a 
long time. 

On Belting and Friction. — Leather belts will last double the usual 
time if treated with castor oil, tliey will be rat proof, they will always 
remain flexible and will not crack. A belt 4 inches wide will be equal 
to one 6 inches wide without it. It requires about 24 hours to pene- 
trate the leather, if used sooner the greasiness will cause it to slip. A 
leather belt sliould have a speed of 1300 ft. per minute, and not more than 
1800 ft. or it will not last long. Leather belts, with grain side to pulley 
will drive 35 per. cent, mor? than the flesh side, because it is less porous, 
thus admitting less air between the surfiices. Pulleys covered with Iccather 
will evolve full 50 per cent, more power than the naked pulley. To in- 



MACHINISTS, METAL AVORKERS, &C. G29 

crease the power of rubber belting, use red lead, French j'eUow and 
litliarge, equal parts ; mix witli boiled liTiseed oil and japan sufBcient to 
make it dry quick. This will produce a highly polished surface. Experi- 
ments without lubricants resulted in showing the following co-efficients. 
Oak upon oak, 62 ; wrought iron on oak, 49 to 62; cast iron on oak, 65 ; 
wrought iron on cast, 19 ; cast iron on cast, 16 ; cast iron axles on lignum- 
vitse bearings, 18 ; copjier on oak, 62 ; iron on elm, 25 ; pear tree on cast 
iron, 44; iron axles on lignumvitae bearings (with oil), 11 ; iron axles with 
brass bearings (with oil), .07. A belt 5 in. wide, velocity 1000 ft. per 
minute, on leather covered pulleys, will yield 5-horse power; double the 
speed and it will evolve double the power. 

Wheel Gearing. — The Pitch Line of a wheel, is the circle upon which 
the pitch is measured, and it is tlie circumference by which the diameter, 
or the velocity of the wheel is measured. The Pitch, is the arc of the 
circle of the pitch line, and is determined by the number of teeth in the 
wheel. The True Pitch, (chordinl), or that by which the dimensions of the 
tooth of a wlieel are alone determined is a straight line drawn from the 
centres of two contiguous teeth upon the pitch line. The Line of Centres 
is the line between the centres of two wheels. The Radius of a wheel 
is the semi-diameter running to the periphery of a tooth. The Pitch Radius 
is the semi-diameter running to the pitcli line. The Length of « tooth is the 
distance from its base to its extremity. The Breadth of a tooth is the 
length of the face of wheel. A C07 Wheel is the general name for a wheel 
having a number of cogs set upon or radiating from its circumference. A 
Mortise Wheel is a wheel constructed for the reception of teeth or cogs 
which are fitted into recesses or sockets upon the face of the wheel. Plate 
Wheels, are wheels without arms. A Rack is a series of teeth set in a plane. 
A Sector is a wheel which reciprocates without forming a full revolution. 
A Spur Wheel is a wheel having its teeth perpendicular to its axis. A 
Bevel Wheel is a v/heel having its teeth at an angle with its axis. A Crown 
Wheel is a wheel having its teeth at a right angle with its axis. A Mitre 
Wheel is a wheel having its teeth at an angle of 45" with its axis. 
A Face Wheel is a wheel having its teeth set upon one of its sides. An 
Annular or Interned Wheel is a wheel having its teeth convergent to its 
centre. Spur Gear, wheels which act on each other in the same plane. 
Bevel Gear, wheels which act upon each other at an angle. When the 
tooth of a wheel is made of a ditferent material from that of the wheel, it 
is termed a coc/, in a pinion it is termed a leaf, and in a tnnidle it is termed 
a stave. A wheel which impels another is termed the spur, driver, or 
leader ; the one impelled is t\ie pinion, driver, or foUoivcr. A series of wheels 
in connection with each other is termed a train. When two wheels act on 
each other, the greater is termed the wheel and tlie lesser the pinion. A 
Trundle, Lantern, or Wullower, is when tl'.e teeth of a ])inion are constructed 
of round brass solid cylinders set in two discs. A Trundle with less than 
eight staves cannot be operated uniformly by a wheel with any number of 
teeth. The material of which cogs are made is about one fourth the 
strength of cast iron. Buchanan rules that to increase or diminish the 
velocity in a given proportion and with the least quantity of wheel-work, 
the number of teeth in each pinion should be to the number of teeth in its 
wheel as 1, 3. 5, 9. Even to save space and expense, the number should 
never exceed 1, 6. The least number of teeth that it is practicable to give 
to a wheel is regulated by the necessity of having at least one pair always 
in action, in order to provide for the contingency of a tooth breaking. The 
teeth of a wheel should be as small and numerous as is consistent with 
strength. When a pinion is driven by a wlieel, the number of teeth in the 
pinion should not be less than eight. When a wheel is driven hi/ a pinion, 
the numl)erof teeth in the pinion should not be less tlian ten. The number 
ofteethin a wheel should alwa3's be prime to the number of the pinion, that 
is, the number of teeth in the wheel should not be divisible by the number 
of teeth in the pinion without a remainder; this is in order to prevent the 



630 MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, «fcC. 

same teetli coming togetlier so often as to cause an irregular wear of tlieir 
faces. An odd tooth introduced into a wlieel is termed a huntinfj tooth or co(/ 
Galvanized Iron. — Tlie zinc in galviuiizeil iron exists in two states. 
Tiie state wiiicli constitutes its value is tliat of an actual alloy with the 
iron, liut besides there remains a considerable quantity of zinc which is 
merelj' adherent mechanically. A method has long been required for as- 
certaining with facility, and a certain degree of accuracy, the extent to 
which the zinc has combined with the iron, and if this combination is per- 
fect throughout the j)late. T. Bruce Warren has recently discovered a 
mode effecting this desideratmn. When mercur\' is rubbed over a per- 
fectly galvanized iron plate, it adheres nowhere ; but if part of the zinc is 
merely mechanically attached, in that place the mercury forms an amalgam 
with it and attaches itself firmly. To estimate the exact amount of zinc 
combined with the iron, Mr. Warren detaches a samjjle from the particular 
set of plates or wires to be tested, cleanses it with dilute sulphuric acid, 
and then immerses it from four to eight hours in mercury. The difference 
between the weights before and after immersion will be the amount of un- 
combined zinc. The piece is then heated in a deoxidizing flame, and the 
weight once more taken; the amount lost will, in this case, represent the 
quantit}" of zinc which was actually alloyed with the iron. 

To Form Perfect Squares. — You can test squares with the dividers 
by drawing two circles, one within the other, from the same centre, of 16 
and 12 inches diameter respectively ; then set the dividers to 10 inches, 
insert one point in any part of the outer circle, and mark the point exactly 
where a circle (drawn with the dividers in this position), would intersect 
the inner circle ; now draw a straight line through the centre of the circles 
and through the point marked in the iimer circle ; and through the outer 
one, another line starting from the point where tlie dividers were inserted 
in tlie outer circle through the centre of the circles until the outer circle is 
reached. If this is done exactly, the points where those lines intersect the 
outer circle will form the corners of a perfect square whose side is 11.3137 
inches. If the square is correct, it will fit the square thus formed, and also 
the lines in the centre, which divide the circle into 4 equal parts, and the 
angles must be 90°. This is based on the rule for finding tlie liypothenuse 
of a right-angled triangle, thus : 6 square = 36 and 8 square = 64, sum 100, 
the square root of which is 10. This is sometimes called the 6, 8, and 10 
rule for squaring buildings. 

Bells. — The London " Hour," in an article on campanology, or the art of 
ringing, says : The first origin of bells is unknown. They were used by 
the Hebrews, and are mentioned by Plutarch and other ancient writers. 
Those of the size ordinarily used in cliurches are said to have been invented 
by Paulinus, who, about a. d. 400, was Bishop of Nola in Campaiia — hence 
the terms campanology, campanile, &c. To Turketul, Abbot of Croyland, 
in Lincolnshire, may, we believe, be ascribed the credit of having 
introduced the first church bell used in England. The tone emitted by a 
bell dei)eiids conjointi}' on the diameter, height, and thickness ; and the 
casting of a bell is a work requiring great nicety in the performance. The 
metal used in making the great bell in York Minster — about twelve tons — 
took twelve days to cool. The gne in the cathedral at Montreal, cast by 
Messrs. Sjjcars, of Whitechapel, weighs thirteen and a lialf tons ; and 
" Big Ben," of Westminster, made by Messrs. Warner, of Stockton, weighs 
twenty-five tons, while the one at Moscow, which fell in 1737, weighed, ac- 
cording to Mr. Denison's estimate, no less than 200 tons. 

Wood, to Protect from the Influences of Air or Water. — A 
composition for the preservation of wood under these circumstances is com- 
posed as follows: — Take ten parts of sulphuret of copper, two parts of sul- 
phuret of antimony, and from five to thirty parts of the best drying var- 
nish.. These substances must be ground together, forming a kind of paint, 
which is then to be applieil to the wood. Another means of protecting 
wood, peculiarly liable to the influences of damp, is, to heat twelve pounds 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKKKS, &C. 631 

of resin in a mortar, witli throe pounds of sulj)liiir ami twelve pints of sperm 
oil. This mixture is to be melted over the fire, continually stirring mean- 
while. Oclire, reduced to a very fine powder, by grinding: it dowTi with oil, 
must tlien be combined in the proportion neressary to impart either a 
darker or a lighter color to tiie material. Tiie first coat must be put on very 
lightly, having been previously lieated ; the second coat may be laid on two 
or three days afterwards ; and a third after a similar interval. 

Wood, to Remove Stains from. — Stains of nearly every description 
may be removed from wood by tiie following method : — Mix a quarter of an 
ounce of oil of vitriol witli two ounces of water, and rub the stained surface 
with a cork dipped in this liquid until the stains disappear; then wasli the 
part with cold water. The color of the wood will fade for some time after 
this application ; but it may be restored by rubbing it with ordinary furni- 
ture paste. 

Wood, to Stain. — Any ordinary kind of wood may be stained of cer- 
tain colors, or made to imitate other woods, by the following process : — To 
stain wood of a black color. 1. Drop a little sulphuric acid into a small quan- 
tity of water, brush tlie wood over witli this and hold it to the fire, a fine 
black color will be produced, and it will receive a good polish. 2. Take half 
a gallon of vinegar, an ounce of bruised nutgalls, half a pound each of log- 
wood chips and copperas, boil well, add half an ounce of the tincture of ses- 
qiiichloride of iron, and brush it on tiie wood in a warm state. 3. Take 
half a gallon of vinegar, half a pound of dry lamp-black, and three pounds 
of iron-rust sifted. Mix, and let it stand for a week. Lay tliree coats of 
this on hot, and then rub with linseed oil, and a fine deep black will be pro- 
duced. 4. Add to the above ^tain an ounce of nutgalls, half a pound 
logwood chips, and a quarter of a pound of copperas ; lay on three coats, 
oil well, and a black stain will result impervious to any kind of weather. 
5. Take a pound of logwood chips, a quarter of a pound of Brazil wood, and 
boil for an hour and a half in a gallon of water. Brush the wood several 
times with tiiis decoction while hot. Make a decoction of nutgalls by sim- 
mering gently for three or four days a quarter of a pound of the galls in 
two quarts of water. Brush the wood several times with this decoction 
while hot; give the wood three coats of this, and while wet lay on a solu- 
tion of sulphate of iron, and when dry, oil or varnish. 6. Give three coats 
with a solution of copper filings in aquafortis, and repeatedly brush over 
tlie logwood decoction, until the greenness of the copper is destroyed. 
7. Boil half a pound of logwood chips in two quarts of water, add an ounce of 
pearlasli, and apply it hot with a brush. Then take two quarts of the log- 
wood decoction, half an ounce of verdigris, and the same of copperas ; 
strain, and tiirow in half a pouml of iron-rust. Brush the work well with 
this, and oil it. Blue Color. 1. Dissolve copper filings in aqua-fortis, brusli 
the wood with it, and then go over the work with a hot solution of pearlasli 
(two ounces to a pint of water), till it assumes a perfectly blue color. 
2. Boil a pound of indigo, two pounds of wood, and three ounces of alum in a 
gallon of water; brush well over until thoroughly stained. Imitation of 
Botany Bay icood. Boil half a pound of the unripe berries of the rhamnns 
infectorius, in two quarts of water, till of a deep yellow, and while boiling 
hot, give two or three coats to the work. If a deeper color be desired, give a 
coat of logwood decoction over the yellow. When nearly dry, form the 
grain with No. 7 Black stain, used hot, and wiien perfectly dry varnish. 
Green Color. Dissolve verdigris in vinegar, and brush over witii tiie hot 
solution until of a proper color. Mahogany color. 1. Boil half a pound of 
madder, and two ounces of logwood chips in a gallon of water, and brusii 
well over while hot. When dry, go over the whole witli pearlasli solution, 
two drachms to the quart. 2. Put two ounces of dragon's blood, bruised, 
into a quart of oil of turpentine ; let the bottle stand in a warm place, shake 
frequently, and when dissolved, steep the work in the mixture. Liyht red 
brown. Boil half a pound of madder, and a quarter of a pound of fustic in 
a gallon of water; brush the work when boiling hot, until properly stained. 



632 MACHINISTS, METAL "WORKERS, &C. 

2. Tiie surface of tlie work being quite smooth, brush over with a weak so- 
lution of aqiia-fortis ; half an ounce to the pint, anrl then finish with the 
following : — put four ounces and a half of dragon's blood, and an ounce of 
soda, both well bruised, to three pints of spirits of wine; let it stand in a 
warm place, shake it frequently, strain, and la^' on with a soft brush, re- 
peating until of a proper color ; polish witii linseed oil or varnish. Purple. 
Brush the work several times with the logwood decoctic^n used for No. 6 
black, and when dry give a coat of pearlash solution, one drachm to tlie 
quart, taking care to lay it on evenly. Red. 1. Boil a j)ound of Brazil wood, 
and an ounce of pearlash in a gallon of water, and while hot, brusli over 
the work until ot a proper color. Dissolve two ounces of alum in a quart 
of water, and brush the solution over the work before it dries. 2. Take a 
gallon of the above stain, add two more ounces of pearlash, hot, and brush 
often with the alum solution. 3. Use a cold infusion of archil, and brush 
over with the pearlash solution used for No. 8. inahof/any color. Imitation of 
roseivood. 1. Boil half a pound of logwood in three pints of water till it is 
of a very dark red, add half an ounce of salt of tartar ; stain the work with 
tlie liquor while boiling hot, giving three coats ; tlien with a painter's grain- 
ing brush, form streaks with No. 9 black stain ; let it dry, and varnish. 2. 
Brush over with the logwood decoction used for No. 6 black, three or four 
times ; put half a pound of iron filings into two quarts of vinegar ; then with 
a graining brush or cane, bruised at the end, apply the iron-filing solution 
in the form required, and polish with beeswax and turpentine when dry. 
Yellow color. 1. Brush over with the tincture of turmeric. 2. Waim the 
work, and brush over with weak aqua-fortis, then hold to the fire. Varnish 
or oil as usual. 

Action of Water on Lead. — Water as supplied for domestic use may 
suffer contamination from various sources ; from the metallic pipes through 
wiiich it flows, and the vessels in whicli it is stored. It is well known that 
water exerts a certain solvent action on lead, and that this action varies in 
accordance witli the quality and quantity of the salts held in solution by 
tlie water. It may be safely stated that when a perfectly pure water is 
used, such as might be obtained by distillation, the action of this fluid on 
lead would be to dissolve a notable quantity of the metal. But as in na- 
ture, perfectly pure water, free from any of tlie salts of lime or soda is al- 
most imknown, the danger of lead poisoning from the solution of the mate- 
rial in the pipes is insignificant. Still, researches as to the actual effects of 
the salts when in water on lead are very interesting. The nitrates alone, 
even in small quantity, cause water to exert a very marked solvent action 
upon lead. The presence of other salts, as the sulphates, carbonates, and 
chlorides, along with the nitrates, greatly decreases, or even stops, this sol- 
vent action, carbonates more especially exercising a deterrent action. The 
carbonates, sul])hates and chlorides, when added to distilled water, greatly 
diminish the solvent action of the water on the lead. Therefore it may be 
safely stated that in natural waters, even if contaminated with nitrates, 
wiien they contain small quantities of soluble carbonates, sulphates or chlo- 
rides, the solvent action of these waters upon lead pipes is comparatively 
small. Dr. Muir, in a series of interesting experiments on this subject, 
states that in water containing 1.4 grains of nitrate of ammonium, and 42 
grains of calcium chloride per gallon, the au)ount of lead dissolved after 
seventy-two hours was only 0.126 grains per gallon, whereas water contain- 
ing the same amount of ammonium nitrates, but without the addition of 
any other salt, dissolved 1.75 grains per gallon, or about fifteen times as 
much lead in the same time. 

To Remove Rust from Steel. — Cover the steel with sweet oil, well 
rubl)ed on. In forty-eight hours rub with finely pulverized unslaked lime 
until the rust disappears. 

To Preserve Metals from Rost. — Take some melted beeswax and 
rub it over the article to be preserved. When dry, warm tlie article again, 
SI) as to get off tlie wax, and rub it with a cloth until the former polish is 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, AC. 



633 



restored. By tliis means all tlie pores of the metal are filled up without 
injury to the appearance, and rust will not attack it, unless very carelessly 
exfiosed to constant humidity. 

To Remove or Keep Rust from Cutlery. — Bristol brick is good te 
remove rust, and give a polish to steel utensils. It should be powdered fine, 
and rubbed on dry, with a woollen cloth. Knives should be rubbed on a 
board, with a thick leather covered over it, and fastened down tight. The 
brick should be dry, and powdered fine, and the knives should not be wet 
after cleaning, but merely wiped, with a dry clean cloth. To make the 
handles smooth, wipe them with a cloth that is a little damp, being careful 
not to' touch the blades, as it will tarnish them. Knives look very nice 
cleaned in this maijner, and the edges will keep sharp. Ivory-handled knives 
should never have the handles put in hot water, as it will turn them yellow. 
If, through misuse, they turn yellov/, rub them with sand paper. When 
Bristol brick will not remove rust from steel, rub the spots with sand paper 
or emery, or else rub on sweet oil, and let it remain a day ; then rub it off 
with powdered quicklime. To keep steel utensils (that are not in constant 
use) from contracting rust, clean them thoroughly with Bristol brick, wipe 
them on a perfectly dry cloth, and rub them over with sweet oil, and cover 
them with brown paper, so as to exclude tiie air. Knives and forks should 
be wrapped up in brown paper, each one by itself. 

To Prevent Iron or Steel from Rusting. — Warm your iron or steel 
till you cannot bear your hands on it without burning yourself, then rub it 
with new and clean white wax. Put it again to tlie tire till it has soaked 
in the wax. When done rub it over with a piece of serge. This prevents 
the metal from rusting afterwards. 

Steel Prevention of Rust. — Dissolve half an ounce of camphor in a« 
pound of hog's lard ; take off the scum ; mix as much black-lead as will give 
the mixture an iron color. Iron and steel goods rubbed over with this 
mixture, and left with it on twenty-four hours, and then dried with a linen 
cloth, will keep clean for months. Valuable articles of cutlery should be 
wrapped in zinc-foil, or be kept in boxes lined with zinc. This is at once 
an easy and most efiicient method. 

One pound of Anthracite coal in a cupola furnace will melt from 5 to 10 
lbs. of cast iron: 8 bushels of bituminous coal will melt 1 ton of cast iron. 
Small coal produces about J of tlie effect of large coal of the same kind. 

Springs. — The flexure of a spring is proportional to its load and to the 
cube of its length. A railway carriage spring, consists of 10 plates 5-16 inch 
thick and 2 of 3-8 inch, length 2 feet 8 ins., width 3 ins., and camber or 
spring 6 ins. ; deflected as follows, without any permanent set, -J ton, -J 
inch ; 1 ton, 1 inch ; 1^ tons, 1^ inches ; 2 tons, 2 inches ; 3 tons, 3 inches ; 4 
tons, 4 inches. 

Shrinkage of Castings. 



Iron, small cylind's=l-16th in. per ft. 
" Pipes. . . .= ^ " " " 

" Girders, beams, 

etc = J in. in 15 ins. 

" large cylin- 
ders, the con- 
traction of di- 
ameter at top= l-16th per foot. 
Ditto at bottom = l-12th per foot. 



Ditto, in length. .| in 16 ins. 

Brass, thin. . . .= | in 9 " 

Brass, thick. . .= i in 10 " 

Zinc = 5-16ths in a foot 

Lead = 5-16ths " " 

Copper = 3-16ths " " 

Bismuth = 5-32nds " " 



Green sand iron castings are G per cent, stronger than dry, and 30 per 
cent, stronger than chilled, but when the castings are chilled and annealed, a 
gain of 115 percent, is attained over those made in green sand. Chilling 
the under side of cast iron very materially increases its strength. 

27* 



631 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 



EFFECTS OF HEAT ON VARIOUS BODIES. 



Fine Gold melts 2590° 

" Silver " 1250 

Copper melts 2548 

Wrought Iron melts. . . . 3980 
Cast " " . . . . 3479 

Brlglit red " in the dark. . 752 
Red liot " in twiliglit. . . 884 

Glass melts 2377 

Common fire 790 

Brass melts 1900 

Air furnace 3300 

Antimony melts 951 

Bismuth " 476 

Cadmium 600 

Steel 2500 

Lead 504 

Tin 421 



Heat, cherry red 1500° 

" bright " 1860 

" red visible by day. . . 1077 

" white 2900 

Mercury boils 662 

" volatilizes 680 

Platinum melts 3080 

Zinc melts 740 

Highest natural temperature 

(Egypt) 117 

Greatest natural cold (below 

zero) 56 

" artificial " " . . 106 
Heat of human blood. ... 98 
Snow and Salt, equal parts. . 

Ice melts 32 

Water in vacuo boils. ... 98 
Furnace under steam boiler. . 1100 



Water-Pipes, TO Prevent Freezing. — The tjing up of the ball-tap 
with straw or flannel during severe weatlier, will, in general, prevent the 
freezing of water-])ipes. But the surest metliod is to have the main-pipe 
higher ^han tlie cistern or otlier receptacle ; and, being thus of a regular in- 
cline, the pipe wiJl immediately be e.xhausted when the supply ceases. 
When water remains in the pipes, if each tap be left dripping, the circula- 
tion of the water will prevent it from freezing in the pipes. 

Refining Fluxes, for Metals. — Deflagrate, and afterwards pulverize, 
2 parts of nitre and 1 part of tartar. The following fluxes answer very 
well, provided the ores be deprived of their sulpliur, or if they contain much 
earthy matter, because, in the latter case, they unite witli them, and con- 
vert them into a thin glass, but, if an}' quantity of sulphur remains, their 
fluxes unite with it, and form a liver of sulphur, which has the power of 
destroying a portion of all the metals, consequently the assa}' must be, 
under such circumstances, very inaccurate. Limestone, feldspar, fluorspar, 
quartz, sand-slate, and slags, are all used as fluxes. Iron ores, on account 
of the argill.aceous earth they contain, require calcareous additions ; and 
the copper ores, rather slags, or nitrescent stones, than calcareous earth. 

Flux for Welding Copper. — Boracic acid, 2 parts ; phosphate of soda, 
1 part ; mix. This welding powder should be strewn over the surface of 
copper at a red heat ; tlie pieces should then be heated up to a full ciierry 
red, or j'ellow lieat and brought immediately under tlie hammer. Heat 
the copper at a flame, or gas jet, wiiere it will not toucli charcoal or solid 
carbon. 

Cornish Reducing Flux. — Tartar, 10 ozs., nitre, 3 ozs. and 6 drs. ; 
borax, 3 oz. and 1 dr. Mix together. 

Paste for Cleaning Metals. — Take oxalic acid, 1 part ; rotten stone, 
6 parts ; mixed with equal parts of train oil and spts. turpentine to a thick 
paste. 

Zincing. — Copper and brass vessels may be covered with a firmly ad- 
herent layer of pure zinc by boiling them in contact with a solution of 
chloride of zinc, pure zinc turnings being at the same time present in con- 
siderable excess. 

To Cloud Metal Work. — Metal work may be clouded by putting a 
piece of fine emery paper under the thumb or finger and working it over 
the surface of tlie metal with a spiral motion. 

Tinning Acid for Brass or Zinc. — Muriatic acid, 1 qt. ; zinc, 6 ozs. 
To a solution of this, add water, 1 qt. ; sal-ammoniac, 2 ozs. 

Tinning Cast Iron. — Pickle your castings in oil of vitriol ; then cover 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 635 

or immerse them in muriate of zinc (made by putting a sufBcient quantity 
of zinc in some spirit of salt) : after wliich dip it in a melted bath of tin or 
solder. 

Bronze Paint for Iron or Brass. — Clirome green, 2 !bs. ; ivory black, 
1 oz, ; chrome yellow, 1 oz, ; good japan, 1 gill; grind all together, and mix 
with linseed oil. 

To Bronze Iron Castings. — Cleanse thoroughly, and afterwards im- 
merse in a solution of sulphiite of copper, when the castings will acquire a 
coat of the latter metal. The.y must be then washed in water. 

Removing Zinc and Iron From Plumbers' Solder. — Digest tlie metal 
in grains in diluted sulphuric acid. The acid will dissolve the zinc first, 
the iron next, and all traces of these metals by subsequent washing. 

Solution of Copper or Zinc. — Dissolve 8 ozs. (Troj') cyani<le of potas- 
sium, and 3 ozs. cyanide of copper or zinc, in 1 gal. of rain water. To be 
used at about 160° F., with a compound battery of 3 to 12 cells. 

Bronze, to Remove Stains from. — Make the article very hot by dip- 
ping it in boiling water, then rub it with a piece of flannel moistened with 
suds made from yellow soap ; rub clean with soft linen cloths. If the article 
to be cleaned be a tea urn or other similar vessel, it should be filled with 
boiling water before the outside is touched. 

To Reduce Oxide of Zinc. — The oxi<le may be put in quantities of 500 
or GOO lbs. weight into a large pot over the fire; pour a sufficient quantity 
of muriatic acid over the top, to act as a flux, and the action of tlie fire will 
melt the dross, when the pure metal will be found at the bottom of tiie pot. 

Bronzing Liquids for Tin Castings. — Wash them over, sifter being 
well cleansed and wiped, with a solution of 1 part of sulpliate of iron, and 1 
part of sulphate of copper, in 20 ))arts of water ; afterwards, with a solution 
of 4 parts verdigris in 11 of distilled vinegar ; leave for an hour to drj- and 
then polish with a soft brush and colcothar. 

To Tin Copper and Brass. — Boil 6 lbs cream of tartar and 4 gals, of 
water and 8 lbs. of grain tin or tin shavings. After the material has boiled 
a sufficient time, the articles to be tinned are put therein and the boiling 
continued, when the tin is precipitated on the goods in metallic form. 

To Separate Tin from Lead. — If the lead and tin are in solution, pre- 
cipitate the former by sulphuric acid, and tiie latter with sulphuretted 
hj'drogen gas. In an alloy the lead will dissolve in nitric acid, leaving the 
tin as an oxide. 

To Clean anb Polish Brass. — Oil of vitriol, 1 oz. ; sweet oil. i gill ; 
pulverized rotten stone, 1 gill ; rain water, 1* pts. ; mix all and shake as 
used. Apply witli a rag and polish with buckskin or all woollen. Rotten 
stone, followed by Paris white and rouge is very good also. 

To Clean and Polish Brass. — Wash with alum boiled in strong lye, in 
the j)roportion of an ounce to a pint; afterwards rub with strong tripoli. 
Not to be used on gilt or lacquered work. 

Brass Solution. — Dissolve 1 lb. (Troy) cyanide of potassium, 2 ozs. 
cyanide of copper, and 1 oz. cyanide of zinc, in 1 gal. of rain water ; then 
add 2 ozs. of muriate of ammonia. To be used at 160° F., for smooth work, 
with a compound battery of from 3 to 12 cells. 

Brassing Iron. — Iron ornaments are covered with copper or brass, by 
properly preparing the surface so as to remove all organic matter wliich 
would prevent adhesion, and then plunging them into melted brass. A thin 
coating is thus spread over tlie iron, and it admits of being polished or 
burnished. 

To Refine Copper. — This process differs from the one employed to 
refine silver in no respects save the plate to be immersed ; j'ou use an iron 
instead of a copper plate to collect the metal. 

If the impurities of gold refined were botli silver and copper, you might, 
after saving the silver as above directed, sink your iron plate into the so- 
lution yet remaining, and take out the copper. Tiie parts of alloyed gold 
may be separated by these processes, and leave each in a perfectly pure state. 



636 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 



The Steam-Engine. — Every mecliaiiic and inventor should make him- 
self generally familiar with the construction and operation of the steam- 
engine. To assist them in gaining this knowledge, we subjoin for reference 




a diagram of the common Condensing Engine, with letters of reference to 
the names of the various parts : 

a, steam cylinder; b, piston; c, upper steam port or passage ; c?, lowei 
steam port; e e, parallel motion ;//, beam ; g, connecting rod; h, crank; 
i I, fly-wheel ; k k, eccentric and its rod for working the steam-valve ; /, 
steam-valve and casin ; vi, tlirottle-valve ; n, condenser; o, injection-cock ; 
p, air-pump ; q, hot well ; ?", shifting- valve to create vacuimi in condenser 
previous to starting tlie engine ; s, feedpump to supply boilers ; t, cold-water 
pump to supply condenser ; u, governor. A study of the above diagram and 
description, in connection with attentive observation of engines in motion, 
will be of much assistance in acquiring a general understanding of the 
machine. We recommend the following standard works for careful study 
by all who desire to become thoroughly posted : Bourne's Catechism of the 
.Steam engine, Main & Brown's Marine Steam-Engine. 

Iron Lustre is o))tained by dissolving a piece of zinc with muriatic 
acid, and mixing the solution with spirit of tar, and applying it to the sur- 
face of the iron. ' 

Fancy Colors on Metals. — 1. Dissolve 4 ozs. hypo-sulphite of soda, in IJ 
pts. of water, and then add a solution of 1 oz. acetate of lead in 1 oz. water. 
Articles to be colored are placed in the mixture, which is then gradually 
heated to the boiling point. This will give iron the color of blue steel, zinc 
becomes bronze, and copper or brass becomes, successively, yellowish, red, 
scarlet, deep blue, light blue, blueish white, and finally white, with a tinge 
of rose. 2. By replacing the acetate of lead in the solution by sulphate of 
copper, brass becomes, first, of a fine rosy tint, then green, and lastly, of an 
iridescent brown color. 

To Cast Brass Solid. — The metal should not be run any hotter than is 
necessary to insure sharp castings. The most probable cause of the honey- 
combings of castings is tliat the air cannot get out of the way ; and tliere 
ouglit to be proper vents made for it from the highest parts of the mould ; 
tlie metal should be run in near or at tlie bottom of the mould. If about 1 
lb. of lead be added to every 16 lbs. of old brass, when just at the melting 
point, solid good brasses will be tlie result. In melting old brass, the zinc, 
or leail, contained in it (wlien fluid) oxydizes freelj', consequently the pro- 
portions of the metals are altered, and require an addition similar to the 
above. If the l)rass has not been re-cast a little less lead will do but if re- 
cast several times it inay take the full quantity. 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 



637 



140 VALUABLE MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS 

FOR INVENTORS, MODEL MAKERS, &C. 



Mechanical Movements. — In the construction of models, or machinery, 
the skilful mechanic and inventor will study to avoid clumsiness in the ar- 
rangement of parts, and will naturally take pride in selecting, as far as pos- 
sible, the simplest and best forms of mechanical movements. 



^ 








d 






^flp" 






H 



'^ 










U A 





To this end, we have thought that nothing could be more suggestive or 
useful than a comprehensive exhibition of many of the best mechanical 
forms already known. 

After much labor and expense, we have brought together, condensed 
and engraved expressly for this work, one of the most extensive series of 
mechanical movements ever published. 

Here the mechanic may find at a glance the movement suited for his 



638 



MACHINISTS, MKT.Vh W(.):mC!:RS, &C. 



purpose, and may see tlie separate parts best adapted to any special combi- 
nation of meclianisni. 

As these engravings are not readily to be found elsewliere, we recom- 
mend tlie oarefid preservation of this book. 

Desckiption of the Mechanical Movements by Numbers. — 1 Siiaft 
coupling. 2. Claw coupling. 3, 4. Lever couplings. On the driving shaft, 
a disc with spurs is mounted, and to the shaft to be driven a lever is 
hinged. By causing this lever to catch in the spurs of the disc, the coupling 
is effected. 5. Knee or rose coupling, of which 26 is a side view. 6. Uni- 
versal joint. 7, 8. Disc and spur coupling. 9. Prong and spur lever 
coupling. 




10. Fast and loose pulley. 11. Sliding gear, the journal boxes of one of 
the wheels being moveable. 12. Friction clutch. By tightening or releas- 
ing a steel band, encircling a pulley on the shaft, the machinery is thrown 
in or out of gear. 13, 14. Shoe and lever brakes. 15, 16. Change of mo- 
tion by sheaves. 17. Spiral flanged shaft. 18. Connected with the rod are 
pawl links, catching into ratchet-teeth in the wheel to which rotary motion 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 639 

is to be imparted. Wlien the rod moves in one direction, one of the pawls 
acts; and when the rod moves in the opposite direction, tiie otlier pawl acts 
in the same direction as tlie first. 19. The reciprocating motion of a rod is 
converted into rotary motion of tlie flv-wliecl hy a weight suspended from a 
cord, winch passes over a small pulley that connects witli a treadle, from 
which tlie motion is transmitted to the fly-wheel. 

20. "Flying liorse," useil in fairs for amusement. By pulling the cords 
radiating from the crank, the persons occupying the seats or horses on the 
ends of the arms are enabled to keep the apparatus in motion. 21, 22. Bow- 
string arrangements, to connect reciprocating into rotary motion. 23. Seam 
purpose by differential screw. 24. Tiie same by double rack and wheels 
25. Coupling for square shafts. 26. Side view of Fig. 5. 27. Sliding spur 
pulley coupling. 28. Lever with bearing roller to tighten pulley bands. 
29. Chain wlieel. 

30. Reciprocating rectilinear into reciprocating rotary motion by two 
racks and cog wheel. 31. Oblique toothed wheels. 83. Worm and worm 
wheel. 33, 34. Claw coupling witii hinged lever. 35, 36. Disc couplings, 
with lugs and cavities. 37. Disc couplings with screw bolts. 38, 39, 40. 
Shaft couplings. 

41. Face view of Fig. 12. 42. Friction cones. 43. Friction pulleys. 44. 
Self-releasing coupling. Discs with oblique teeth. If the resistance to the 
driver shaft increases beyond a certain point, tlie discs separate. 45. Hoist- 
ing blocks. 46. Elbow crank, for changing motion. 47. Reciprocating into 
rotary motion by zig-zag groove on cylinder. 48. Another form of Fig. 29. 
49. Reciprocating into a rotarj^ motion. 

50. Same purpose. 51. Same purpose, by double rack and two ratcliet 
pinions. When the double rack moves in one direction, one pinion is rigid 
with the shaft ; when tiie rack moves in the opposite direction, the otlier 
pinion is rigid, and a continuous rotary motion is imparted to the fly-wiieel 
shaft. 52. Reciprocating into oscillating, 53. Rotary into reciprocating. 
By the action of the wheel pins, the carriage is moved in one direction, and 
by the action of said pins on an elbow-lever, it is moved in the opposite di- 
rection. 54. Stamp rod and lifting cam. 55. For giving reciprocating mo- 
tion to rack. 56. Same motion to a bar with slot, by means of an eccentric 
pin projecting from a revolving disc, and catching in tiie slot. 57. Walk- 
ing beam and fly-wheel. 58. Reciprocating motion to pump or other rod by 
means of eccentric disc and friction rollers. See 81 and 104. 59. Hoisting 
crane. 

60. Friction gears. See 43. 61. Rotary in reciprocating by rising and 
falling pinion acting on endless rack. 62. By tlie revolving cam, a rising 
and falling or a reciprocating rectilinear motion is imparted to a drum. 63. 
Reciprocating motion to a frame by means of endless rack and pinion. 64. 
Reciprocating rectilinear motion to a toothed rack l)y a toothed segment on 
a lever-arm, which is subjected to the action of a weight, and of an eccen- 
tric wrist-pin, projecting from a revolving disc. 65. Reciprocating motion 
to a rod. The wiieels are of different diameters, and consequently the rod 
has to rise and fall as the wheel revolves. (See 110.) 66. Cam and elbow 
lever. 67. Rod reciprocates by means of cam. 68. Revolving into re- 
ciprocating motion, by an endless segmental rack and pinion, the axle of 
wliich revolves and slides in a slot toward and from the rack. Tiiis rack is 
secured to a disc, and a rope round said disc extends to the body to which 
a reciprocating motion is to be imparted. 69. Elliptic gears. 

70. Bevel gear. 71. Worm and worm wheel. 72. Transmitting motion 
from one axle to another, with three different velocities, by means of 
toothed segments of unequal diameters. 73. Continuous revolving into re- 
cipro(;ating, by a cam-disc acting on an oscillating lever. 74. Intermittent 
revolving motion to a shaft with two pinions, and segment gear wlieel on 
end of sliaft. 75. Oscillating lever, carrying pawls wliich engage teeth in 
the edges of a bar to which rectilinear motion is imparted. 76. Oscillating 
lever, connects by a link with a rod to which a rectilinear motion is im- 



640 



MACHINISTS. METAL "WORKERS, *C. 



parted. 77. Oscillating lever and pawls, which gear in the ratchet-wheel 
78. Common treadle. 79. Describing on a revolving cylinder a spiral line 
of a certnin given pitch, which depends upon the comparative sizes of the 
pinion and bevel-wheels. 

80. Marking a spiral line, the graver moved by a screw. 81. (See Fig. 
53). 82. Plunger and rods. 83. Cross head and rods. 84. Reciprocating 
rod guided by friction rollers. 85. Revolvers into reciprocating motion, by 
means of roller-arms, extending from a revolving shaft, and acting on lugs 
projecting from a reciprocating frame. 86. Crank motion. 87. Recipro- 




cating motion by toothed wheel and spring bar. 88. The shaft carries a 
tappet, which catches against a hook hinged to the drum, so as to carry said 
drum along and raise tlie weight on the rope. When the tappet has 
reached its highest position, the hook strikes a pin, the hook disengages 
from the tappet, and tlie weight drops. 89. Reciprocating motion to a rod 
by means of a groove in an oblique ring secured to a revolving shaft. 

90. Double "crank. 91. Cam groove in a drum, to produce reciprocating 
motion. 92. Belts and pulleys. 93. Pulleys, belts, and internal gear. 94. 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 



641 



As tlie rod moves up and down, the teeth of the cog-wheel come in contact 
witli a pawl, and an intermittent rotary motion is imparted to said wlieel. 
95. By turning tlie iiorizontal axles with different velocities, the middle 
wheel is caused to revolve with the mean velocity. 96. OsL'illating lever 
and cam groove in a disk. 97. Lazy tongs. 98. Oscillating segment and 
belt over pulleys. 99. Converting oscillating into a reciprocating motion 
by a cam-slot in the end of the oscillating lever which catches over a pin 
projecting from one of the sides of a parallelogram which is connected to 
the rod to which reciprocating motion is imparted. 

100. Oscillating motion of a beam into rotary motion. 101. Motion of a 




treadle into rotary motion. 102. Double-acting beam. 103. Single-acting 
beam. 104. (See Figures 58 and 81.) 105. Device to steady a piston by a 
slotted guide-piece, operated by an eccentric on the driving-shaft. 106. 
Kod operated by two toothed segments. 107. Two cog-wheels of equal di- 
ameter, provided with a crank of the same length, and connected by links 
with a cross-bar to which the piston-rod is secured. 108. Device for a 
rectilinear motion of a piston-rod based on the hypocycloidal motion of a 



642 



MACHINISTS, MF.TAL WOKKRRS, &C. 



pinion in a stationary wheel witli infernal gear. If the diameter of the pin- 
ion is exactly equal to one-half the diameter of the internal gear, the liy- 
pocyeloid becomes a riglit line. 109. Same purpose as 5G. 

ilO. Action similar to 65. 111. Revolving motion by a circular sliding 
pinion gearing in an elliptical cog-wheel. 112. Similar to 96. 113. Car- 
penter's clamp. The jaws turn on their pivot-screws, and clamp the board. 
114. An irregular vibratory motion is given to tlie arm carrying the wheel 
A, by the rotation of the pinion B. 115. Intermittent rotary motion of the 
pinion-shaft, by the continuous rotary motion of tlie large wheel. The 




part of the pinion shown next the wheel is cut on the same curve as the 
plain portion of tlie circumference, and, therefore, serves as a lock whilst 
the wheel makes a part of a revolution, and until the pin upon tlie wheel 
strikes the guide-piece upon the pinion, when the pinion-shaft commences 
another revolution. 116. Stop-motion used in watches to limit the number 
of revolutions in winding up, the convex curved part, a, b, of the wheel B, 
serving as tiie stop. 117. Several wheels, by connecting rods, driven from 
one pulley. 118. Intermittent circular motion is imparted to the toothed 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 



643 



wlieel by vibrating tlie arm B. Wlieii tlie arm, B, is lifteil, the pawl is raised 
from between the teetli of the wheel, and travelling backwiird over tlie cir- 
cninference again, drops between two teeth on lowering the arm, and draws 
with it tlie wheel. 119. Reeiproeating rectilinear motion i.s given to the 
bar bj' the tontinuous motion of the cam. The cam is of eqnal diameter in 
every direction measured across its centre. 

120. Mechanism for revolving the cylinder in Colt's firearms. When the 
hammer is drawn back, the dog, a, attached to the tumbler, acts" on the 
ratchet, b, on the back of the cylinder, and is held up to the ratchet by a 
spring, c. 121. Alternate increasing and diminishing motion, by means 
of eccentric toothed wheel and toothed cylinder. 122. Oscillating or ]>cn- 
dulum engine. Tlie cylinder swings between trunnions like a pendulum. 
The piston-rod connects directly with crank. 123. Intermittent rotary motion. 
Tlie small wheel is driven, and the friction rollers on its studs move the 
larger wheel by working against the faces of oblique grooves or projections 
across the face thereof. 124. Longitudinal and rotary motion of the rod 
is produced by its arrangement between two rotating rollers, the axles of 
which are oblique to each other. 125. Friction indicator of Roberts. Ujion 
the periphery of the belt-pulley a loaded carriage is placed, its tongue con- 
nected with an indicator. With a given load the indicating pointer remains 
in a given position, no matter what velocity is imparted to the pulley. 
When the load is changed the indicator changes, thus proving that the fric- 
tion of wheels is in proportion to load, not to velocity. 12G. Circular in- 
termittent rectilinear reciprocating motion. Used on sewing-machines for 
driving the shuttle ; also on three-revolution cylinder printing-presses. 
127. Continuous circular into intermittent circular motion. Tiie cam is 
the driver. 128. Sewing-machine, four-motion feed. The bar, B, carries 
the feeding-points or spurs, and is pivoted to slide, A. B is lifted b^- a radial 
projection on cam C, which at the same time also carries A and B forward. 
A spring produces the return stroke, and the bar B, drops by gravity. 129 
Patent crank motion to obviate dead centres. Pressure on the treadle moves 
the slotted slide. A, forward until the wrist passes the centre, when the 
spring, B, forces the slide against the stops until next forward movement. 

130. Four- way cock. 131. One stroke of the piston gives a complete 
revolution to the crank. 132. Rectilinear motion of variable velocity, is 
given to the vertical bar by rotation of the shaft of the curved arm. 138. 
Pentagraph for copying, enlarging, and reducing plans, &c. C, fixed point, 
B, ivory tracing point. With a pencil trace the lines to be copied and B, 
the pencil, will reproduce it double size. Shift the slide to which C is at- 
tached, also the jiencil slide, and size for the copy will he varied. 134. 
Ball and socket joint for tubing. 135. Numerical registering device. The 
teeth of the worm sliaft gear with a pair of worm-wheels of equal diameter, 
one having one tooth more than the other. If the first wheel has 100 teeth 
and the second 101, the pointers will indicate respectively 101 and 10.100 
revolutions. 136. Montgolfier's hydraulic ram. The right hand valve being 
kept open by a weight or spring, the current flowing through the pipe in the 
direction of the arrow, escapes thereby. When the pressure of the water 
current overcomes the weight of the right valve, the momentum of the water 
opens the other valve, and the water passes into the air-cliamber. On equi- 
librium taking place, the left valve shuts and the right valve opens. By 
this alternate action of the valves, water is raised into the air-cliamber at 
every stroke. 137. Rotary engine. Shaft, B, and hub, C, are arranged eccen- 
tric to the case. Sliding radial pistons, a, a, move in and out of hub, C. 
The pistons slide through rolling packings in tlie hub, C. 138. Quadrant 
engine. Two single-acting pistons, B, B, connect with crank, J). Steam is 
admitted to act on the outer sides of the pistons alternately tlirough valve, 
a, and the exhaust is between the pistons. 139. Circular into rectilinear mo- 
ti(m. The scolloped wheel communicates motion tothe horizontal oscillating 
rod, and imparts rectilinear movement to the upright bar. 140. Rotary 
motion transmitted by rolling contact between two obliquely arranged sliafts. 



644 MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, «fcC. 

Allots and their Melting Heats. flux 



No. 1 




1 Tin 25 Lead 258 Fahr. 


A. Borax. 


2 




1 " 10 


'•• 


541 




B. Salani. or mur. of amna. 


3 




1 " 5 


" 


611 




C. Muriate or clilor. of zinc 


4 




1 " 3 


" 


482 




D. Common resin. 


5 




1 " 2 


" 


441 




E. Venice turpentine. 


6 




1 " 1 


i( 


870 




F. Tallow. 


7 




n " 1 


" 


834 




G Gallipoli oil, or common 


8 




2 " 1 


« 


3^0 




[sweet oil. 


9 




3 " 1 


" 


356 




Modes of Applying Heat. 


10 




4 " 1 


" 


365 




«. Naked fire. 


11 




5 " 1 


" 


378 




h. Hollow furnace or muffle. 


12 




6 " 1 


" 


381 




c. Immersion in melted solder. 


13 


4 Lead 4 Tin 


1 Bismutli 


320 Fahr. d. Melted solder or metal 














poured on. 


14 


3 


" 3 " 


1 


" 


310 


" e. Heated iron, not tinned. ^ 


15 


2 


" 2 " 


1 


ti 


292 


" f. Heated copper tool, tinned. 


16 


1 


" 1 " 


1 


t( 


254 


" g. Blow Pipe flame. 


17 


2 


" 1 " 


2 


" 


236 


" h. Flame alone, generally 
alcohol. 


18 


3 


" 5 " 


2 


" 


202 


" i. Stream of heated air. 



Bottle Glass. — No. 1. Dark Green. — Fused glauber-salts, 11 lbs. ; soap- 
er salts, 12 lbs. : waste soap-ashes, -J bush. ; silicious sand, \ cwt. ; glass- 
skimmings, 22 lbs. ; broken green glass, 1 cwt. to \\ cwt. ; basalt, 25 lbs. 
to J cwt. No. 2. Pale Green. — Pale sand, 100 lbs. ; kelp, 35 lbs.; lixivia- 
ted wood-ashes, 1^ cwt.; fresh do., 40 lbs.; pipe-clay, f cwt.; cuUet, or 
broken glass, 1 cwt. No. 3. Yellow or white sand, 120 parts ; wood-aslies, 
80 parts ; pearl-ashes, 20 parts ; common salt, 15 parts ; white arsenic, 1 
part ; very pale. Crystal Glass. — No. 1. Refined potashes, 60 lbs. ; sand, 
120 lbs, ; chalk, 24 lbs. ; nitre and white arsenic, of each, 2 lbs. ; oxide of 
manganese, 1 to 2 oz. No. 2. Pure wliite sand, 120 parts ; refined ashes, 
70 parts ; saltpetre, 10 parts ; white arsenic, |- part ; oxide of manganese, 
^ part. No. 3. Sand, 120 parts ; red-lead, 50 parts ; purified pearl-ash, 40 
parts ; nitre, 20 parts ; manganese, -J part. Flask Glass {of St. Etienne). — 
Pure silicious sand, 61 parts ; potash, 3^ parts ; lime, 21 parts ; heavy spar, 
2 parts ; oxide of manganese, q. s. Best German Crystal Glass. — Take 120 
lbs. of calcined flints or white sand ; best pearl-ash, 70 lbs. ; saltpetre, 10 
lbs. ; arsenic, i lb. ; and 5 oz. magnesia. No. 2. (Cheaper.) — Sand or flint, 
120 lbs. ; pearla'sh, 46 lbs. ; nitre, 7 lbs. ; arsenic, 6 lbs. ; magnesia, 5 ozs. 
This will require a long continuance in the furnace, as do all others when 
much of the arsenic is used. Plate Glass. — No. 1. Pure sand, 40 parts ; dry 
carbonate of soda, 26^ parts ; lime, 4 parts ; nitre, 1^ parts ; broken plate 
glass, 25 parts. No. 2. Ure's. — Quartz-sand, 100 parts ; calcined sulphate 
of soda, 24 parts ; lime, 20 parts ; cuUet of soda-glass, 12 parts. No. 3. 
Vienna. — Sand, 100 parts ; calcined sulphate of soda, 50 parts ; lime, 20 
parts ; charcoal, 2| parts. No. 4. French. — White quartz sand and cullet, 
of each 800 parts ; dry carbonate of soda, 100 parts ; slaked lime, 43 parts. 
Crown Glass.— 'No. 1. Sand, 800 lbs. ; soda-ash, 200 lbs. ; lime, 30 to 35 lbs.; 
200 to 300 lbs. of broken glass. No. 2. (Bohemian.) — Pure silicious sand, 
63 parts ; potash, 22 parts ; lime, 12 parts ; oxide of manganese, 1 part. No. 
3. (Prof. Schiceigger's.) — Pure sand, 100 lbs. ; dry sulphate of soda, 50 parts ; 
dry quicklime in powder, 17 to 20 parts; charcoal, 4 parts. Product, white 
and good. 

Best Window Glass. — No. 1. Take of white sand, 60 lbs.; purified pearl- 
aslies, 30 lbs. ; of saltpetre, 15 lbs. ; of borax, 1 lb. ; of arsenic, -J lb. This 
will be very clear and colorless if the ingredients be good, and not be very 
dear. No. 2. (Cheaper.) — White sand, 60 lbs.; unpurified pearl-aslies, 25 
lbs. ; of common salt, 10 lbs. ; nitre, 5 lbs. ; arsenic, 2 lbs, ; magnesia, \\ 
oz. No. 8. Common green window-glass. — White sand, 60 lbs. ; unpurified 



MACHINISTS, M1:TAL WORKERS, &C. 645 

pearl-ashes, 30 lbs. ; coniinon salt, 10 lbs. ; arsenic, 2 lbs. ; magnesia, 2 oz. 
Looking-Gtass Piute. — No. 1. Cleansed white sand, 60 lbs. ; pearlashes, puri- 
fied, 26 lbs. ; saltpetre, 15 lbs. ; bora.v, 7 lbs. This composition sliould be 
continued long in the fire, vvliich should be sometimes strong and after- 
wards more moderate, that the glass may be entirely free from bubbles 
before it be worked. No. 2. Wliite sand, tiO lbs. ; pearl-aslies, 20 lbs. ; com- 
mon salt, 10 lbs. ; nitre, 7 lbs. ; borax, 1 lb. This glass will run witli as 
little heat as the former; but it will be more brittle, and refract the rays 
of light in a greater degree. No. 3. Washed white sand, 60 lbs. ; purified 
pearl-ashes, 25 lbs. ; nitre, 15 lbs. , borax, 7 lbs. If pro])erIy managed, this 
glass will be colorless. Windoto Glass. — No. 1. Dried sulphate of soda, 11 
lbs.; soaper salts, 10 lbs. ; lixiviated soap waste, \ bush. ; sand, 50 to 60 lbs.; 
glass-pot skimmings, 22 lbs. ; broken pule green glass, 1 cwt. No. 2. (Paler.) 
— Wliite sand, GO lbs.; pearl-asiies, 30 lbs., conmion salt, 10 lbs. ; arsenic, 
10 lbs, ; oxide of manganese, 2 to 4 ozs. No. 3. ( Ven/ Pale.) — White sand, 
60 lbs. ; good pot ashes, 25 lbs. : common salt, 10 lbs. ; nitre, 5 lbs. ; arsenic, 
2 lbs. ; manganese, 2 to 4 ozs. as required ; broken pale window glass, 14 lbs. 

Glass Staining. — The following colors after having been jirepared, and 
rubbed upon a plate of ground-glass, with the spirits of turpentine or laven- 
der thickened in the air, are applied with a hair-pencil. Before using them, 
however, it is necessary to try them on small pieces of glass, and ex])ose 
them to the fire, to ascertain if the desired tone of color is produced. The 
artist must be guided by these proof-pieces in nsing his colors. The glass 
proper for receiving these pigments must be colorless, uniform, and difficult 
of fusion. A design must be drawn on paper, and placed beneath the plate 
of glass. The upper side of the glass, being sponged over with guni-wuter, 
affords, when dry, a surface proper for receiving the colors without the risk 
of running irregularly, as they would otherwise do on the slippery glass. 
The artist draws on the plate (usually in black), with a fine pencil, all the 
traces which mark the great outlines or shades of the figures. Afterwards, 
when it is dry, the vitrifying colors are laid on by means of larger hair- 
pencils ; their selection being regulated by the burnt specimen-tints above 
mentioned. The following are all fast colors, which do not run, except the 
yellow, which must therefore be laid on the opposite side of the glass. Tlie 
preparations being all laid on, the glass is ready for being fired in a muffle, 
in order to fix and bring out the proper colors. The muffle must be made of 
very refractory fire-clay, flat at its bottom, and only five or six inches high, 
with a strong arched roof, and close on all sides, to exclude smoke and 
flame. On the bottom, a smooth bed of sifted lime, freed from water, about 
half an inch tliick, must be prepared for receiving tiie glass. Sometimes, 
several plates of glass are laid over each other, with a layer of lime powder 
between each. The fire is now lighted, and very gradually raised, lest the 
glass should be broken ; then keep it at a full heat for three or four hours, 
more or less, according to the indications of the trial slips ; the yellow col- 
oring being principally watched, it furnishing the best criterion of the state 
of the others. When all is right, let the fire die out, so as to anneal the glass. 

To Stain or Color Glass. — For amethyst, ox'n\e of manganese is used ; 
blue, oxide of cobalt ; for brown, oxide of iron ; for green, black oxide of 
copper ; for purple, oxide of gold ; for ruhi/ red, sub-oxide of copper ; for 
white, oxide of tin ; ior yellow, oxide of silver, &c. These substances, pure 
and well powdered, are either added to the melted contents of the glass-pot, 
or are apjilied to the surface as in glass staining. Fine Blue. To 10 lbs. 
of flint glass, previously melted and cast into water, add zaffer, 6 drs. ; cal- 
cined copper, -J oz. ; prepare by putting sheet copi)er into a crucible, and 
exposing it to the action of a fire not strong enough to melt the copper, and 
you will have the copper in scales, whicli you pound. — Bright Purple. Use 
10 lbs. flint glass as before ; zaffer, 5 drs. ; precipitate of calcium, 1 dr. 
Gold Yellow. Flint glass, 28 lbs., of the tartar which is found in urine, i 
lb., purify by putting in a crucible on the fire until it ceases to smoke, and 
add manganese, 2 ozs. 



64G MACHINISTS, -MKTAL WORKERS, &C. 

Soluble Glass. — 1. Silica, 1 part ; carbonate of soda, 2 parts ; fuse 
together. 2. Carbon.ate of socla (dry), 54 parts ; dry carbonate of potassa, 
70 parts; silica, 192 parts; soluble in boilin<^ water, yielding a fine, trans- 
parent, semi-elastic varnisli. 3. Carbonate of potassa (<lry), 10 parts ; pow- 
dereil quartz (or sanil free from iron or alumina), 15 parts ; charcoal, 1 part ; 
all fused together. Soluble in 5 or 6 times its weight of boiling water. The 
filtered solution evaporated to dryness, yields a transparent glass, per- 
manent in the air. 

To Cot Glass. — Any hard steel tool will cut glass with great facility 
when kept wet with camphor dissolved in oil of turpentine. A drill-bow 
may be used, or even the hand alone. A liole bored may be readily en- 
larged with a round file. The ragged edges may also be thus easily smoothed 
by a flat file. Flat window glass can readily be sawed by a watch-spring 
saw by the aid of this solution. In short, the most brittle glass can be 
wrought almost as easily as brass by use of cutting tools kept constantly 
moist with camphorized oil of turpentine. 

Stained-Glass Pigments. — No. 1. Flesh-color. — Red lead, 1 oz. ; red en- 
amel (Venetian glass enamel, from alum and copperas calcined together) : 
grind them to a fine powder, and work this up with alcohol upon a hard 
stone. When slightly baked, this produces a fine flesh-color. No. 2. Black 
color. — Take 14^ oz. of smithy scales of iron ; mix them with 2 oz. of white 
glass ; antimony, 1 oz. ; manganese, \ oz. ; pound and grind these ingredi- 
ents together with strong vinegar. No. 3. Brown color. — White glass or en- 
amel, 1 oz. ; good manganese, ^ oz. ; grind together. No. 4. Red, Rose, and 
Brown colors are made from peroxide of iron, prepared by nitric acid. The 
flux -consists of borax, sand, and minium, in small quantities. Red color 
may likewise be obtained from 1 oz. of red chalk, pounded, mixed with 2 ozs. 
white, hard enamel, and a little peroxide of copper. A red may also be 
composed of rust of iron, glass of antimony, yellow glass of lead, such as 
is used by potters, or litharge, each in equal quantities, to wiiich a little 
sulphuret of silver is added. This composition, well ground, produces a 
ver3' fine red color on glass. No. 5. Green. — 2 oz. of brass, calcined into an 
oxide ; 2 oz. of minium, and 8 oz. of white sand ; reduce them to a fine 
powder, which is to be enclosed in a well-luted crucible, and heated strong- 
ly in an air furnace for an hour. When the mixture is cold, grind it in a 
brass mortar. Green may, however, be advantageously produced, by a 
yellow on one side and a blue on the other. Oxide of chrome has also been 
employed to stain glass green. No. 6. A fine yellow stain. — Take fine sil- 
ver, laminated thin, dissolve in nitric acid, dilute with abundance of water, 
and precipitate with solution of sea-salt ; mix thiscidoride of silver in a dry 
powder, with three times its weight of pipe-clay well burnt and pounded. 
The back of the glass pane is to be painted with this powder ; for, when 
painted on the face, it is apt to run into the other colors. A pale yellow 
can be made by mixing sulphuret of silver with glass of antimony and yel- 
low ochre, previously calcined to a red brown tint. Work all these pow- 
ders together, and paint on the back of the glass. Or silver laminae, melted 
with sulphur and glass of antimony, thrown into cold water and afterwards 
ground to powder, affords a yellow. A p(de yellow mny he made with the 
powder resulting from brass, sulphur, and glass of antimony, calcined to- 
gether in a crucible till they cease to smoke, and then mixed with a little 
burnt ochre. The fine yelloiv of M. Meraud is prepared from chloride of 
silver, oxide of zinc, and rust of iron. This mixture, simply ground, is ap- 
plied on the glass. Orange color. — Take 1 part of silver powder, as precip- 
itated from the nitrate of the metal, by plates of copper, and washed ; mix 
with 1 part of red ochre, and 1 of yellow, by careful trituration; grind into 
a thin pap, with oil of turpentine or laveniler: apply this with a brush, and 
burn in. 

Neat's Foot Oil. — After the hair and hoofs have been removed from 
the feet of oxen, they yield, when boiled with water, a peculiar fatty mat- 
ter, which is known as Neat's Foot Oil ; after standing, it deposits some 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 647 

solid fat, which is separated by filtration ; the oil then does not congeal at 
82°, and is not liable to become rancid. It is often mixed witii other oils. 
This oil is used for various purposes, sucli as harness dressing, oiling tower 
clocks, etc. Tallow Oil. — Tlie oil is obtained from tallow by pressure. 
The tallow is melted, and when separated from the ordinary impurities by 
subsidence, is ])oured into vessels and allowed to cool slowly to about 80°, 
when the stearine separates in granules, which may be separated from the 
liquid part by straining tlirougli flannel, and is then pressed, when it yields 
a fresh [tortion of liquid oil. It is used in soap manufacture, etc. Laid oil 
is obtained from hog's lard by pressure, when the liquid part separates, 
while the lard itself becomes much harder. According to Braconet, lard 
yields 0.62 of its weight of this oil, which is nearly colorless. It is em- 
ployed for greasing wool, and other ))urposes. 

Economic Lubricators. — 1. India rubber, 4 lbs. ; dissolved in spts. 
turpentine; common soda, 10 lbs.; glue, 1 lb.; water, 10 gals.; oil, 10 
gals. Dissolve the soda and glue in the water by heat, then add the oil, 
and lastly the dissolved rubber. 2. To Lessen Friction in Machinery. — Grind 
together black lead with 4 times its weight of lard or tallow. Camphor is 
sometimes added, 7 lbs. to the hundredweight. 3. Anti-Friction Grease. — 
Tallow, 100 lbs. ; palm oil, 70 lbs. ; boil together, when cooled to 80*^, 
strain through a sieve, and mix with 28 lbs. soda, and 1| gals, water. For 
winter take 25 lbs. more oil in place of the tallow. 4. Booth's Railway Axle 
Grease. — Water, 1 gal. ; clean tallow, 3 lbs. ; palm oil, 6 lbs. ; common soda, 
J lb. ; or tallow 2 lbs. ; palm oil, 10 lbs. Heat to about 212'', and stir well 
until it cools to 70°. 5. Drill Lubricator. — For wrought iron, use 1 lb. soft 
soap mixed with 1 gal. of boiling water. It insures good work and clean 
cutting. 

Patent Lubricating Oil. — Water, 1 gal. ; clean tallow, 3 lbs. ; palm 
oil, 10 lbs. ; common soda, i^ lb. Heat the mixture to about 210° Faiir. ; 
stir well until it cools down to 70°Fahr., when it is fit for use. 

Watchmakers' Oil. — Put thin sheet lead into olive oil in a bottle, ex- 
pose it to the sun for a few weeks, and pour off the clear. 

To Manufacture Glue. — This article is usually made from the par- 
ings and waste pieces of hides and skins, the refuse of tanneries, the ten- 
dons and other offal of slaughter houses. They ought to be obtained and 
kept in the dry state, to prevent decomposition. For use, they are tirst 
steeped for 14 or 15 days in milk of lime, and then drained and dried ; this 
constitutes the cleaning of tiie preparation. Before conversion into the 
glue they are usually steeped in weak milk of lime, well worked in water, 
and exposed to the air for 24 hours. They are then placed in a copper 
boiler § filled with water and furnished with a perforated false bottom, to 
prevent them from burning, and as much is piled on as will fill the vessel 
and rest on the top of it. Heat is next applied, and gentle boiling con- 
tinued until the liquor on cooling becomes a gelatinous mass. The clear 
portion is then run off into another vessel, where it is kept hot by a water 
bath, and all allowed to repose for some hours to deposit, when it is run 
into the congealing boxes and placed in a cool situation. The next morning 
the cold gelatinous mass is turned out upon boards wetted with water, and 
is cut horizontally in thin cakes with a stretched piece of brass wire, and 
into smaller cakes with a moistened fiat knife. These cakes are placed 
upon nettings to dry, after which they are dipped one by one in hot water 
and slightly rubbed with a brush wetted with boiling water, to give them a 
gloss ; the}' are lastly stove dried for sale. During this time the undis- 
solved skins, etc., left in the copper are treated with water and the whole 
operation is repeated again and again, as any gelatinous matter is ex- 
tracted. The first runnings produce the finest and best glue. Tiie refuse 
matter from the tanners and leather dressers yields on the average, when 
dried, 50 per cent, of its weight in glue. 

Glue. — Powdered chalk added to common glue strengthens it. A glue 
which will resist the action of water is made by boiling 1 lb. of glue in 2 
qts. of skimmed milk. 



648 MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 

Cheap Waterpkoof Glue. — Melt common glue with tlie smallest pos- 
sible quantity of water; add, by degrees, linseed oil, rendered drying by 
boiling it with litharge. While the oil is being added, the ingredients 
must be well stirred, to incorporate tiieni thorougidy. 

Fire and Waterproof Glue.- — Mix a handful of quick-lime with 4 
ozs. of linseed oil; tiioroughly lixiviate the mixture; boil it to a good 
thickness, and spread it on thin plates in the shade : it will become very 
hard, but can be dissolved over a fire, like common glue, and is then fit for 
use 

Prepared Liquid Glue. — Take of best white glue, 16 ozs. ; white- 
lead, dry, 4 ozs. ; rain-water, 2 pts. ; alcohol, 4 ozs. With constant stirring 
dissolve the glue and lead in the water, by means of a water-bath. Add 
the alcohol, and continue the heat for a few minutes. Lastly, pour into 
bottles, while it is still hot. 

Glue for Labelling on Metals. — Boiling water, 1 qt. ; pulverized 
borax, 2 ozs. ; gum shellac, 4 ozs. Boil till dissolved. Used for attaching 
labels to metals, or it will do to write inscriptions with, and dust or dab on 
a little bronze powder over it, varnishing over the bronze. 

Marine Glue. — India-rubber, 1 part ; coal tar, 12 parts ; heat gently, 
mix, and add 20 parts of powdered shellac, pour out to cool, when used heat 
to about 250'". 

Another Ditto. — Glue, 12 parts ; water, sufficient to dissolve ; add yel- 
low resin, 3 parts ; melt, then add turpentine, 4 parts, mix thoroughly to- 
gether. 

Bank Note Glue. — Dissolve 1 lb. of fine glue or gelatine in water ; 
evaporate it till most of the water is expelled; add ^ lb. of brown sugar, 
and pour it into moulds. 

Parchment Glue. — Parchment shavings, 1 lb. ; water, 6 qts. Boil till 
dissolved, strain and evaporate to right consistence. 

Glue to Resist Moisture. — Glue, 6 parts ; resin, 4 parts ; red ochre, 
2 parts ; mix with the smallest possible quantity of water. 

Gum for Backing Labels. — Mix pure dextrine with boiling water un- 
til it assumes the consistency of ordinary mucilage. Apply with a full 
bodied, evenly made camel's hair brush. The paper should not be too 
thin or unsized. It will dry quickly and adhere when sliglitlj' wet. 

Cement for Electrical Machines and Galvanic Troughs — Melt 
together 5 lbs. of resin and 1 lb. of beeswax, and stir in 1 lb. of red ochre 
(highly dried and still warm) and 4 ozs. of plaster of Paris, continuing the 
heat a little above 212*^, and stirring constantly till all frothing ceases, or 
(for troughs) resin, 6 lbs. ; dried red ochre, 1 lb.; calcined plaster of Paris, 
4 lb. ; linseed oil, J lb. 

Hydraulic Cement. — Powdered clay, 3 lbs. ; oxide of iron, 1 lb. ; and 
boiled oil to form a stiff paste. 

Engineer's Cement. — Equal parts of red and white lead, with drying 
oil, spread on tow or canvas. An admirable composition for uniting 
large stones in cisterns. 

Stone Cement River. — Sand, 20 parts; litharge, 2 parts; quick-lime, 
1 part ; mi.x with linseed oil. 

Roman Cement. — Drift sand, 94 parts ; unslaked lime, 12 lbs. ; and 4 
lbs. of the poorest cheese grated ; mix well ; add hot (not boiling) water to 
reduce to a proper consistence for plastering. Work well and quick with a 
thin smooth coat. 

Cementing Emery to Wood. — Melt together equal parts of shellac, 
white resin and carbolic acid in crystals ; add the last after the others are 
melted. 

Turners' Cement. — Beeswax, 1 oz. ; resin, ^ oz. ; pitch, | oz. ; melt, 
and stir in fine brick dust. 

Cement to Fasten Leather on Top Rollers. — Gum arable, 2| ozs.; 
isinglass, 2J ozs. ; dissolve each separately in water and mix. 

Cast Iron Cement. — Clean borings, or turnings of cast iron, 16 parts ; 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 649 

Bal-ammoniac, 2 parts ; flour of sulpliur, 1 part ; mix them well together in 
a mortar, and keep them dry. When required for use, take of tiie mixture, 
1 part; clean borings, 20 parts; mix thoroughly, and add a sufficient quan- 
tity of water. A little grind-stone dust added, improves tiie cement. 

Cement for Joints of Iron Pipes or Holes in Castings. — Take of 
iron borings, coarsely powdered, 5 lbs. ; of powdered sal-ammoniac, 2 ozs. ; 
of sulphur, 1 oz. ; and water sufficient to moisten it. This composition har- 
dens rapidly, but, if time can be allowed it sets more firmly without the 
sulphur. Use as soon as mixed, and ram tightly into the joints or holes. 

Best Cement for Aquaria. — One part, by measure, say a gill of 
litharge ; 1 gill of plaster of Paris ; 1 gill of dry, white sand ; ^ of a gill of 
finely powdered resin. Sift, and keep corked tiglit until required for use, 
when it is to be made into a putty by mixing in boiled oil (linseed) with a 
little patent drier added. Never use it after it has been mixed (that is, with 
the oil), Over fifteen hours. This cement can be used for marine as well as 
fresh water aquaria, as it resists the action of salt water. The tank can be 
used immediately, but it is best to give it three or four hours to dry. 

Another. — Mix equal quantities of any white lead and red lead to a paste 
with mastic varnish and use as soon as mixed. 

Strong Cement for Steam Joints. — White lead ground in oil, 10 parts ; 
black oxide of manganese, 3 parts; litharge, 1 part. Reduce to the proper 
consistency with boiled linseed oil and apply. 

Cement for Holes or Cracks. — Red lead ground in oil, 6 parts, white 
lead, 3 parts, oxide of manganese, 2 parts, sihcate of soda, 1 part, litharge, 
^ part ; all mixed and used as putty. 

Air and Water tight Cement for Casks and Cisterns.— Melted 
glue, 2 parts ; linseed oil, 4 parts, boiled into a varnish with litharge ; hard- 
ens in 48 hours. 

Gasfitters' Cement. — Mix together resin, 4J parts ; wax, 1 part ; and 
Venetian red, 3 parts. 

Plumbers' Cement.— Black resin, 1 part ; brick dust, 2 parts ; well incor- 
porated by a melting heat. 

Coppersmiths' Cement. — Boiled linseed oil and red lead mixed together 
into a putty, are often used by coppersmiths and engineers to secure joints : 
the washers of leather or cloth are smeared with this mixture in a pasty 
state. 

Cement for External Use.— Ashes, 2 parts ; clay, 3 parts ; sand, 1 part ; 
mix witii a little oil, verv durable. 

Cement to Resist Red Heat and Boiling Water. — To 4 or 5 parts 
of clay, thoroughly dried and pulverized, add 2 parts of fine iron filings 
free from oxide, 1 part of peroxyde of manganese, 1 part of common salt, 
and ^ part of borax. Mingle thoroughly, render as fine as possible, then 
reduce to thick paste with the necessary quantity of water, mixing well; 
use immediately, and apply heat, gradually increasing almost to a white 
heat. 

Cement to Join Sections of Cast-Iron Wheels, etc. — Make a paste 
of pure oxide of lead, litharge, and concentrated glycerine. Unrivalled for 
fastening stone to stone, or iron to iron. 

Cement for Mending Stone and Earthenware.— Take half a pint of 
strong vinegar and a pint of new milk ; let it stand until it separates ; drain 
the whey from the curd, and mix into the curd sifted marl-lime, to make it 
the consistency of putty, apply it to the edges and join immediately, let it 
stand a few days. If the jar is cracked, paste a piece of strong cloth over 
the fracture with the cement. 

Cement for Mending China. — Take a very thick solution of gum- 
arabic and water ; stir in the flour of plaster-of-Paris until it becomes a thin- 
nish paste ; apply with a brush to the broken edges, and place them 
together ; let them dry awhile. The whiteness of the cement renders this 
recipe doubly valuable. 

To Cement Broken China.— Beat lime into the most impalpable pow- 

28 



650 MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 

der, sift it through fine muslin ; then tie some into a thin muslin, put on the 
edcjes of tlie broken china some white of egg, tlien dust some lime quickly 
on the same, and unite them exactly. 

Asbestos Powder as a Cement.— Asbestos powder made into a thick 
paste with the liquid silicate of soda, according to a leading English autho- 
rity, is stated to be found to Vie of great advantage for making joints, fitting 
taps, connecting pipes, and filling cracks in retorts. It is said to be of great 
service in tlie manufacture of nitric acid, sulphuric acid, and otiier products, 
because it can be easily made as applied, hardening rapidly, and preventing 
the escape of acid vapors. 

Cement for Alabaster. — Take of white beeswax one pound, of resin 
a pound, and tliree quarters of alabaster. Melt the wax and resin, then 
strew the alabaster over it lightly, (which should be previously reduced to 
a fine powder.) Stir the Avliole well together, then knead the mass in water, 
in order to incorptirate the alabaster thoroughly with the resin and wax. 
The alabaster, when mended, should be perfectly dry, and heated. The 
cement, when apjilied, should nlso be heated. Join the broken pieces, bind 
them, and let tlieni remain a week. This composition, when properly man- 
aged, forms an extremely strong cement. 

Cement for Iron-ware. — Beat the whites of eggs to a froth, then stir 
into them enough quicklime to make a consistent paste, then add iron file 
dust to make a thick paste. The quicklime shoidd be reduced to a fine 
powder before mixing it with the eggs. Fill the cracks in iron-ware with 
this cement, and let them remain several weeks before using them. 

Transparent Cement for Glass. — Dissolve 1 part india-rubber in chlor- 
oform, and add' 16 parts by measure of gum mastic in powder. Digest 
for 2 days, shaking the bottle frequently ; apply with a fine camel's ha,ir 
brush. 

Cement for Petroleum Lamps. — Boil 3 parts of resin with 1 part of 
caustic soda and 5 of water. The composition is then mixed with half its 
weight of plaster of Paris, and sets firmly in ^ to | of an hour. It is of 
great adhesive power, not permeable to petroleum, a low conductor of heat, 
and b\it superficially attacked by hot water. 

For Lute, or cement for closing joints of apparatus, mix Paris plaster 
with water to a soft paste, and apply it at once. It bears' nearly a red heat. 
To render it impervious, rub it over with wax and oil. 

Roman Cement. — Slaked lime, 1 bush. ; green copperas, 3| lbs., fine gravel 
sand, ^ bush. Dissolve the copperas in hot water, and mix all together to 
the proper consistency for use ; use the day it is mixed and keep stirring it 
with a stick winle in use. 

Vicat's Hydraulic Cement is prepared by stirring into water a mixture 
of 4 parts clialk and 1 part claj^ ; mix with a vertical wiieel in a circular 
trough, letting it run out in a large receiver. A deposit soon takes place 
which is formed into small bricks, which, after being dried in the sun, are 
moderately calcined. It enlarges about § when mixed with water. 

Rust Joint, Quick Setting. — Sal-ammoniac pulverized, 1 lb.; flour 
of sulpliur, 2 lbs. ; iron borings, 80 lbs. ; mix to a paste with water in quan- 
tities as required for immediate use. 

Quick Setting Joint Better than the Last, but Requires More 
Time to Set. — Sal-ammoniac, 2 lbs. ; sulphur, 1 lb. ; iron filings, 206 lbs. 

Jewellers' Armenian Cement. — Isinglass soaked in water and dis- 
solved in spirit, 2 ozs. (thick) ; dissolve in this 10 grs. of very pale gum 
ammonia (in tears) by rubbing them together ; tiien add 6 large tears of 
gum mastic, dissolveil in the least possible quantity of rectified spirits. 
When carefully made this cement resists moisture and dries colorless. 
Keep in a closely stopped phial. 

Jewellers' Cement. — Put in a bottle 2 ozs. of isinglass and 1 oz. of the 
best gimi arable, cover them with proof spirits, cork loosely, and place the 
bottle in a vessel of water, and boil it till a thorough solution is effected; 
then strain it for use. 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 651 

Sealing Cement. — To secure letters and packages from beinsf opened 
or tampered with, beat up some fine bean flour wiili tlie white of an egg, 
and make it into a paste. Use a little of it in the form of water, close the 
letters, et(;,, with it, and hold the sealed part to tlie spout of a tea-pot con- 
taining boiling water. The steam will harden the cement to that degree 
that the letter cannot be opened without tearing it, and will thus prove 
more secure than gum, wafer, or wax. 

Lithographic Ink. — Venice turpentine, 1 part; lampblack, 2 parts; 
hard tallow soap, 6 parts ; mastic in tears, 8 parts ; shellac, 12 parts ; wax, 
16 parts ; melt, stir, and j)our it out on a slab. 

Indelible Ink for Marking Linen Without Preparation. — Nitrate 
of silver, 1-J- oz. ; dissolved in 6 oz. liquor annnoniae fortis, orchil, for color- 
ing, 1 oz. ; gum mucilage, 12 oz. The best extant. 

Black Stencil Ink. — Triturate together 1 pint pine soot and 2 pints 
Prussian blue with a little glycerine, then add 3 pints gum arable and suf- 
ficient glvcerine to form a thick pnste. 

Indelible Stencil Inks. — 1. Varnish, such as is used for ordinary 
printing ink, 1 lb. ; black sulphuret of mercury, 1 lb. ; nitrate of silver, 1 oz. ; 
sulphate of iron, 1 oz. ; lampblack, 2 tablespoonfuls. Grind all well together ; 
thin with spirits turpentine as desired. 2. Sulphate of manganese, 2 parts; 
lampblack, 1 part ; sugar, 4 parts ; all in fine i)owder and triturated to a 
paste in a little water. Permanent Red. — Vermilion, 4 parts ; sulphate of 
iron, 1 part ; drying oil to mix. Any other color will answer besides red. 

Blue Ruling Ink. — Good vitriol, 4 ozs. ; indigo, 1 oz. ; pulverize the 
indigo, add it to the vitriol, let it stand exposed to the air for 6 ilays, or 
until dissolved; then fill the pots with chalk, add fresh gall, ^ gill, boiling 
it before use. 

Black Ruling Ink. — Take good black ink, and add gall as for blue ; 
do not cork it, as it prevents it from turning black. 

Prof. Bottger's Portable Ink. — Make the strongest possible solu- 
tion of aniline black in water or alcohol, and soak thick unsized paper tho- 
roughly to imbibe mixture, and then dry. Put in a bottle, and add water as 
required. 

Ticketing Ink for Grocers, &c. — Dissolve 1 oz. of gum arabic in 6 
oz. water, and strain ; this is the mucilage ; for hlark color use drop black, 
powdered, and ground with the mucilage to extreme fineness ; for blue, 
ultramarine is used in the same manner ; for green, emerald green ; for 
white, flake white; for red, vermilion, lake, or carmine; for yellow, chrome 
yellow. When ground too thick they are thinned with a little water. 
Apply to the cards with a small brush. The cards may be sized with a thin 
glue, and afterwards varnished, if it is desired to preserve them. 

Premium Black Writing Ink. — Take 2 oz. extract logwood; 1 gal. 
soft water ; boil sliglitly, or simmer in an iron vessel 15 minutes ; dissolve 
in a little hot water 24 grains bichromate of potash, 12 grains prussiate of 
potash, and stir into the liquid a few minutes while over the fire ; take off, 
and when settled, strain it twice through common muslin or sheeting cloth. 
The above ink is a jet black from the first, flows beautifully from the pen, 
and is so indelible that even oxalic acid will not remove it from paper, and 
costs, when made in large quantities, only 4 cents per gallon. 

Superior Blue Ink. — Prussian blue, 6 parts ; oxalic acid, 1 part ; trit- 
urate with a little water to a perfectly smooth paste, and dilute with the 
proper quantity of water. Add gum arabic. 

Horticultural Ink. — Copper,! part; dissolve in nitric acid, 10 parts, 
and add water, 10 parts ; used to write on zinc, or tin labels. 

Inks. — Flue Black Writinq Ink. — To 2 gals, of a strong decoction of 
logwood, well strained, add 1^ lbs. blue galls in coarse powder, 6 ozs. sulphate 
of iron, 1 oz. acetate of copper, 6 oz. of well ground sugar, and 8 oz. gum 
arabic. Set the above on the fire until it begins to boil, strain, and then set 
it away until it has acquired the desired black. 2. Green Ink. — Cream of 
tartar, 1 part ; verdigris, 2 parts ; water, 8 parts. Boil till reduced to the 



652 MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, AC. 

proper color. 3. Blue Ink. — Take sulphate of indigo, dilute it with water 
till it produces the required color. 4. Violet Ink. — Is made bj' dissolving 
some violet aniline in water to which some alcohol has been added ; it takes 
very little aniline to make a large quantity of the ink. 5. Gold Ink. — Mo- 
saic gold, 2 parts ; gum arabic, 1 part ; rubbed up to a proper condition. 6. 
Silver Ink. — Triturate in a mortar equal parts of silver foil and sulphate of 
potassa, until reduced to a fine powder, then wash the salt out, and mix the 
residue with a mucilage of equal parts of gum arabic water, 7. Fullam's 
Recipe for Indelible Stencil-plate Ink. — 1 lb. precipitate carbonate of iron, 1 
lb. sulpiiate of iron, 1^ lbs. acetic acid. Stir over a fire until tliey combine, 
then add 3 lbs. printer's varnish and 2 lbs. fine book ink, and stir until well 
mixed. Add 1 lb. of Ethiop's mineral. 8. Exchequer Ink. — Bruised galls, 
40 lbs. ; gum, 10 lbs. ; green sulphate of iron, 9 lbs. ; soft water, 45 gals. 
Macerate for 3 weeks with frequent agitation and strain. This ink will 
endure for ages. 9. Asiatic Ink. — Bruised galls, 14 lbs. ; gum, 5 lbs. Put 
them in a small cask, and add of boiling soft water, 15 gals. Allow the 
whole to macerate, with frequent agitation, for two weeks, then further add 
green copperas, 5 lbs., dissolved in 7 pts. water. Again mix well, and 
agitate the whole daily for 2 or 3 weeks. 10. Extra Good Black Ink. — 
Bruised galls, 2 lbs. ; logwood chips, green copperas, and gum, of each 1 lb.; 
water, 7 gals. Boil 2 hours and strain. Product, 5 gals. 11. Brown Ink- — 
A strong decoction of catechu. The shade may be varied by the cautious 
addition of a little weak solution of bichromate of potash. 12. Indelible Ink. — 
Nitrate of silver, ^ oz. ; water, f oz. Dissolve, add as much of the strongest 
liquor of ammonia as will dissolve the precipitate formed on its first addi- 
tion ; then add of mucilage IJ dr., and a little sap green, s\Tupof buckthorn, 
or finely powdered indigo, to color. Turns black on being held near the 
fire, or touched with a hot iron. 13. Indelible Ink for Glass or Metal. — 
Borax, 1 oz. ; shellac, 2 ozs. ; water, 18 fluid ozs. ; boil in a covered vessel ; 
add of thick mucilage, 1 oz. ; triturate it with levigated indigo and lamp- 
black q. s., to give it a good color. After 2 hours' repose, decant from the 
dregs and bottle for use. It may be bronzed after being applied. Resists 
moisture, chlorine, and acids. 14. Common Ink. — To 1 gal. boiling soft 
water add I oz. extract log-wood; boil 2 minutes; remove from the fire, 
and stir in 48irrains bichromate of potash, and 8 grains prussiate of potash; 
for 10 gals, use 6^ ozs. logwood extract, 1 oz. bichromate of potash, and 80 
grains prussiate of potash ; strain. 15. Black Copi/incj Itdc, or Writing Fluid. — 
Take 2 gals, rain water and put into it gum arabic, i lb. ; brown sugar, J 
lb. ; clean copperas, I lb. ; powdered nutgalls, | lb. ; mix, and shake occa- 
sionally for 10 days and strain; if needed sooner, let it stand in an iron 
kettle until the strength is obtained. This ink will stand the action of the 
atmosphere for centuries, if required. 16. Red Ink. — In an ounce phial put 
1 teaspoonful of aqua-ammonia ; gum arabic, size of 2 or 3 peas ; and 6 grs. 
No. 40 carmine; fill up with soft water, and it is soon ready for use. 

Luminous Ink — Shines in the Dark. — Phosphorus, half drachm ; oil 
cinnamon, half ounce ; mix in phial, cork tightly, heat it slowly until mixed. 
A letter written with this ink can only be read in a dark room, when the 
writing will have the appearance of fire. 

Yellow Ink. — A little alum, added to saffron, in soft hot water, makes 
a beautiful yellow ink. 

Invisible Ink. — Sulphuric acid, 1 part ; water, 20 parts ; mix together 
and write with a quill pen, which writing can be read only after heating it. 

Red Ruling Ink. — Best carmine, 4 grs. ; rain water, 1 oz. ; aqua-am- 
monia, 40 drops. A little gum arabic water may be added. 

Marking Ink. — This ink may be made after a variety of methods ; the 
following is one of the best ; dissolve separately an ounce of nitrate of silver 
and an ounce and a half of carbonate of soda in distilled or rain water. Mix 
the solutions, and collect and wash the precipitate in a filter, whilst still 
moist ; rub it up in a marble or Wedgwood mortar, with 3 drachms tartaric 
acid; add 2 oz. of distilled water, mix 6 drachms of white sugar, and 10 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 653 

drachms of powdered gum arabic, half an ounce of orcliiland water to make 
up 6 ozs. in measure. Apply with a clean quill pen. Red Marking Ink 
may be compounded thus : take half an ounce of vermilion, and a drachm 
of salt of steel ; let them be finely levigated with linseed oil, to the thick- 
ness or linifiidity required for the occasion. The ink thus obtained lias not 
only an attractive apjjearance, but will be found perfectly to resist the ac- 
tion of acids, as well as of all alkaline lyes ; it may he employed with either 
a hair pencil or a pen. Marking ink rnuy he removed from linen by a saturated 
solution of cyanuret of potassium, applied with a camel's-hair brush. After 
the marking-ink has disappeared, the part should be well washed in cold 
water. 

Ink-Marking. — Dissolve, separately, 1 oz. of nitrate of silver and an 
ounce and a half of sub-carbonate of soda in distilled rain water. Mix the 
solutions, and correct and wash the precipitate in a filter ; while still moist, 
rub it upon a marble or Wedgwood mortar, with three drachms of carbonic 
acid ; add 2 oz. of distilled water, mix 6 oz. of white sugar, 10 drachms of 
powdered gum arable, and half an ounce of orchil and water; put into bot- 
tles and cork securely. 

Ink, Sympathetic. — With a clean pen, write on paper with a solution 
of muriate of cobalt, so diluted with water that the writing, when dry, will 
be invisible. On gently warming the paper, the writing will appear of a 
blue or greenish coh)r, which will disappear again when cool. A solution 
of muriate of copper forms a yellow and sympatiietic ink, and acetate of 
cobalt a rose or purple. If a landscape be drawn representing a winter 
scene, the paper being overlaid in the place where the foliage should be, 
with the green sympathetic ink, then on gently warming the drawing, it 
will represent summer. Sky and water may be drawn with the blue, and 
standing corn with tiie 3'ellow ink. 

Ink, Writing. — Boil 8 oz. of galls, in coarse powder, and 4 oz. of log- 
wood, in thin chips, in 12 pints of rain water, for one hour ; strain the liquor, 
and add 4 oz. of green copperas, 3 oz. of powdered gum arable, 1 oz. of blue 
vitriol, and 1 oz. of coarse sugar ; stir the mixture until the whole be dis- 
solved, then let it subside for 24 hours ; strain it off speedily, and put it by in 
stone bottles for use. An excellent ink, suitalde for writing with steel pens, 
whicli it does not corrode, may he made as follows : 60 grs. of caustic soda, 
a pint of water, and as much Indian ink as is required for producing a proper 
blackness. 

Sealing Wax. — Take four ounces of shell-lac, one ounce of Venice 
turpentine, and three ounces of vermilion. Melt the lac in a copper pan 
suspended over a clear charcoal fi.-e, then pour the turpentine slowly into 
it, and soon afterwards add the vermilion, stirring briskly all the time of 
the mixture with a rod in either hand. In forming the round sticks of seal- 
ing-wax a certain portion of the mass should be weighed while it is ductile, 
divided into the desired number of j)ieces, and then rolled out upon a warm 
marble slab by means of a smooth wooden block like that used by apothe- 
caries for rolling amass of pills. The oval sticks of sealing-wax are cast in 
moulds with the above compound in a state of fusion. The marks of the 
lines of junction of the mould-box may be afterwards removed by holding 
the sticks over a clear fire or passing them over a blue gas-flame. Marble 
sealing-wax is made by mixing two, three, or more colored kinds while 
they are in a semi-fluid state. From the viscidity of the several masses, 
their incorporation is left incomplete so as to produce the appearance of 
marbling. Gold sealing-wax is made simply by stirring gold-colored mica 
spangles into the musk or other perfume. If one part of balsam of Peru be 
melted along with ninety-nine parts of the sealing-wax composition, an 
agreeable fragrance will be exhaled in the act of sealing with it. Either 
lamp-black or ivory-black serves for the coloring-matter of black-wax. 
Sealing-wax is often adulterated with resin, in which case it runs into thifl 
drops at the flame of a candle. 

On Melting and Kefining. — In melting Brass Gold, urge the fire to a 



654 MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 

great lieat, and stir the metal with the long stem of a tobacco pipe to pre- 
vent honey-combing. If Steel or Iron filings get into gold while melting, 
throw in a piece of sandiver tlie size of a conmion nut: it will attract the 
iron or steel from the gold into the flux, or sublimate of mercury will des- 
troy the iron or steel. To cause Gold to roll well, melt with a good heat, add 
a teaspoonful of sal ammoniac and charcoal, equal quantities, both pulver- 
ized, stir up well, put on the cover for 2 minutes, and pour. 

Black having a Polish for Iron. — Pulverized gum asphaltum, 2 lbs. ; 
gum benzoin, \ lb. ; spirits of turpentine, 1 gal. ; to make quick, keep in a 
warm place, and shake often ; siiade to suit with finely ground ivory black. 
Apply with a brush. It ought to be used on iron exposed to the weather 
as well as on inside work desiring a nice appearance or polish. 

Coins. — The national coins of the United States are of three kinds, viz : 
gold, silver, and copper. 

1. The gold coins are the eagle, the double eagle, half eagle, quarter eagle, 
and gold dollar. 

The eagle contains 258 grains of standard gold; the double eagle, half 
eagle, and quarter eagle, like proportions. 

2. The silver coins are the dollar, half dollar, quarter dollar, the dime, half 
dime, and three-cent-piece. 

The dollar contains 412^ grs. ; the half dollar, 192 grs. ; the quarter dollar, 
96 grs. ; tlie dime, 38.4 grs. ; the half dime, 19.2 grs. 

3. The copper coins are the cent, and half cent. 

The cent contains 168 grains oi pure copper, the half cent, a like propor- 
tion. Mils are not coined. 

The fineness of gold used for coin, jewelry, and other purposes, also 
the gold of commerce, is estimated by the number of parts of gold which 
it contains. Pure gold is commonly supposed to be divided into 24 equal 
parts, called carats. Hence, if it contains 10 parts of alloy, or some baser 
metal, it is said to be 14 carats fine ; if 5 parts of alloy, 19 carats fine ; and 
when absolutely pure, it is 24 carats fine. 

The present standard for both gold and silver coins of the United 
States, by Act of Congress, 1837, is 900 parts of pure metal by weight to 
100 parts of alloy. The alloy of gold coin is composed of silver and copper, 
the silver not to exceed the copper in weight. The alloy of silver coin is 
pure copper. 

To ('lean Light Kid Gloves. — Magnesia, moist bread, and India rub- 
ber, are all of tliem good to clean light kid gloves. They should be rubbed 
on the gloves thoroughly. If so much soiled that they cannot be cleaned, 
sew up the tops of the gloves, and rub tliem over with a sjjonge dipped in 
a decoction of saffron and water. The gloves will be yellow or brown, ac- 
cording to the strength of the decoction. 

Waterproof for Porous Cloth. — Dissolve 2^ lbs. alum in 4 gals, 
water; dissolve also in a separate vessel the same weight of acetate of lead 
in the same quantity of water. When both are well dissolved, mix the solu- 
tions together ; and when the sulphate of lead resulting from this mixture 
has been precijutated to the bottom of the vessel in the form of a powder, 
pour off the solution, and plimge into it the fabric to be rendered water- 
proof. Wash and rub it well during a few minutes, and hang it in the air 
to dry. 

To Restore Rusty Italian Crapes. — Skim-milk and water, with a 
bit of glue in it, heated scalduig hot, will make old rusty-black Italian crape 
look as well, if not better, than new. It should be clapped and pulled dry, 
like nice muslin. 

Potter's Invisible Waterproofing. — Imbue the cloth on the wrong 
side with a solution of isinglass, alum, and soap dissolved in water, form- 
ing an emulsion of a milky thickness : apply with a brush, rubbing in well. 
When dry it is brushed on the wrong side against the grain, and then 
gone over with a brush dipped in water; and afterwards brushed down 
smooth. 



APPENDIX TO BEEWmG,WINE & SPIEIT 
MANUFACTUEERS, &C. 



THE ART OF BREWING. 

The Utensils Employed, the Ingredients Used, the Vari- 
ous Operations Performed, the Mash Tub, the Under- 
back, the Cooler, the Thermometer, &c., &c. 

Brewing. — Tlie process of brewing ought to form a part of the domestic 
economy of every family, for similar reasons as those that apply to home 
made bread, namely, that tiie article thus produced may be obtained much 
purer and for a far less cost than vviieu purchased from the brewer or the 
publican. Brewing is not a difficult art, a great deal depends upon proper 
management and strict attention to certain definite rules ; and whatever 
obstacles may [>resent themselves at the outset will soon be overcome by 
practice and personal experience. 

The process of brewing may be divided into three distinct heads — 
1. The utensils employed. 2. The ingredients used. 3. The various ope- 
rations performed. 

1. The Utensils. The Co/^/^pr is used for heating tlie water ; sometimes 
it is fixed for the purpose, if the brewing be on a tolerable scale ; or in a 
portable one, if the brewing be limited; in short, the size of the copper 
must depend u])on the extent of the establishment, and what is required ; 
the copper in the engraving is a fixed one, of the smallest size. But it is 

not absolutely necessary that a copper 
should be designed purposely for brew- 
ing ; the ordinary washing cojjper with 
which every house is furnisheil may be 
employed. If this be the case the size 
of the copper will determine the extent 
of the brewing. If it be required to 
brew two kinds of beer at the same 
time, namely, nine gallons of ale, and 
nine gallons of table beer, the capacity 
of tiie copper should not be less than 
thirteen gallons. If one kind of beer 
be only required, then, for each nine 
gallons the copper should contain, if the 
whole quantity of grist be mashed onlj'^ 
once, thirteen gallons ; if the mashing 
be performed in two separate opera- 
tions, seven gallons ; if in three opera- 
tions, five gallons. It is not economical 
to exceed these capacities, at least, not to extend them to fifteen, nine, or 
seven gallons. To save time and labor it is desirable that the copper be 
placed, if it can be conveniently done, at such a height as will allow the 
water to run from it into the mash tub, by means of a wooden spout or 
gutter. Much trouble, besides waste, will also be avoided if the copper be 

655 




656 THE ART OF BREWING. 

furnished with a metal tap ; but, instead of having it soldered in, it is better 
wlien consisting simply of a pipe of siieet copper coining out level with the 
bottom and projecting beyond the brickwork in whicli the copper is fixed. 
Into this tube the tap may he easily secured, as is done by fixing it in a 
cask, and again removed as occasion may require. Tlie tap sliould be of a 
size sufficient to prevent its being choked by the hops in drawing off the 
malt wort. 

The Mash Tub is the vessel which is to hold all the ground malt or grist, 




and water enough to make the infusion or sweet wort for ale. It is gene- 
rally made of wooden staves, fixed by hoops of iron or wood ; two-thirds of 
any broad bottomed cask or barrel will do for this purpose. All that is 
essentially necessary is to have the vessel capacious enough to hold the 
malt and water to be infused, with a contrivance at the bottom to let off the 
infusion or sweet wort into another vessel. For this purpose some have a 
metal tap fixed near the bottom, but in cheaper apparatus a spigot and 

faucet is found sufficient for tliose who 
cannot afford the other. This is merely 
driven tight into the hole in the lower 
part of the tub, and tlie peg takes out. Tlie objection to this contrivance, 
however, is that it is apt to swell by the hot liquid, and in attempting to 
draw off the wort, the aj)paratus ma}' be forcibly pulled out altogether. 
The size of the mash tub must he adapted to the mode of brewing to be 
pursued. A smaller or larger mash tub will be required for the same 
quantity of liquor, according to the number of mashes it is to undergo. 
But in anj' case it should be large enough to hold tiie whole of tl e wort of 
wliich the ale is made, and all the malt, and there should be likewise room 
enougli left to mash in ; for tiiis purpose the liquor should not reach above 
five to six inclies from tlie edge of tlie mash tub. 

The Under-buck is a shallow tub placed below the mashing tun, for the 
wort to run off into when drawn from the grains. Its size is proportioned 
to that of tiie mashing tun. It is best to be large enough to hold all the 
wort of one masliing, that the wort may not be cooled by being transferred 
into other vessels previous to boiling. This tub should have its capacity 
divided into gallons, that the quantity of wort from each mash contained 
in it niaj' at once be known by mere insi)ection. 

The Cooler is a flat tub used for the purpose of cooling the wort before it 
is fermented ; common washing tubs will answer this purpose tolerably 
well. For each nine gallons of liquor to be brewed let these tubs contain 
in the whole fourteen gallons, which may be divided in the following man- 
ner, and from these sizes a calculation for any greater scale may be readily 
made ; the larger tub, in each case, being intended to serve in the three* 



THE ART OF BREWING. 657 

fold capacity of receiver, cooler, and gyle-tun. For a brewing of eighteen 
gallons, one sixteen gallon and one twelve gallon tub are required. For 
twenty-seven gallons one tub of eighteen gallons, and two tubs of twelve 
gallons, are necessary. To brew a barrel, the larger tub should have a 
capacity equal to thirty gallons, while each of the otlier two should be able 
to hold thirteen gallons. 

The Therviometcr is found of great service to the brewer, and should 
always be employed where accuracy is required. By it the proper heat of 
the mash is regulated, and of the worts when drawn from the mash tun. It 
indicates when the worts in the coolers are of tlie proper temperature to 
begin the fermentation, and it marks tiie jjrogress of this process by the 
increase or diminution of heat. For this pur{)ose a common thermometer 
with a metal scale, enclosed in a tin case, will do. 

2. The Ingredients used. — Tliese consist of malt, hops, water, and 
yeast. The Malt is chosen according to the intended character of the 
brewing; pale, amber, high-dried, or any mixture of them, js the occasion 
may require. The amber-colored is best adapted for general brewing, but 
pale malt is preferable for brewing in a small way ; eitiier may be procured 
of any respectable maltster. Malt varies much in quality ; when good its 
grains are large, full of flour and plump ; they break easily between tlie 
teeth, and if drawn across a board leave a chalky trace. The shell or husk 
also siiould be thin and brittle. When the malt is purchased, inquiry should 
be made, whether it is old or new. If the malt be new, it sliould be left 
exposed to the open air one or two days after grinding, before it is used. 
If it be old, it will be better to have it ground on one day and brewed tiie 
next without allowing it to stand after it is broken. It should be bruised 
moderately small, so that every grain be crushed : but if ground very fine, 
it will clog the mash and impede tlie draining of the wort. The quantity of 
malt used in domestic brewing may be regulated as follows : — If the beer 
be not intended for keeping, one bushel of malt will make twelve gallons of 
common or table ale. Or from one busliel of malt may be brewed twenty- 
four gallons of table beer, without any table ale, or nine gallons of ale, and 
six of table beer, or six of ale and twelve of table beer, or any other pro- 
portions, bearing in mind that the common ale and table beer are here con- 
sidered as two of table beer, being equal to one of ale. This is the smallest 
quantity of malt that should be employed for brewing twelve gallons of 
good table or common ale. It must be understood, tiiat the malt be mea- 
sured before it is ground, because a bushel of malt by measure produces, 
when coarsely ground, one busliel and a quarter of grist, and when finely 
ground, the increase of bulk is still more considerable ; hence, if the malt 
be purcliased in a ground state, this allowance must be made accordingly. 
Hops, like malt, vary much in quality ; the best are of a ))right color be- 
tween j-ellow and green, of a pungent fragrant smell, and when rubbed 
between the hands, of a glutinous character; if any browimess of color 
appears on them, it is a sign that tlieir qualities have partially perished. 
They should be chosen free from leaves, stems, &c., and be kept in a dry 
place closely packed, or they v/ill become damp and mildewed. Hops do 
not keep perfectly good for more than a year, and therefore it is best to 
procure them of the present year's growth. The quantity of hops used may 
be regulated according to the palate. One pound of hops to a bushel of 
malt produces a pleasant bitter, and is considered a good proportion, but 
less may be used if the draught is qui(,'k. The icater best adapted for brew- 
ing is variously estimated, some giving the preference to soft water, and 
others to hard. But it niay be considered that any kind of good drinkable 
fresh water will do for brewing, provided it be free from impregnations 
derived from stagnant pools or ponds containing decayed animal and vege- 
table substances. In all cases it is advisable tliat the water should be 
allowed a sufficient time to settle before it is used. The yeast must be sweet 
and good, for upon that circumstance proper fermentation mainly depends. 
The best yeast is that which is collected at the top, and which has become 

2tt* 



658 THE ART OF BREWING. 

a dense tough froth, formed wlien the fermentation has been a good deal 
advanced. Wliat has fallen to the bottom, or the ground jeast, is not so 
powerful. Though yeast can be kept, yet new yeast is more active than 
old. Yeast is also liable to become putrid by keeping, and llie smallest 
quantity of this, or the least tendency to it, will inoculate a whole tun. The 
quantity of yeast that should be used cannot be the same exactly for all 
cases, for it must depend partly on the quality of the beer, an<l upon the 
season : in most cases a larger quantity of yeast will have the same effect 
as a higiier degree of heat in exciting the fermentation, and a smaller quan- 
tity will be equivalent to a lower temperature ; but, in general, a gallon for 
four barrels may be stated as tlie usual proportion wiien the wort is from 
60 to 70 degrees ; if the heat be greater a smaller quantity will be sufficient. 

3. TIte operations in the process of brewing are, mashing, boiling, cooling, 
fermentation, and cleansing. Mashing is extracting from the ground malt, 
by the addition of hot water, the infusion or wort. During the process of 
mashing, a peculiar principle contained in the malt, called bj' chemists 
diastase, react's upon the starch with which it is associated, and converts it 
first into a kind of gum, and ultimately into a species of grape sugar. The 
more perfectly this is effected, tlie richer will be the resulting wort in sugar 
or " saccharine, " and tiie stronger and more alcoholic the beer produced by 
its fermentation. Mashing is effected by three distinct processes. The 
action of the first mash is merely to extract the sugar contained ready 
formed in the malt ; tliat of the second to convert the starch into sugar by 
the action of the diastase ; and that of the third to fully complete the last- 
named object, as well as to carry away the remaining portion of extract 
left from the second mash. The quantity of water to be employed for 
obtaining tiie different mashes must be determined by the relative capa- 
cities of the mash tub and the copper; care should be always taken to 
employ so much for the first mash as will keep a sufficient quantity in the 
copper to prevent its being injured by the fire. When you commence the 
process of mashing, fix the mash tub in a convenient situation, and in a 
slightly slanting position, so that it may readily receive the water from the 
copjier, and also allow sufficient room for the person who is to stir the mash. 
Then having adapted to the orifice of the spigot or tap that projects within 
the tub, a wicker strainer covered with a case of close canvas, to prevent 
the grains and fine flour from passing through, pour in the mash tub ten 
gallons of boiling water, for every five pecks of malt to be employed. When 
the water has cooled down to 160 degrees in summer, or 170 in winter, let 
one person gradually pour the malt into the tub, while another stirs and 
mixes it with the water. Then thoroughly agitate the whole mixture, and 
keep stirring for twenty or thirty minutes, in order that every particle of 
malt may become completely saturated. After which cover the mash tub 
closely with malt sacks, cloths, or whatever else is handy, to keep in the 
steam. 

When the mash has stood for at least one hour and a half in winter, and 
one hour in summer, draw off a few quarts of wort into the under-back, and 
return it into the mash tub, that it may run off clear; when it runs clear, 
draw off the whole as quickly as possible. During the time the first mash 
is standing on the malt, refill your copper with water, and bring it to the 
heat of 190 degrees for the second mash ; and when the first mash has run 
off, ladle as much water on the malt as will make it of the same consistence 
as the first mash. If the brewing be intended only for nine gallons of beer 
per bushel of malt, five and a half gallons of water is the proportion requir- 
ed for the second mash. Let the water be poured on the malt by one 
person, while another plies the " oar " for at least half an hour. If it be 
intended to brew only one kind of liquor, the second wort mjiy run into the 
same receiver containing the first wort. The second mash must stand for 
an hour and a half, and then be drawn off as quickly as possible. The third 
mash should be made by adding tiie remaining portion of the water heated 
to 200 degrees, this should be well stirred and stand for an hour. Although 



THE ART OF BREWING. 659 

three separate operations of mashing; are liere stated, if time or convenience 
does not admit of tiiis proceeding, the grist may be raaslied in two opera- 
tions only, with the whole allowance of water to be employed ; in that case 
a quantity of water will be seen lying on the top of the malt, the mash being 
too thin, and a portion of the extractive matter remains in tlie grain wliicli 
is mashed out by the second mash. But it is always preferable to make 
three mashes. When you have mashed a third time you may proceed with 
the process of boiling. Empty your copper of water, and, if it will hold the 
whole of the wort, fill it with the first and second worts together with tiie 
hops, and likewise your third wort, as soon as it has run off; if the cop[)er 
be not large enough to boil at once, mix your worts together, and boil tliem 
twice ; taking care to add the hops of tiie first boiling to tlie second. Boil 
the mixture till the liquor breaks, or becomes clouded with large fleecy 
flakes. This will take place probably when the wort has Ijeen boiled about 
one hour. The breaking or curdling is best observed by taking a basinful 
of the wort out of the coi)per and suffering it to cool, wlien tlie flakes will 
be seen distinctly in the wort. Whilst the boiling is going on, arrange the 
tubs for the cooling process, by raising them from the floor on to a support, 
to allow a free circulation of air beneath them ; then place a hair sieve over 
it, supported by a frame of four pieces of wood joined ladder-wise, and 
resting on the edge of the tub, strain the boiled liquor tlirough the sieve. 
Put the hops back into the copper, and boil them again with the second and 
third wort. Cooling is the next process, the object of which is to reduce 
the temperature of the liquor as quickly as possible, in order to avoid 
acidity or "souring." When the boiling is finished, the mash tub must be 
cleared of the grains, and after rinsing it with water, fill it with the boiled 
wort, and put it in a place where it is not exposed to a current of cold air, 
to serve as a gyle tun for the wort. When the contents of the several tubs 
have so far cooled, that the average temperature of the different quantities 
united will be from 62 to 65 degrees, the process of fermentation then takes 
place ; pour the whole into the gyle tun, add the yeast, and, having covered 
up the vessel, let it stand in a moderately warm place. Tiie method of 
mixing yeast with the wort is as follows : take one pound of good yeast, 
and about two quarts of wort, stir them well together, and place them near 
the fire for a few minutes till the mixture begins to ferment ; then pour the 
whole into the gyle tun, and agitate the contents briskly with the oar ; then 
cover up the vessel. After fermenting twenty-four hours, take a handful 
of flour, and the same quantity of salt, place them before the fire to get 
warm, and sprinkle them over the contents of the gyle tun; then give tiie 
whole a good stirring. If the fermentation proceed too rapidly, and there 
appear danger of the whole contents of the vessel overflowing, the yeast 
may be beat down with a stick, and the tub uncovered : a door or window 
may also be opened in the place where the tub stands to admit a cool 
draught of air, for retarding the fermenting process. If the fermentation 
is languid and feeble, one or two large stone bottles, filled witli hot water, 
closely corked, may be let down into the tub, to increase sliglitly the tem- 
perature of the liquor. The commencement of the fermentation is indica- 
ted by a line of small bubbles forming round the sides of the vessel, and in 
a short time extending over the whole surface. A crusty head soon forms, 
and then a thick rocky one, followed by a light frothy head. At length tiie 
head assumes a yeasty appearance, the color becomes yellowisli-l)rown, and 
a vinous odor is developed. As soon as this last head begins to fall, tlie 
liquor should be skimmed continuallj'' every two or three hours until no 
more yeast is formed. It may be regarded as a rule that tlie lower the 
temperature is, and the slower, more regular, and less interrupted the pro- 
cess of fermentation, the better will be the quality of the brewing, and the 
less liable to be changed by age. Cleansing consists in running the beer 
from the gyle tun into casks or other vessels, set sloping, so tliat the yeast, 
as it forms, may work off the one side of the top, and fall into a vessel 
placed below tq rpceive it. The process of cleansing is generally commen- 



660 THE ART OF BREWING. 

ced as soon as tlie saccliarine in the fermenting wort falls to about ten 
pounds per barrel, a degree of attenuation vvliich it usually reaches in about 
forty-eiglit hours. When barrding tlie beer, draw off t!ie fermented liquor 
from the thick sediment in the fermenting vessel into clean casks, pre- 
viously rinsed with boiling water ; and when the casks have been filled, 
strike a few strokes with a mallet on the hoops, in consequence of which 
tlie air-bubbles become displaced, the liquor subsides a little and leaves 
more to be added. A slow fermentation will still goon in the beer, and an 
additional quantity of yeast become disengaged, and overflow tiie barrels, 
which should be placed with the bung-holes inclined a little on one side. 
The same liquor which overflows from the cask — being saved by means of 
vessels placed underneath — may be used for filling up the barrels. In four 
or five days the beer will have purged itself from the yeast ; let it stand a 
few days more till the vinous fermentation is completed, which is easily 
perceived by the yeast at the bung-hole turning brown and becoming full 
of holes, the casks may then be bunged up. The cask should be occasion- 
ally examined, especially in warm weather If a hissing noise is audible 
at the bung-hole, the spile may be left in loosely till the liquor has become 
quiet; but it is better to check the fermentation, which may be done by 
repeatedly wetting the cask with cold water all over with a mop. The beer 
being well prepared and completely worked off, it will then be proper to 
remove it to the place where it is to remain for use. As soon as it is placed 
in tiie cellar — where it should be kept as far as possible from a current of 
air — the bung must be drawn, and the casks filled up quite full with fine 
beer, skimming off the head that will arise from time to time in consequence 
of its being rolled over. After being attended to in tliis manner for two 
or three days, the casks should be bunged tight, and a hole bored with a 
gimlet 7iear the bung for the vent peg, which should be left rather slack for 
a day or two. In three weeks or a month the beer will become fine, and 
may then be tnpped. The following important items in the process of 
brewing cannot be too strongly insisted upon : — The proper heats of the 
water in the different mashings; the length of time tiie water should stand 
on the mash ; the time that the wort should actually boil; the necessity of 
getting the wort cool as soon as possible , the proper heat for mixing to- 
gether the wort and the yeast, and the subsequent attention thereto ; but 
above all the constant care to fill up the barrels repeatedly. 

In addition to the foregoing special directions for the process of brewing, 
the following hints and cautions will be found worthy of attention. The 
best time iw hrevi'mg is cool weather ; March and October being expressly 
suited for brewing in a small way. If for want of room you are obliged to 
brew during warm weather, let the quantity be not greater than is requisite 
for immediate use; for most liquors, brewed during hot weather, seldom 
keep long. Cieanliness cannot be too particularly observed, espfecially in 
the summer season : ever}' particle of matter left in the utensils, after being 
used, creates a foulness not easily afterwards got rid of, and inevitably 
imparts a bad taste for a length of time to sulisequent brewings. Some 
days previous to the operation of brewing being commenced, all the casks 
and tubs should be filled with water, to render them tight. I3y neglecting 
this precaution, many disagreeable consequences may follow by unexjjected 
leakage, particularly if the utensils are not well-seasoned vessels that are 
constantly kept in use. Immediately after, the brewing utensils are made 
use of, they should be carefully and thoroughly washed out, and rinsed 
with cold water, and this operation must be renewed from time to time, if 
they are not soon again to be made use of. During the summer months a 
few lumps of unslaked lime should occasionally be thrown into each, and, 
with such lime 'liquor, the vessels should be well scoured. The copper 
likewise requires attention ; it should never be used without being scoured, 
and in doing this the bottom, and all round the tap, should be specially 
examined, to see that no coat of verdigris adheres. Preparations should be 
made for brewing on the day before the actual process commences ; the 



THE ART OF BREWING. 



661 



materials should be laid ready at hand, the utensils arranged in proper order, 
the copper filled, and the coals provided for the fire. Purchase malt in or 
before the month of May, to avoid tiie summer-made malts. Malt is also 
cheaper at that period than at any other. Purchase hops in October or 
November ; if in a good ripening season, and they are in fine condition, lay 
in your stock. Seasons differ greatly. Easterly winds are bad for brewing, 
and worts exposed to them rarely escape injury. The sweet wort particu- 
larly will often contract an acidity not to be eradicated; therefore always 
shut out easterly winds, whenever it is possible. Tiie mash-tub, underbade, 
&c., ought to be painted when new and dry ; first, by priming, whicii should 
be followed by three coats of paint, each successive coat increasing in 
substance ; thus forming an unyielding mass. Wood so guarded will never 
shrink. Avoid all drugs of every kind ; tlie true flavor of beer is derived 
from malt and hops alone ; and the introduction of other ingredients, inde- 
pendently of the injury they occasion, is utterly useless and opposed to 
common sense. 



Measures of Length. — The subjoined engraving shows at the left a 
four-inch section of a common rule, the inch divisions being subdivided 
into twenty-fifths, twelfths, eights, and tenths. On the right is the French 
measure, indicating millimetres and centimetres. The French metre is in- 
tended to be tlie one ten-millionth part of the distance from either pole of 
the earth to the equator. 



AJnfr/^s/r. inches 1 1 


+ ^ 1 


3 -1 


2 1 




ii'ii ii'ii 


ILLilLJiiilL 


II II II II 


IIIIIIIIIIIl'llllMllllll 


rmrnE 


nnim 


Mnn 


nnnn 


III! 


nil 


lELim 


INI 


rrrn 


llll IliNIJIMIiJIIMII III! 


CmTimel 


'tW 
















MMO^^ei/xs. 


jR/'e/tc/c ' 



FRENCH MEASURE, UNITED STATES STANDARD. 





1 millimetre = JU of an inch nearly, or 


.0393685 inch. 


10 millimetres make 1 centimetre = % of an inch full, or 


.393685 inch. 


10 centiinetres * 


1 decimetre =: 4 inches nearly, or 


3.93685 inches 


10 decimetres ' 


] METRE =: 3 feet 3% inches +, or 


39.3085 inches 


10 metres ' 


t decametre =:: 32.871 feet, or 


39.3685 inches 


10 decametres ' 


1 hectometre = 32S.071 feet, or 


.0621347 mile. 


10 hectometres ' 


1 kilometre =r 3280.71 feet, 3-5 or 


.6213466 mile. 


10 kilometres ' 


' 1 myriametre = 32807.3 feet, 6 1-5 or 


6.213466 miles. 



COMMON LONG MEASURE. 



12 inches make 1 foot. 
3 feet " 1 yard = .36 inches. 
5X yards " i rod, pole or perch = 



I 4n rods make 1 furlong = 220 yards = 660 feet. 
8 furl. " Istat. orlandniile=l"60yd8.=5280ft. 
■■ 16X feet. I 3 miles " 1 league. 



A point = Jj inch. A line = 6 points = ^ inch. A palm = 3 inches, 
A span = 9 inches. A hand = 4 inches. A fathom = 6 feet. A cable's 
length = 120 fathoms = 720 feet. A Gunter's chain = 66 feet = 4 rods. 
80 Gunter's = 1 mile. A nautical or sea-mile = 6086.07 feet, or -g^^g-g^ 
part of the earth's circumference at the equator = 1,142,664 geographical 
or land miles. 1 degree at equator = 69.160 land miles. 1 land mile = 
.86755 of a nautical mile. 



KNOTS, AND HOW TO TIE THEM. 




The knots represented above are described in numerical order aa 
follows : 



1. Simple overhand knot. 

2. Slip-knot seized. 

3. Single bow-knot. 

4. Square or reef-knot. 

5. Square bow-knot. 

6. Weaver's knot. 

7. German or fignre-of-8 knot. 

8. Two half-liitches, or artificer's 
knot. 

662 



9. Double artificer's knot. 

10. Simple galley knot. 

11. Capstan or prolonged knot. 

12. Bowline-knot. 

13. Rolling-hitch. 

14. Clove hitch. 

15. Blackwali-hitch. 

16. Timber-hitcli. 

17. Bowline on a bight. 



KNOTS, AND HOW TO TIE THEM. 



663 



18. 


Running bowline. 


40. 


Shortening-knot. 


19. 


Catspaw. 


41. 


Shortening-knot. 


20. 


Doubled running-knot. 


42. 


Sheep-shank. 


21. 


Double knot. 


43. 


Dog-shank. 


22. 


Six-fold knot. 


44. 


Mooring-knot. 


23. 


Boat knot. 


45. 


Mooring-knot. 


24. 


Lark's liead. 


46. 


Mooring-knot. 


25. 


Lark's liead. 


47. 


Pig-tail worked on the end of a 


26. 


Simple boat-knot 




rope. 


27. 


Loop-knot. 


48. 


Shroud knot. 


28. 


Double Flemish knot. 


49. 


A bend or knot used by sailors in 


29. 


Running-knot checked. 




making fast to a spar or a bucket- 


30. 


Crossed running-knot. 




handle before casting overboard; 


81. 


Lashing-knot. 




it will not run. Also used bj 


32. 


Rosette. 




horsemen for a loop around the 


33. 


Chain-knot. 




jaw of a colt in breaking : the 


84. 


Double chain-knot. 




running end, after passing over 


35. 


Double running-knot, with check 




the head of the animal and 




knot. 




through the loop, will not jam 


86. 


Double twist-knot. 




therein. . 


87. 


Builders' knot. 


50. 


A granny's knot. 


88. 


Double Flemish knot. 


51. 


A weaver's knot. 


89. 


Englisii knot. 







The principle of a knot is, that no two parts which would move in the 
game direction if the rope were to slip, should lie alongside of and touching 
each other. 



BILLIARD BALLS. 



Different Positions op the Cue in order to Obtain 
Certain Strokes. (See page 363.) 




664 TABLES FOR MACHINISTS METAL WORKERS, &C. 



WEIGHT OF ONE FOOT OF FLAT BAR IRON. 

If a Bar of Iron be thicker than contained in the Table, add to)?ether 
the weight of two Numbers, or treble the weight of one Number. Wanted 
the weight of 1 foot of Bar iron, 4 inches broad and 2 1-4 inches thick. 
Opposite 4 and under 1 is 13.364, which doubled is 26.728 : add the weight 
of l-4th (S.ail), equal 30.069 lbs. 



5S 






THICKNESS IN PARTS OF AN 


INCH. 








v* 


^ 


% 


tV 


V2 


% 


% 


% 


liu. 


1 


.835 


1.044 


1.253 


1.461 


1.670 


2.088 


2.506 


2.923 


3.340 


!it 


.939 


1.174 


1.409 


1.614 


1.878 


2.348 


2.818 


3.287 


3.755 


1.044 


1.30.-) 


1.566 


1.826 


2.088 


2.609 


3.132 


3.653 


4.176 


\7t 


1.148 


1.435 


1.722 


2.009 


2.296 


2.870 


3.444 


4.018 


4.592 


1.252 


1.566 


1.879 


2.192 


2.504 


3.131 


3.7.58 


4.384 


5.008 




l.SiJS 


1.696 


2.035 


2.374 


2.710 


3.392 


4.070 


4.749 


5.432 


1.462 


1.827 


2.192 


2.5.57 


2.924 


3.6.53 


4.384 


5.114 


5.848 


l.,-)66 


1.957 


2.348 


2.740 


3.132 


3.914 


4.6ft6 


5.479 


6.264 


?. 


1.671 


2.0K8 


2.475 


2.922 


3.3-12 


4.175 


5.010 


5.845 


6.684 


2% 
2% 


1.775 


2.218 


2.662 


3.105 


3..550 


4.435 


5.324 


6.210 


7.100 


1.880 


2.348 


2.918 


3.288 


3.760 


4.696 


5.636 


6.575 


7.520 


2% 
2% 
2% 
234 


1.984 


2.479 


2.975 


3.470 


3.968 


4.9.57 


5.9.50 


6.941 


7.936 


2.088 


2.609 


3.131 


3.653 


4.176 


5.218 


6.262 


7.306 


8.352 


2.193 


2.740 


3.288 


3.836 


4.386 


5.479 


6.576 


7.671 


8.772 


2.297 


2.870 


3.444 


4.018 


4.594 


5.740 


6.888 


8.036 


9.188 


2i 


2.402 


3.001 


3.601 


4.201 


4.804 


6.001 


7.202 


8.402 


9.608 


3 


2.r,06 


3.131 


3.7.58 


4.384 


5.012 


6.262 


7.516 


8.767 


10.024 


.W, 


2.715 


3.392 


4.071 


4.749 


5.4.30 


6.784 


8.142 


9.498 


10.860 


3V„ 


2.923 


3.653 


4.384 


5.114 


5.846 


7.306 


8.768 


10.228 


11.692 


33/1 


3.132 


3.914 


4.697 


5.479 


6.264 


7.828 


9.394 


10.959 


12.528 


4 


3.341 


4.175 


5.010 


5.845 


6.682 


8.350 


10.020 


11.690 


13.364 


41/4 
4% 


3.549 


4.436 


5.300 


6.210 


7.098 


8.S71 


10.646 


12.421 


14.192 


3.758 


4.697 


5.605 


6.575 


7.516 


9.393 


11.272 


13.1.-.1 


15.032 


3.966 


4.958 


5.950 


6.941 


7.932 


9.915 


11.898 


13.881 


15.864 


5 


4.075 


5.219 


6.263 


7.306 


8.350 


10.437 


12. .526 


14.612 


16.700 


5V, 


4.184 


5.479 


6.573 


7.671 


8.768 


10.958 


13.152 


15.343 ■ 


17.536 


51/2 


4.593 


5.741 


6.889 


8.037 


g.i.-^e 


11.480 


13.778 


16.073 


18.372 


4.801 


6.001 


7.202 


8.402 


9.602 


12.002 


14.404 


16.304 


19.204 


6 


5.010 


6.622 


7.515 


8.767 


10.020 


12.524 


15.030 


17.535 


20,042 



"WEIGHT OP ONE SQUARE FOOT OF SHEET IRON. 



Iron . 
Cop. 
Brass 



Thickness by the Birmingham (Eng.) Wire Gauge. 



12.50 12.00 11.00 
14.50 13.901 12.75 
13.75 I.3.20I 12.10 



10.00 8.74 
11.60 10.10 
11.901 9.61 



8.12 7.50 
9.40 8.70 
8.93 8.25 



6.86 
7.39 
7.54 



10 11 12 13 14 



5.62 
6.50 
6.18 



5.00 4.38 3.74 
5.80 5.08 4.34 
5.50I 4.81 4.12 



3.12 
3.60 
3.43 



Thickness by the Wire Gauge. 



Iron. 
Cop. 



2.82 
3.27 



Brass! 3.10 



2.50 
2.90 
2.75 



2.18 
2.53 
2.40 



18 



19 



20 



1.54 

1.78 
1.69 



21 22 



1.40 1.25 
1.62 1.45 
I.54I 1,37 



23 



1.12 
1.30 
1.23 



24 



1.00 
1.16 
1.10 



.90 .80 

1.04 .92 

.99' .88 



No. 1 Wire Gauge is 5-16ths of an inch ; No. 4 is l-4th ; No. 11 is l-8th; 
No. 13 is l-12th ; No. 15 is l-14th ; No. 16 is l-16th ; No. 17 is l-18th j No. 
19 is 1-23 ; No. 22 is 1-32. 



TABLES FOR MACHINISTS METAL WORKERS, AC. 665 



WEIGHT OF BAR IRON AND OTHER METALS. 



RUSSIA SHEET IRON 

Measures 56 by 28 inches, and is rated by the weight per sheet. Tha 
numbers run from 8 to IS Russian lbs. per sheet. 8 Itussiau pounds equal 
7.2 English pounds ; 9 = 8.1 lbs.; 10 = 9 lbs.; 11 = 10 lbs.; VZ = 11.2 lbs., 
&c. — 100 Russian lbs. equal 90 lbs. English. 

WEIGHT OF ONE SQUARE FOOT OF PLATE IRON, &c. 



Thickness 

in 

parts of 

an inch. 


i 


% 

u 

<u 
o< 




1 


•a 


Thickness 

in 

parts of 

an inch. 





Q< 




08 


i 


iV 


2.5 


2.9 


2.7 


3.7 


iV 


17.5 


20.3 


19.0 


25.9 


Vs 


5.0 


5.8 


5.5 


7.4 


Va 


20.0 


23.2 


21.8 


29.6 


^ 


7.5 


8.7 


8.2 


11.1 


% 


25.0 


28.9 


47.1 


37.0 


y* 


10.0 


11.6 


10.9 


14.8 


% 


30.0 


34.7 


32.5 


44.4 


A 


12.5 


14.5 


13.6 


18.5 


% 


35.0 


40.4 


37.9 


67.8 


% 


15.0 


17.4 


16.3 


22.2 


1 


40.0 


46.2 


43.3 


59.2 



WEIGHT ONE FOOT IN LENGTH OP SQUARE AND ROUND 
BAR IRON. 



is 

<0 to 





a. 
2 

c a 




a 


0" 


I. 

§.3 



is 

■■3 a 
H 



t.) . 

)— 1 to 

c« a 




V4 


.209 


.164 


1% 


8.820 


6.928 


334 


46.969 


36.895 


^ 


.326 


.256 


1% 


10.229 


8.043 


SVs 


50.153 


39.390 


% 


.470 


.369 


I'/s 


11.744 


9.221 


4 


53.440 


41.984 


tV 


.640 


.503 


2 


13.360 


10.496 


4% 


56.833 


44.637 


Vz 


.835 


.656 


2y8 


15.083 


11.846 


4% 


60.329 


47.385 


tV 


1.057 


.831 


2y4 


16.909 


13.283 


4% 


63.930 


50.211 


% 


1.305 


1.025 


2% 


18.840 


14.797 


4'^ 


67.637 


53.132 


H 


1.579 


1.241 


2% 


20.875 


16.396 


4% 


71.445 


56.113 


% 


1.879 


1.476 


2% 


23.115 


18.146 


434 


75.359 


59.187 


\f 


2.205 


1.732 


2% 


25.259 


19.842 


4% 


79.378 


62.344 


Va 


2.558 


2.011 


m 


27.608 


21.684 


5 


83.510 


65.585 


^f 


2.936 


2.306 


3 


30.070 


23.653 


5y4 


92.459 


72.618 


1 


3.340 


2.624 


3% 


32.618 


25.620 


w 


101.039 


79.370 


IVs 


4.228 


3.321 


ay* 


35.279 


27.709 


534 


110.429 


86 .731 


ly* 


5.219 
6.315 
7.516 


4.099 
4.961 
5.913 


3% 
5% 


38.045 
40.916 
43.890 


29.881 
32.170 
34.472 


6 


120.243 


94.610 


1% 

lya 


The we 


ightofBarl 
' " Cast 
' " Steel 
" " Copp 


on being 1 

Iron = .95 

1.03 

er, 1.16 



666 TABLES FOR MACHINISTS METAL WORKERS, AC. 



CAST ffiON COLUMNS. MOULDER'S TABLE. 

DIMENSIONS OF CYLINDRICAL COLUMNS OF CAST IRON TO 
SUSTAIN A PRESSURE WITH SAFETY. 



II 

5^ 








LENGTH OE HEIGHT IN 


FEET 








4 1 


6 


8 


1 10 


1 y^ 


1 1-1 


1 16 


1 18 


1 20 


1 22 


1 24 
























2 








■WEIGHT 


OR LOAD IN 


OWTS 








72 


60 


49 


40 


32 


26 


22 


18, 


15 


13 


11 


2% 


119 


lOf, 


91 


77 


65 


55 


47 


40 


34 


29 


25 


8 


178 


163 


145 


128 


111 


97 


8i 


73 


64 


56 


49 


3% 


247 


232 


214 


191 


172 


156 


135 


119 


106 


94 


83 


4 


32(i 


310 


2R8 


266 


242 


220 


198 


178 


160 


144 


130 


'iV? 


418 


400 


379 


354 


327 


301 


275 


251 


229 


208 


189 


6 


522 


501 


479 


452 


427 


;94 


365 


337 


310 


285 


262 


6 


607 


592 


573 


550 


525 


497 


469 


440 


413 


386 


360 


7 


10H2 


1013 


989 


959 


924 


887 


848 


808 


765 


725 


686 


8 


i."i;« 


1315 


1289 


1259 


1224 


1185 


1142 


1097 


1052 


1005 


959 


9 


1716 


1697 


1672 


1640 


1603 


1561 


1515 


1467 


1416 


1364 


1311 


10 


2119 


2100 


2077 


2045 


2007 


1964 


1916 


1865 


1811 


1755 


1697 


11 


2570 


25r.O 


2o20 


2490 


2450 


2410 


2:58 


2305 


2248 


2189 


2127 


12 


3050 


:;040 


3020 


2970 


2930 


2900 


2830 


2780 


2730 


2670 


2600 



Practical utility of the Table. 

Note. — Wanting to support the front of a building with cast iron columns 
18 feet in lenf,^li, 8 inches in diameter, and the metal 1 inch in thickness ; 
what weight may 1 conlidently expect each column capable of supporting 
without tendency to deflection ? 

Opposite 8 inches diameter and under 18 feet = 1097 
*Also opposite 6 in. diameter and under 18 feet = 440 



=657 cwt. 



*This deduction is on account of the core. 
MOULDER'S TABLE. 



Bar Iron being 1, 



Cast Iron equals 


.95 


Bar Iron equals 1.07 


Steel 


1.02 


Steel " 1.08 


Copper " 


1.16 


Brass " 1.16 


Brass " 


1.09 


Copper " 1.21 


Lead " 


1.48 


Lead " 1.56 



Cast Iron being 1, 



Yellow Pine being 1, 

Cast Iron equals 12. 
Brass " 12.7 

Copper " 13.3 
Lead " 18.1 

Zinc » 11.5 



1. Suppose I have an article of plate iron, the weight of which is 728 
lbs., but want the same of copper, and of similar dimensions, what will be 
its weight. 

728 X 1.16 = 844.48 lbs. 

2. A model of Dry Pine weighing 3 lbs., and in which the iron for its 
construction forms no material portion of the weight, what may I anti- 
cipate its weight to be in cast iron. 

3 X 12 = 36 pounds. 



It frequently occurs, in the constmction of models, that neither the 
quality, or condition of the wood can be pror>erly estimated ; and in such 
cases, it maybe a near enough approximation to reckon 13 lbs. of caBt 
Iron to each pound of model. 



TABLES FOR MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 667 

CAPACITY OF CISTERNS AND RESERVOIRS IN GALLONS. 

Depth, 10 Inches : — Diameter from 2 to 25 Feet. 

2 feet 19.5 5 feet 122.40 8 feet 313.33 12 feet 705. 



2h 
3 

4 
4i 



30.6 

44.0(5 

59.97 

78.33 

99.14 



148.10 
176.25 
205.85 
239.88 
275.40 



9i 
10 
11 



353.72 
396.56 
461.40 
489.20 
592.40 



827.4 

959.6 

1101.6 

1958.4 

3059.9 



NUMBER OF THREADS IN V-THREAD SCREWS. 



Diam. in inches 

No. of threads 


i 

20 


18 16 14 


i § i i 1 H li 
12 11 10 9 8 7 7 


11 
6 


Diam. iu inches 


li 

6 


1| 1| 15 
6 5 4^ 


2 2i 2i 21 3 «: 
4i 4 4 3| 3i 3:; 


i 








3S 


4 4i 4i 
3 2^ 2^ 


42 5 5i 5i 5i 
2i 21 2g 21 3i 


(J 


No. of threads 


3 


2i 



The depth of the threads should be half their pitch. The diameter 
of a screw, to work in the teeth of a wheel, should be such, that the 
ansile of the thread does not exceed 10° 



SCREW-THREADS FOR GAS-PIPES. 

The standard for gas-pipes is as follows : 
Diameter 
inside. 



Threads to 


Diameter 


the inch. 


inside. 


27 


1 


18 


IJ 


18 


14 


2 


14 






For all diameters above this, eight threads per inch is the standard. 



CAST IRON. 

WEIGHT OP A FOOT IN LENGTH OF FLAT CAST IKON. 



Width 
of Iron. 


Thick, 
l-4th 
inch. 


Thick, 

3-8th8 
inch. 


Thick, 
1-2 inch. 


Thick, 

5-8thi 
inch. 


Thick, 
3-4tli8 
inch. 


Thick, 
7-8ths 
inch. 


Thick, 
1 inch. 


Inches. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


2 


1.56 


2.34 


3.12 


3.90 


4.68 


5.46 


6.25 


2V4 

2jl 


1.75 


2 63 


3.51 


4.39 


5 27 


6.15 


7.03 


1.95 


2.92 


3.90 


4.88 


5.85 


6.83 


7.81 


2% 


2.14 


3.22 


4.29 


5.37 


6.44 


7.51 


8.. 59 


3 


2.34 


3.51 


4.68 


5.85 


7.03 


8.20 


9.37 


3'/* 


2.53 


3.80 


5.07 


6.34 


7.61 


8.88 


10.15 


3H 


2.73 


4.10 


5.46 


6.83 


8.20 


9.57 


10.93 


3% 


2.93 


4.. 39 


5.85 


7.32 


8.78 


10.25 


11.71 


4 


3.12 


4.68 


6.25 


7.81 


9.37 


10.93 


12.50 


4V4 


3.32 


4.97 


6.64 


8.30 


9.96 


ft. 62 


13.28 


4'A 


3.51 


5.27 


7.03 


8.78 


10.54 


12.30 


14.06 


4% 


3.71 


5.56 


7.42 


9 27 


11.13 


12.98 


14.84 


5 


3.90 


5.86 


7.81 


9.76 


11.71 


13.67 


15.62 


5^ 


4.10 


6.15 


8.20 


10.25 


12.30 


14.35 


16.40 


4.29 


6.44 


8.59 


10.74 


12.89 


15.03 


17.18 


6% 


4.49 


6.73 


8.98 


11.23 


13.46 


15.72 


17.96 


6 


4.68 


7.03 


9.37 


11.71 


14.06 


16.40 


18.75 



668 TABLES FOR MACHIXISTS, METAL WORKERS, AC. 

WEIGHT OF ROUND AND SQUARE CAST IRON. 
CAST IRON,— Weight of a Foot in length of Square and Round. 



SQUARE. 


ROUND. 


Size. 


Weight. 


Size. 


Weight. 


Size. 


Weight. 


Size. 


Weight. 


Inches 
Square. 


Pounds. 


Inches 
Square. 


Pounds. 


Inches 
Diam. 


Pounds. 


Inches 
Diam. 


Pounds. 


1/ 


.78 


4y8 


74.26 


Vi 


.61 


4y8 


58.32 


1.22 


5 


78.12 




.95 


5 


61.35 


1.75 


SVs 


82.08 


1.38 


^^ 


64.46 


2.39 


5% 


86.13 


% 


1.87 


67.64 


1 


3.12 


6% 
5i| 
5% 
5% 


90.28 


1 


2.45 


5% 


70.09 




3.95 


94.53 


i;t 


3.10 


5'A 


74.24 


4.88 


98.87 


3.83 


5% 


77.65 


5.90 


103.32 


!§ 


4.64 


53/4 


81.14 


7.03 


5% 


107.86 


5.52 


5% 


84.71 


,8.25 


6 


112.50 


!| 


6.48 


6 


88.35 


i?l 


9.57 


6V4 


122.08 


7.51 


6V4 
6% 


95.87 


1% 


10.98 


6V2 
6% 


132.03 


I'/s 


8.62 


103.69 


2 


12.50 


142.38 


2 


9.81 


e% 


111.82 


fl 


14.11 


7 


1.53.12 


2% 


11.08 


7 


120.26 


15.81 


71/4 

1% 


164.25 


12.42 


71/4 


129. 


11 

2% 
2% 
2% 


17.62 


175.78 


2% 


13.84 


1% 


138.05 


19.53 


187.68 


2% 


15.33 


m 


147.41 


21.53 


8 


200.12 


25/« 
2% 


16.91 


8 


157.08 


23.63 


814 


212.56 


18.56 


8V4 


167.05 


25.83 


225.78 


278 


20.28 


8V2 


177.10 


3 


28.12 


239.25 


3 


22.18 


8% 


187.91 


3% 
3% 


30.51 


9 


2.'-.3.12 


SVs 


23.96 


9 


IW' 


33. 


9V4 


267.38 


3V4 

3% 


25.92 


9V4 


3% 
3'| 
3% 
3% 


35.59 


s 


282. 


27.95 


9^ 


221.50 


38.28 


297.07 


S'A 


30.16 


93/4 


233.31 


41.06 


10 


312.50 


3% 


32.25 


10 


245.43 


43.94 


101/4 


328.32 


34.51 


101/4 


257.86 


S'/s 


46.92 


10V2 
10% 


344.53 


syg 


36.85 


10 J^ 


270.59 


4 


no. 


361.13 


4 


39.27 


1034 


283.63 


i;;! 


53.14 


11 


378.12 


4V8 


41.76 


11 


296.97 


56.44 


11V4 


395.50 


4v: 


44.27 


111/4 


310.63 


4% 
4% 
4% 
4% 


59.81 


11% 


413.78 


4% 


46.97 


11^ 


224.59 


63.28 


11% 


4.31.44 


4J4 


49.70 


1134 


338.85 


66.84 


12 


450. 


4% 
4% 


52.50 


12 


353.43 


70.50 






55.37 







STEEL.— Weight of a Foot in Length of Flat. 



Size. 


Thick, 


Thick, 


Thick, 


Thick, 


Size. 


Thick, 


Thick 


Thick, 


Thick, 


1-4 in. 


3-8ths. 


1-2 in. 


5-8ths. 


1-4 in. 


3-8ths 


1-2 in. 


5-8thg. 


In. 


Pds. 


Pds. 


Pds. 


Pds. 


In. 


Pds. 


Pds. 


Pds. 


Pds. 


1 


852 


1 27 


1 70. 


2 13 


2% 


2 13 


3 20 


4 26 


5 32 


i;t 


958 


1 43 


1 91 


2 39 


2% 


2 34 


3 51 


4 68 


5 85 


1 06 


1 59 


2 13 


2 66 


» 


2 55 


3 83 


5 11 


6 39 


13/ 


1 17 


1 75 


2 34 


2 92 


31/4 


2 77 


4 15 


5 53 


6 92 


m 


1 27 


1 91 


2 55 


3 19 


3% 


2 98 


4 47 


5 98 


7 46 


1^/1 


1 49 


2 23 


2 98 


3 72 


33/4 


3 19 


4 79 


6 38 


7 98 




1 70 


2 55 


3 40 


4 26 


4 


3 40 


5 10 


6 80 


8 62 


2V4 


1 91 


2 87 


3 83 


4 79 













TABLES FOR MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, &C. 669 
PATENT IMPROVED LEAD PIPE.— Sizes and Weight per Foot. 



Calibre 


Weight 
per foot. 


Calibre 


Weight 
per foot. 


Calibre 


Weight 
per loot 


Calibre 


Weight 
per foot. 


Calibre 


W eight 
per toot. 


Inches. 


lbs. ozs. 


Inches 


lbs. ozs. 


Inches 


lbs. 


ozs. 


Inches 


lbs. 


0Z8. 


Inches 


lbs. ozs. 


% 


6 




1 4 


% 


1 


4 


1 


4 





IV, 


5 




8 


" 


1 8 




2 





" 


6 





1% 


4 


« 


10 


" 


2 


i( 


2 


4 


1% 


2 


8 


2 


5 


" 


12 


" 


3 


" 


2 


8 




3 





" 


6 


« 


1 


% 


13 


" 


3 





(( 


3 


8 


K 


7 


" 


1 8 




1 


" 


4 





« 


4 


ii% Ji 


11 


^^ 


8 


" 


1 8 


1 


1 


8 


" 


5 





3 ^ 


13 


10 


i( 


2 


(< 


2 


12 


1% 


3 





3K 5 


15 


" 


12 




2 12 


'< 


2 







3 


8 H ^ 


18 


" 


14 


'^ 


12 


(< 


2 


8 


« 


4 





45^ -S 


20 


« 


1 


14 


<i 


3 





" 


4 


8 


5 <S:22 



Sheet Lead.— Weight of a Square Foot, 2J^, 3, 3%, 4, 4J^, 5, 6, 7, 8%, 
S, 10 lbs., and upwards. 



BRASS, COPPER, STEEL, AND 1,^AD.— Weight of a Foot. 



«r ^ 




( 




1 




1 








BRASS. 


COPPER. 


STEEL. 


LEAD. 


Diameter 


Weight 


We^i^ 


Weight 


Weight 


Weight 
of 


Weight 
of 


Weight 


Weight 


and Side 


o! 


of 


of 


of Square 


Round. 


Square. 


Round. 


Square. 


Round. 


Square. 


Round. 


Square. 


Inches. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lb*. 


V4 


17 


22 


19 


24 


17 


21 






i 


39 


50 


42 


54 


38 


48 






70 


90 


75 


96 


67 


85 






1.10 


1.40 


1.17 


1.50 


1.04 


1.33 






1.59 


2.02 


1.69 


2.16 


1.50 


1.91 






2.16 


2.75 


2.31 


2.94 


2.05 


2.61 






1 


2.83 


3.60 


3.02 


3.84 


2.67 


3.40 


3.87 


4.93 


i:t 


3.58 


4.56 


3-82 


4.86 


3.38 


4.34 


4.90 


6.25 


4.42 


5-63 


4.71 


6. 


4.18 


5.32 


6.06* 


7.71 


1% 


5.35 


5.81 


5.71 


7.27 


5.06 


6.44 


7.33 


9.33 


1% 


6.36 


8.10 


6.79 


8.65 


6.02 


7.67 


8.72 


11.11 


1% 


7.47 


9.51 


7.94 


10.15 


7.07 


9. 


10.24 


13.04 


1% 
1% 


8.66 


11.03 


9.21 


11.77 


8.20 


10.14 


11.87 


15.12 


9.95 


12.66 


10.61 


13.52 


9.41 


11.98 


13.63 


17.36 


2 


11.32 


14.41 


12.08 


15.38 


10.71 


13.63 


15.51 


19.75 


2% 
2% 


12-78 


16.27 


13.64 


17.36 


12.05 


15.80 


17.51 


22.29 


14.32 


18.24 


15.29 


19,47 


13.51 


17.20 


19.63 


25. 


2% 


15.96 


20.32 


17.03 


21.69 


15.05 


19.17 


21.80 


27.80 


2H 


17.68 


22.53 


18.87 


24.03 


16.68 


21.21 


24.24 


30.86 


If. 


19.50 


24.83 


20.81 


26..50 


18.39 


23.41 


26.72 


34.02 


21.40 


27.25 


22.84 


29.08 


20.18 


25.70 


29.33 


37.34 


2% 


23.39 


29.78 


24.92 


31.79 


22.06 


28.10 


32.05 


40.81 


3 


25.47 


32.43 


27.18 


34.61 


24.23 


30.60 


34.90 


44.44 



CAST IRON — Weight of a Superficial Foot from Yt to 2 inches thick. 



Size 


Weight. 

Pounds. 
9..37 
14.06 
18.75 


Size 
Ins. 

1 


Weight, i 


Size 

Ins. 
1 

1% 
IV4 


Weight. 

Pounds. 
37.50 
42.18 
46.87 


Size 

Ins. 
1% 

1% 


Weight. 

Pounds. 
51.56 
56.25 
60.93 


Size 
Ins. 


Weight. 


Ins. 

% 


Pounds. 
23.43 
28.12 
32.81 


Founds. 
65 62 
70 31 
75 



INDEX. 



FARMERS AND GARDENERS. 

Pages 7—40. 



Apples, best way to dry, 16. 

Ashes, from soLl by spontaneous com- 
bustion, 33. 

Asparagus, 11 ; how to have large heads 
of, 12 ; how to raise from Seed, 11; the 
best soil adapted for, 11; forcing, 12; 
when to sow, 11 ; age to transplant, 
11 ; to transplant, 12. 

Bantams^ their characteristics, 16 ; mode 
of rearing, 16. 

Barns and out-houses, to free from 
mites and weevils, 34. 

Beeves, food required per day, 65. 

Birds, food for singing, 29. 

Blackberries, cultivation of, 28. 

Butter, to extract rancidity from, 27 ; 
much from little milk, 2S ; to make 
salt fresh, 28 ; a mode of preparing and 
preserving, 28. 

Cabbage, how to sow the seed of, 11 ; 
culture of, 11 ; to obtain in early 
spring, 11. 

Calf, number of milk grinders at birth 
of, 2.5 ; number of incisors of the new 
born, 21 ; appearance and number of 
the incisors in the new born, 21 ; 
number of incisors at the second week 
after birth of the, 21; appearance and 
number at the .".rd week, 21 ; appear- 
ance and number at the 4th week, 
21 ; time of completion of full number 
of milk incisors in the, 21. 

Calves, rearing of, 18 ; how to bring up 
by hand, 18; suckling of , 18; sheller- 
ing at night, 19 : wt'ajuing of, 19 ; dis- 
eases of, 19 ; curatives for diseases in, 
19. 

Caterpillar's eggs, to destroy, 33. 

Cattle, how to tell the aw of, 20 ; points 
connected with the dentition of, 20 ; 
the regular number of the incisors 
of, 21 ; the shedding of the first in- 
cisors of, 21 ; appearance of the teeth 
from the age of eight months to the 
tenth year, 22, 23, 24, 25 ; the grinders 
or molar teeth, 25 ; cure for colic 
in, 30 ; eye water for, 27 ; cure for 
mango in, 29 ; medicated food for, 5G ; 
cure for pin worms, 61 ; cure for 
scouring, 61 ; to determine weight of 
live, 10 ; yoking, ditferent methods, 
their advantages and disadvantages, 
17. 

Cellar, construction of, 8 ; floors, rat 
proof, 9. 

Cheese, coloring for, 31. 

Chicken cholera, how to cure, 15, 16. 

Chickens, diarrhoea in, how to avoid, 
16. 

Churning, how to gather small granules 
in, 28. 

Cider, to preserve, 13. 

Com, a new method of planting, 28. 



Cows, to increase the flow of milk in, 
27 ; experiments in feeding, 8 experi- 
ments, cost and results, 7 ; cure for 
swelled bags in, 9 ; number of years 
milk will be given by, 25 ; advanced 
age the calf has been suckled by the, 
25 ; management of, 19 ; the best mode 
of feeding, 19 ; the hours of milking, 
20 ; after milking several years, 20 ; 
bleeding, 20 ; intended for breeding, 
20 ; treatment after calving, 20 ; how 
to treat sore teats of, 20. 

Cream, to preserve, 9. 

Cucumber plants, to preserve from small 
fly or bug, 34. 

Draining, underground, 34. 

Eggs hatching, 13 ; to keep several 
months, 27. 

Fish compost, a substitute for bone dust, 
.30. 

Flower beds, arranging, 31. 

Food, Thorley's condimental, 28. 

Foot ointment, 33. 

Fowls, how to fatten. 16. 

Fruits, packing tor long distances, 32. 

Grafting wax, 34. 

Grain, when it should be cut, 29. 

Guano, home-made, of unequalled excel- 
lence, 35. 

Hatchinj;, artificial, how it is done, 14. 

Hay, cubic feet to the ton of new mea- 
dow. 13 ; cubic feet to the ton of dry 
clover, 13 ; oat or wheat straw made 
equal to. 31. 

Hens, eating feathers, to prevent, 13 ; 
how to feed, 15 ; to make lay, 15 ; what 
to give, 15 ; over-feeding, 15. 

Herbs, to dry, 28 : to preserve, 28. 

H<igs, how to treat measles in, 7. 

Horn ail. cure for, 27. 

Implements, farm, to prevent decay of, 
34. 

Lice on cattle, 15. 

Lice on stock of all kinds, to kill, 15. 

Lime, to burn without a kiln, 29. 

Live stock, 34. 

Manure, substitute for, 35 ; to dissolve 
large bones without expense, 30 ; 
twenty dollars worth for almost noth- 
ing, 35 ; how to double the usual quan- 
tity on a farm, 31 ; from flsh refuse, 
.30. 

Milk, effects of cold on, 9 ; to keep 
sweet and sweeten sour, 9. 

Miller, 31. 

Mineral constituents absorbed or re- 
moved from an acre of soil by differ- 
ent crops, 13. 

Moth, to destroy the, 7. 

Oats, growing, how to raise a good crop, 
17 : when to sow, 17. 

Onions, to sprout, 28. 

Orchards, draining, 33 ; to renew old, S2. 
671 



672 



INDEX. 



Ox, how to ascertain the piirity of 
breed of the, 25 ; how the horns should 
appear in the, 25 ; the form of the car- 
cass of tlie, scientifically and practi- 
cally considered (applies to a fat ox), 
25 ; points in judgment of a lean, 
26 ; the bones of the head of the, 26 ; 
the appearance of the neck of a lean, 
26 ; the appearance of the eyes of a 
lean, 26 ; state of the skin of a lean, 
26 ; the appearance of the head of a 
lean. 26 ; the appearance of the legs of 
a lean, 26 ; the appearance of thj di- 
vision between the horns of a lean, 26 ; 
the mathematical appearance of the, 
27. 

Ploughing, subsoil, 34. 

Potatoes, early, 33 ; to preserve from rot, 
14; rot in, 13. 

Poudrette, home made, 32. 

Poultry and eggs, 14. 

Pounds in a bushel, table of avoirdupois, 
of different farm productions as pre- 
scribed by the statutes of different 
States, 36. 

Rats, &c., composition for driving out, 
29. 

Rules for farmers, 10. 

Seed, quantity of. required for a given 
number of hills or length drill, 10 ; 
quantity required per acre and actual 
weight of each to the bushel, 10 ; 
soaking, 13. 

Sheep, dipping composition, 28 ; cure 



for foot rot in, 27 ; to mark witho.it In- 
^ jury to the wool, 34 ; Mr. Cully's red 
salve to cure the rot in, .33 ; cure for 
scab or itch, 29 ; to improve the wool 
by smearing, 27 ; ticks, to destroy, 35. 

Springs, how to form, 29. 

Stump machine, home made, 11. 

Superphosphate in 24 hours, 31 ; substi- 
tute for, 30. 

Timber, to preserve, 28. 

Tobacco, to cultivate, 35 ; fertilizer for, 
35. 

Trapping foxes and other game, the 
great secrets. 3.3. 

Trees, circulio in, remedy for, .33 ; fruit, 
to protect from attacks of mice, &c., 
28 ; moss on, to destroy, 15. 

Tuberose, the, 31. 

Turnips, to prevent fly in, 14. 

Vegetables, to keep through the winter, 
3t. 

Vermin on plants or animals, death for, 
15. 

Weather prognostics for farmers and 
others, 36 ; the sun, 37 ; the moon, .37 ; 
the wind, 37 ; the seasons, the animal 
creatiim, 38; the plants and flowers, 39; 
the natural phenomena, 39; the domes- 
tic phenomena, 39 ; personal sensa- 
tion, 39 ; weather proverbs, 39, 40. 

Wells, inspection of the bottom of, a 
simple and practical method, 11. 

Wool, to cleanse, 34. 



STOCK-OWNERS, FARRIERS, &c. 
Pages 41—62. 



Horse, the. 41 ; general management of 
the, 41 ; time of being at heat, 41 ; time 
from which the age of the foal is reck- 
oned, 41 ; period of pregnancy, 41 ; on 
working when pregnant, 41 ; food re- 
quirements of, 41 ; abortion of and ef- 
fects in other, 42 ; dropping of the foal, 
42 ; how and what to feed the foal, 42 ; 
time for weaning the foal, 42 ; time for 
breaking thoroughbred, 42 ; taming of 
the, 42 ; to drive, that is very wild and 
has any vicious habits. 42 ; how to con- 
quer a, 42 ; to make lie down, 43 ; to 
accustom to a drum, 45 ; to teach to 
tolerate an open umbrella, 45 ; to 
accustom to a bit, 45 ; to break to 
harness, 45; to make follow a peison, 
46 ; to make stand without holding, 
46 ; to cure jibbing, 46 ; rules to be ob- 
served in the purchase of a, 47 , teeth 
of the colt, when they appear, 48 ; 
cruelty practised on colts, 49 ; how 
the mouth of a colt at different ages 
should be formed, 49 ; abominable 
cruelty practised upon colts and 
horses to make them appear young or 
old as desired, 50 ; eye water for. 27 ; 
cruelty to, 50 ; directions for shoeing, 
50 ; how ruined by shoeing, 51 ; pa- 
tience and kindness to, .52 ; bit for, 
52 , to tame, 53 ; the feeding of, 53 ; 
proportion of medicines for different 
ages, 53 ; digestive organs of, 53 ; to 
put in good condition, 53 ; tricks that 
jockeys resort to with, 53 ; how to 
make a spavined go limber, 53 ; how 



to make old appear young. 53 ; how 
to make appear as if foundered, 54 ; 
how to make fleshy in a short time, 

54 ; how to make stand by feed and not 
eat it, 54 ; how to make a palling 
balk, .'54 ; how to distinguish between 
distemper and glanders in, 54 ; phy- 
sicing, .54 ; the best purgative for, 54 ; 
how to teach to pace, 54 ; feeding on 
the road, 55 ; when and how to feed, 55; 
provender required when travelling, 

55 ; the check rein on, 55 ; to prevent 
from jumping, 55 ; to cure balky, 55; 
halter pulling, ,55 ; to prevent kicking 
in stall, 55 ; to prevent crib-biting, 55 ; 
mustang liniment for, 56 ; Merchant's 
gargling oil forj .56; cure for scratches 
in, 56 ; condition powders for, 56 ; 
Arabian powders for, 56 ; cough pow- 
ders for, 56 ; blistering liniment for, 
56 ; Sloan's ointment for, 56 ; horse 
ail, 56 ; for restoring hair to gall_ spots 
on, .56 ; giease heel, tor, 56 ; medicated 
food for, 56 ; poll evil and fistula in, 

56 ; cure for bots in, 57 ; to distin- 
guish and cure distemper in, 57 ; reme- 
dy for founder, .57 ; cure for strains 
and swellings in, 57 : cure for staggers, 
.57 ; split or broken hoof, 57 ; hoof 
bound, wash for, 57 ; to toughen hoofs 
of, 57 ; liniment for (at 50 cts. per gal.), 

57 ; cure for sore breast in, 57 ; cure 
for itch in,, 57; to cure broken legs, 

57 ; physic ball for, 58 ; big leg in, 

58 ; liniment for sweeney, .58 ; swell- 
ing on ueck of, 58; lampas in, 58; 



INDEX. 



67J 



gravel in, 5S ; cure for spavin, 58 ; 

cure for bone spavin, 58 ; weak ankles 

•n colt, 58 ; valuable recipe for ring- 

>one, 58 ; splint and spavin, 58 ; lini- 

•lent for, 59 ; cure for spavin and ring 

one in, 59 ; saddle and harness galls, 

: ) ; magic liniment for, 59 ; cure for 

■ Dugli, GO; Rarey's liniment for, GO; 

arey's wizard oil for. 60 ; Dr. Cole's 

>■■ ng of oils for, 60; simple liniment for, 

; English stable liniment for, 60 ; 

founder cured in tweuty-four hours, 

60 ; liniment for open wounds in, 60 ; 



colic, cure for, 60 ; to cure distemper in, 
60 ; hide bound, 61 ; cure for bide 
bound, 61 ; curfe for looseness and 
scouring in, 61; cure for pin worms in, 
61 ; cure for quarter crack, 61 ; cure for 
heaves. 61 ; foot ointment for, 33 ; 
valuable remedy for heaves, 61 ; best 
remedy for heaves, 61 ; heaves in 
horses, reasons why it is not in the 
lungs of, 61 ; cure for heaves, cure 
for glanders, 62 ; remedies, in case 
of accidents to, 62. 



HOUSEHOLD AND CULmARY. 

Pages 63—178. 



Bread, Cakew, Pics, Paddings, 
Preserves, &c. 

Apples, baked, 105 ; buttered, 105 ; dried, 
105 ; frosted, 105 ; in butter, 106 ; snow 
balls, 138 ; a nice tlish for tea, 141. 

Biscuit, 119 ; Abernethy, 121 ; apple, 
116 ; Brighton, 120 ; buttered, 120 ; 
buttermilk, 121 ; egg, 120 ; French 
tea, 120 ; ginger, 131 ; hard, 121; lem- 
on, 121 ; nbbon, 120; saleratus, 121; 
Savov, 121 ; shortened, 120 ; sponge, 
120; travellers', 120 ; York, 121; vola- 
tile, 120 ; Yorkshire, 120. 

Blanc mange, almond, 148 ; calf's feet, 
148 ; Lsinglass, 148 ; lemon, 148 ; New 
Jersey, 148 ; rice, 148 ; rice flour, 148. 

Bread, aerated (without yeast), 117 ; 
apple, 116 ; brown, 117 ; cheesecake, 
125 ; corn, 117 ; corn meal. No. 1, 
118 ; corn meal, No. 2, 118 ; dyspep- 
sia, 118 ; French, 117 ; healthy, mix- 
ed, 116 ; Indian, 117 ; new method of 
making, 119; potato, 117; rye and 
Imiian, 117 ; sponge, 118 ; wheat and 
Indian, 117 ; making yeast and, 118. 

Cakes, buckwheat, 124 ; buckwheat 
(with yeast), 124 ; buckwheat ( with- 
out), 124 ; breakfast butter, 124 ; but- 
ter (for tea), 123 ; corn griddle (with 
yeast), 123 ; cocoanut drops, 128 ; cook- 
ies, new year's, 129 ; custard powdei-s, 
140 ; charlotte russe, 148 ; greeii corn, 
124 ; New England Johnny, 124 ; In- 
dian (plain), 124 ; Indian slap jacks, 
123 ; pan, 122 ; cream pan, 122 ; rice 
pan, 121. 

Cake, apple, 126 ; Austin, 128 ; Bath, 
131 ; Mrs. Brown's, 127 ; buttermilk, 
126; California, 128; Centennial, 126; 
almond cheese, 125 ; cheese, 124 ; com- 
mon cheese, 125 ; chocolate, 132 ; cho- 
colate (mixture for indde), 132 ; curd 
cheese, 125 ; cider spiced, 127 ; white 
citron, 127 ; clove, 127 ; cocoanut, 128 ; 
coffee (without eggs), 127 ; common, 
128 ; corn starch, 126 ; cream, 129 ; 
cream (plain), 132 ; cream (rich), 132 ; 
cream, Boston, 130 ; cream, Boston 
(mixture for tilling), 130 ; cream (with- 
out eggs), 129 ; cup, 126 ; currant, 130 ; 
cymbals, 127 ; crullers and dough- 
nuts, 128 ; delicate, 127 ; one egg, 127 ; 
fruit, 130 ; friut (cheap), 130 ; fruit 
(every day), 130 ; fruit (without eggs), 
130 ; French, 125 ; frosting for, 129 ; 
ginger, 131 ; gold, 126 ; half pound. 



29 



125 ; jelly, 130 ; jumbles, 129 ; Lap- 
land, 131 ; Lapland, plain, 131 ; 
lemon, 128 ; loaf, 126 ; luncheon, 127 ; 
marble, 126 ; macaroons, 129 ; mea- 
sure, 127 ; mock l.adv, 127 ; mountain, 
126 ; orange jelly, 130 ; plain. 129 ; 
plum, 1.30 ; poor man's, 126 ; pound, 
125 ; pound (a good), 125 ; apple puffs, 
1.38 ; puff, 127 ; Queen, 129 ; railroad, 
128 ; raisin, 130 ; Scotch, 126 ; seed, 
127 ; Shrewsbury, 131 ; silver, 126 ; 
rich soda, 132 ; spice, 126 ; siwnge, 
129 ; sponge (almond), 129 ; straw- 
berry short, 132 ; sugar snaps, 128 ; 
tea, 128 ; tea, (delicate), 132 ; tea, 
light, 126, 128 ; Tnnbridge, 132 ; Vic- 
toria, 128 ; Washington, 127 ; whigs, 
127 ; white, 132. 

Crackers, 121 ; No. 1, 121 ; hard, 121 ; 
soda, 121 ; sugar, 121. 

Cream, apple, 149 ; custard, 139 ; fruit, 

149 ; ice, 149 ; ice (with fruit), 149 ; 
lemon, 149 ; orange, 149 ; raspberry, 

150 ; snow, 149 ; whipped, 149 ; to. pre- 
serve (for sea voyages), 140 ; in coffee 
(substitute for), 140. 

Crumpets, 123. 

Cvmbals, 127. 

Flap Jacks, 123. 

Flour, how to know good, 118. 

Fritters, 122; apple, 123 ; bread, 123 
cream, 122 ; gooseberry, 123 ; potato, 
124 ; Venetian, 124. 

Gingerbread, 133 ; light, 132 ; soft mo- 
lasses, 132 ; sponge, 131. 

Ginger cookies, 131; nuts, 131 ; snaps, 132. 

dam, raspberry, 140, 144 ; i>each, 144 ; 
raspben-y and blackberiy, 146. 

Jellies, table, 146. 

Jelly, apple, 146 ; blackberry, 146 ; 
cranberry, 145 ; clierry, 147 ; blackcur- 
rant, 146 ; calf's foot, 147 ; cider, 147 ; 
cranberry, 145 ; currant, 145, 147 ; cur- 
rant (red), 146 ; cunant (without cook- 
ing), 146 ; gooseberi-y, 147 ; grape, 145 ; 
hartshorn, 145, 147 ; ivory, 146 ; lem- 
on, 147 ; moss, 148 ; quince, 145 ; rum, 
147 ; sago, 148 ; strawberry, 145 ; tajji- 
oca, 147 ; wine, 146. 

Marmalade, apple, 141 ; barberry, 141 ; 
cherry, 141 ; crab apple, 142 ; Lemon, 
142 ; nectarine, 144 ; pear, 144 ; pine 
apple, 144 ; quince, 141. 

Muffins, 122 ; Indian. 122 ; rice, 122. 

Pies, apple, 133 ; cocoanut, 134; cream, 
133 ; currant, 133 ; grape, 134 ; goose- 
berry, 133 ; lemon cream, 135 ; lemon 



G71 



INDEX. 



mince, 135; mince, 133; mince (sum- 
mer), 135 ; mince (without meat), 134 ; 
peach, 134; prune, 134 ; pumpkin, 134 ; 
rice, 134 ; sweet Marlborough, 133; 
tart, 134. 
Preserves, apple, 140 ; apple charlotte, 
141; apple (in imitation of ginger), 

142 ; barberrj', 143 ; cherry, 141 ; crab 
apple, 142 ; citron (melon), 140 ; 
cucumber, 140 ; currant, 143, flg, 
142 ; gage, 143 ; gooseberry (green ; 

143 ; honey, French, 145 ; melon, 144 ; 
molasses, 145 ; mulberi-y, 142 ; orange, 
140 ; peach, 141 ; peaches (in brandy), 
143 ; pear, 140 ; pippins, 142 ; prunes, 

143 ; pumpkin, 140 ; purple plum, 140 ; 
quince, 141 ; raspberry, 143 ; straw- 
berry, 141 ; tomato, 143 ; coverings for, 

144 ; to clarify sugar for, 140 ; syrup 
for 144. 

Pmkling, almond, 136 ; apple (baked), 
138 ; apple (boiled), 138 ; apple (Swiss), 
138 ; apple (dumplings), 135 ; baked, 
139 ; cocoanut, 138 ; corn, 137 ; cot- 
tage, 137 ; cracker, 137 ; custard, 139 ; 
custard (almond), 139 ; custard (ap- 
ple), 137 ; custard (baked), 139 ; cus- 
tard (boiled), 139 ; cusLard (cream), 
139 ; custard (mottled), 139 ; dandy, 
138 ; hard times, 137 ; Indian (baked), 
137 ; Indian (boiled), 137 ; lemon, 136 ; 
Oxford (dumplings), 135 ; orange, 139 ; 
plum. 137 ; plum (English), 136 ; Po- 
tato (baked), 138 ; Quaker, 137 ; rice, 
138 ; rice (without eggs), 1.37 ; rice 
(baked, without eggs,) 135 ; rice 
(ground), 135 ; rice (snow balls), 136 ; 
sago, 135; Snowden, 138; tapioca, 
136 ; Winter, 138. 

Rolls, 119; delicate breakfast, 119; ex- 
cellent, 119 ; French, 119 ; Graham, 
119. 

Rusks, Dutch, 119. 

Tartr, apple (with quince), 134 ; cherry, 
135 ; currant, 135 ; Marlborough, 134 ; 
quince, 135. 

Waffles, quick, 123 ; rice, 123. 

Yeast, making bread and, 118 ; hop, 119. 

Carving. 

Carving, the science of, 72 ; the knife 
for, 72 ; directions for, 72 ; beef, the 
aitch bone, 72 ; beef, the brisket, 75 ; 
beef, the round, 75; beef, the sirloin, 
72 ; calf's head, 74 ; cod's head, 76 ; 
goose, 75 ; fowl, 76 ; ham, 74 ; lamb, 
fore-quarter, 75 ; mutton, haunch, 75 ; 
mutton, leg, 74 ; mutton, saddle, 73 ; 
mutton, shoulder, 72 ; partridge, 76 ; 
pigeons, 76 ; pig, 74 ; pork, leg, 75 ; 
pork, spare rib, 73 ; turkey, 76 ; veal, 
breast, 73 ; veal knuckle, 73 ; venison, 
haunch, 75. 

]TIeati« and Meat Pies. 

Beef, alamode, 79 ; boiled, 80 ; hams, 
80 ; hashed, 78 ; heart, roasted, 78 , 
kidneys, fried, 78 ; stewed, 78; liver, 
80 ; tongue, to cure, 78 ; boiled, 78 ; 
pickled, 79 ; beef, potted, 79 ; roast, 77; 
roast (fillet of), 77 ; stew, 78 ; steak, 77, 
80 ; steak (with onions), 79 ; with 
sauer kraut, 78 ; salt, round of, 77 ; 



to cook the inside of a sirloin of, 77 ; 
hash, Turkisli, 88 ; hash, game, 88 ; 
rechaulTe aux tomSittes, 88. 

Lamb, leg of (forced), 82 ; head, 82 ; to 
stew a brisket of, S2 ; leg of (roasted), 
82. 

Meats, cold, served a la Bretonne, 88 ; 
cold (warmed up witli celery), 89 ; cold 
(fritters of), 88 ; cold (saiiders), 88 ; 
warmed up au gratiii, 89 ; force 
(balls), 87 ; to fry in batter, 88 ; fried 
with eggs, 89. 

Mutton, leg of (boned and stuflfed), 80 ; 
leg of (boiled), 80 ; breast of, 80 ; 
breast (crumbed au gratiu), 80 ; cut- 
lets, 81 ; how to choose, 80; chops 
(fried), 81 ; fillet of, 81 ; hashed, 81 ; 
haunch of, 81 ; haricot of, 81 ; hams 
(to dress), 81 ; leg of (roasted), 80 ; 
saddle of, 81. 

Pies, beef, 89; beef steak, 89; chicker, 
89, 90 ; chicken (rice), 90 ; fish, 90 ; 
meat, 90 ; mutton, 89 ; pork apple, 90 ; 
veal, 90 ; veal, pot, 90. 

Pork, boiled, 83; boiled (leg of), 82; 
chops, 84 ; loin of, 82 ; leg of (roasted), 
82 ; spare rib, 82 ; pettitoes, 83 ; 
souse, 85 ; pig's head (boiled), 83 ; pig's 
harslet, 83 ; pig roast, 84 ; ham (to 
bake), 83 ; ham (to cure), 83 ; hama 
(keeping for summer use), 83 ; ham 
toast, 83 ; bead cheese, 84 ; sausages, 
83 ; sausage meat, 84 ; sausages (to 
fry), 84 ; steaks, 84 ; bacon (York- 
shire), 84 ; bacon and cabbage, 84 ; 
dressing for roast, 66. 

Stew, Irish, 82. 

Tripe, 84. 

Veal, 85 ; breast of (forced), 85 ; loin of 
(boiled), 85 ; shoulder of (boned and 
stewed), 85 ; neck ai (braised), 86 ; 
cutlets, 87 ; collops, 87 ; plaw, 86 ; 
shoulder of, 84 ; stew, 86 ; calf's 
brains (with different sauces), 107 ; 
calf's head, 86 ; calf's head (baked), 
86 ; calf's head (for grill), 86 ; calf's 
head (to hash), 86 ; calf's liver, 87 ; 
calf's liver and heart, 84 ; calf's sweet- 
bread, 87 ; calf's sweetbreads as cut- 
lets, 87 ; calf's sweetbread, French 
style, 88 ; calf's sweetbread with 
tomatoes, 87. 

Poultry and Oamc. 

Birds, to bone, 68 ; game (warmed up 

in orange sauce), 89. 
Chickens, 63 ; boiled, 63 ; braised, 63 ; 
broiled, 64 ; cutlets, 63 ; fricassee, 

64 ; cold fried, 66 ; pulled, 63 ; roasted, 

64 ; salad, 64 ; stewed, 64. 
Ducks, 66 ; to roast, 66 ; stuffed with 

peas, 66 ; to roast wild, 69 ; to stew, 69. 
Fowl, boiled, 66 ; broiled, 67. 
Game hash, 88 ; pie, 90. 
Goose, 65 ; roast, 65, G6 ; roast, (dressing 

for), 66. 
Grouse, to broil, 68 ; pie, 69 ; roast, 68 ; 

soup, 69. 
Hare, to broil, 70 ; to roast, 70 ; to stew, 

70 ; stuffing for, 68. 
Partridges, 68 ; broiled, 68 ; roast, 68 ; 

stewed, 68 ; salad, 69. 
Pheasants, to roast, 67 ; to stew, 68- 
Pigeons, 66 ; broiled, 67 ; in jelly, 67 ; 



INDEX. 



675 



to pot, 67 ; roasted, 67 ; stewed, 67 ; 

■wood, 67. 
Quails, to roast, 60. 
Rabbit, boiled, 70 ; pie, 70 ; roasted, 70 ; 

stew, 71. 
Snipe, to hash, 69 ; to roast, (iO, 
Turkey, boiled, 65; legs broiled, 65; 

roasted, 65; hashed, 65. 
Venisoii, broiled, 71 ; chops, 71 ; fried, 

71 ; hashed, 71 ; roast (hauuch), 71 ; to 

mince, 71 ; steaks, 71. 
Woodcock, to boil, 70 ; to pot, 70 ; to 

roast, 60. 

FiNh, Oyntei's, &c. 

Bass, baked, 91. 
Braiiade de poisson, 96. 
Cod, baked, 91 ; boiled (salt), 95 ; broiled, 
95 ; crimped, 95 ; curried, 92, 95 ; fried, 

95 ; head, 92 ; pie, 92, 95 ; salt, 92 ; 
scolloped, 91 ; tail of a, 92. 

Crab, baked, 97 ; boiled, 97 ; to dress, 
97 ; to dress cold, 96 ; hot, 96 ; minced, 

96 ; potted, 97 ; soft shell, 96. 

Eels, boiled, 94 ; bread crumbed, 91 ; 

fried, 94; pickled, 94; potted, 94. 
Fish, baked, 91 ; chowder, 91, 96 ; 

chowder (New England style), 9.3 ; 

croquettes of cold, 95 ; curry of, 95 ; 

matelote of, 95; omelette of, 96; 

hashed, 96 ; fried in batter, 96 ; rock, 

to bake, 91 ; stuffed, 91 ; warmed, a 

la Tartare, 95. 
Halibut, head, 94 ; stewed, 9.3. 
Herring, boiled (fresh), 92 ; baked, 93 ; 

broiled (fresh). 92 ; fried (fresh), 92 ; 

to pot, 92. 
Lobster, butter, 98 ; to boil, 97 ; to 

choose, 97 ; hot, 96 ; to roast, 98 ; 

salad, 97 ; saiice, 97 ; stewed, 97. 
Mackerel, 98 ; to bake, 98. 
Oysters, broiled, 98 ; dietetic properties 

of, 98 ; fritters, 99 ; to fry, 98 ; pan- 
cakes, 99 ; patties, 122 ; pickled, 99 ; 

roast, 99 ; scalloped, 99 ; stewed, 98. 
Perch, to boil, 94. 
Pike, to boil, 93. 
Kock fish, to bake, 91. 
Salmon, broiled, 95 ; broiled (dried), 95 ; 

roasted, 95 ; stewed, 95. 
Scallops, 99. 
Shad, to bake, 91. 

Smelts, to bake. 94 ; fried, 93 ; potted, 93. 
Sturgeon, before you bake, 93 ; broiled, 

93. 
Trout, 91, 94 ; stewed, 94. 

VegetableMi 

Artichokes, 115 ; fried, 115 ; scalloped, 

115 : tossed, 115. 
Asparagus. 113. 
Beans. French, 113 ; French (salad), 113 ; 

stewed, 113. 
Beets, 111. 
Cabbage, boiled, 112 ; fricassee (red), 

112 ; stewed (red), 112. 
Carrots, 114. 
Celeriac, 114. 
Celery, boiled, 116. 
Cold slaw, 152. 
Cucmnbers, to dress, 116 ; fried, 116 ; k 

la maitre d'hotel, 116 ; properties of, 

152 ; stewed, 116. 



Egg plant, 114. 

Endives, 111. 

Greens, 115. 

Leeks, 111 ; broiled. 111 ; fried, 111 ; 

hashed, HI. 
Lettuce, 111 ; k I'Espagnole, 114 ; as a 

salad, 114 ; stewed, 114. 
Marrow, vegetable (and cheese), 113 ; 

baked, 112. 
Mushrooms, 151 ; broiled, 114 ; buttered, 

114 ; stewed, 152 ; to stew white, 114. 
Onions, 115. 
Parsnips, 114 ; boiled. 111 ; fricassee of, 

111 ; fried, HI. 
Peas, green, 110 ; boiled, 112 ; to stew, 

112 ; stewed (dried), 112 ; petits pois au 

gras, 112. 
Potatoes, new (to boil), 110 ; fried, HI ; 

how to cook, 110 ; mashed, 113 ; 

roasted. 111 ; stufi[ed, 112 ; with white 

sauce, 112. 
Radishes, boiled, 113. 
Salads, 115 ; to mix, 115. 
Savoys, stuffed, 112. 
Seakale, boiled, 114. 
Spinach, 111. 
Tomatoes, boiled, 112 ; forced, 116 ; 

roast, 116 ; stewed, 116. 
Turnips, 115 ; mashed, 113. 
Vegetable oysters, 115. 
Water cresses, 115 ; stewed, 116. 

Soups. 

Broth, beef (leg of), 103 ; chicken, 101 ; 
mutton, 102 ; Scotch, 100 ; sheep's 
head, 101 ; veal, 102. 

Chowder, 105. 

Gravy, blood, 102 ; beef, 101 ; clear, 99 : 
soup, 101 ; veal, 102. 

Hotch potch, 105. 

Pepper pot, 105. 

Soup, beef, 100 ; black, 100 ; cabbage, 
104 ; carrot, 104 ; calf's head, 101 ; 
calf's tail, 102 ; celery, 104 ; curry, 
103 ; eel, 104 ; game, 99 ; hare, 103 ; 
herb, 104 ; herb-spirit, 101 ; lamb, 103 ; 
lamb's tail, 103 ; macaroni, 103 ; 
mock turtle, 100 ; maize, 104 ; mulliga- 
tawny. 101 ; mutton, 103 ; onion, 104 ; 
ox tail, 103 ; oyster, 100 ; partridge, 
103 ; pea, 100, 104 ; potato, 99 ; rabbit, 
99 ; rice, 104 ; Spanish onion, 104 ; 
vegetable, 100 ; venison, 102 ; white 
portable, 102 ; vermicelli, 100. 

Pickles. 

Pickles, apricot, 150 ; butternuts, 151 ; 
cauliflower, 151 ; cherries, 151 ; chow 
chow, 150 ; cold slaw, 152 ; cucumbers, 
1.52 ; gherkins, 150 ; oysters, 150 ; 
mushrooms, 1.50 ; onions, 151 ; peaches, 
150 ; plums, 151 ; tomatoes (green), 
151 ; tomatoes, (ripe), 1.50 ; walnuts, 
151 ; a quick way to pickle peppers. 
1.52 ; for beef, 151 ; tomato catsup, 1.52 ; 
oyster catsup, 152 ; spiced currants, 
151 ; curry powder, 151. 

Sauce, anchovy, 109 ; apple (baked), 105, 
106 ; apple sauce (brown), 105 ; apple 
sauce, 106 ; stewed, 10(> ; apple butter, 
105; apple butter (imitation), 145; 
bread, 100 ; brown coloring (for made 
dishes), 108; brown, 107; for calf 's head, 



676 



INDEX. 



107 ; caper (for fish), 107 ; caper, to imi- 
tate, 107 ; celery, 108 ; chervil, 108 ; 
cranberry, 106 ; cranberry (stewed), 

106 ; drawn butter, 108 ; egg, 108 ; tish, 

108 ; flsh (without butter), 107 ; fresh 
pork, 108 ; garlic, 108 ; horseradish 
(hot), 106 ; Italienue, 107 ; lobster, 106 ; 
milk, 108 ; mint, 100 ; mushroom 
(white), 109 ; mustard, 106 ; New Eng- 
land apple, 106 ; onion, 106 ; pudding, 
108 ; pudding (nice), 108 ; rice, 107 ; 
Bweet, 107 ; for turtle, 107 ; shallot, 

107 ; superior (for plum pudding), 
107 ; tomato, 107 ; wine, 109 ; Worces- 
tershire sauce, 152- 

Eggs, Oiueletteiii, Cheese, etc. 

Cheese, potted, 124 ; sandwiches, 125 ; 

toasted, 125. 
Eggs, to boil, 109 ; fricasseed, 109 ; 

poached, 110 ; to preserve, 110 ; to tell 

good, 110. 
Omelette, of various kinds, 109; crab, 

110 ; with ham, 110 ; oyster, 110. 

Cookery for the Sick, 

Arrowroot, water, 151 ; substitute for, 

231. 
Broth, egg, 155. 
Caudle, 153 ; egg, 154. 
Chocolate, 153. 
Custard, arrowroot, 153. 
Egg and milk, 15-t. 
Egg wine (cold), 151. 
Fever drink, 155. 
Gruel, common, 155 ; rice, 153 ; water, 

153. 
Hominy, 153. 

Jelly, invalid's, 155 ; port wine, 155. 
Lemonade, 151. 

Meat, essence of (very strong), 154. 
Panada, 154. 
Tonic, a good mild, 155. 
Tea, 153 ; beef, 154. 
Tincture, stomachic, 153. 
Toast and water, 155. 
Water, barley, 153. _ 
Wine, barley, 155. 
Whey, wine, 153. 

Appendix to Household, sec p. 
ISa, Ist paragraph. 

Bacon, to boil, 168 ; to choose, 168 ; and 
eggs, 168 ; to steam, 168. 

Beef, 162 ; bubble and squeak, 164 ; 
steak broiled, 163 ; fillets of, 164 ; 
hashed (plain), 164 ; marrow bones 
(boiled), 163 ; minced, 164 ; roast 
(ribs), 102 ; rolled ribs, 162 ; steak 
stewed (plain), 164 ; steak and onions 
(rump), 164 ; steak pie (rump), 173 ; 
stew, 163 ; silver side, boiled, 163. 

Blanc mange, 176, 

Boiling, 1.57. 

Bread, German yeasr, 177. 

Cakes, 176 ; bread, 176 ; gingerbread, 
176 ; lemon cheese, 176 ; plum, 176 ; 
seed (common), 176. 

Calf's brains and tongue, 107 ; head, 
boiled, 1G7 ; hashed, 167 ; liver and 
bacon, 107. _ 

Cheek, ox, stewed, 1037 

Chickens, to boil, 170. 



Crab, to dress, 178. 

Cream, ground rice, 177. 

Crust, for pies, puddings, &c. (to make), 
173. 

Ducks, to roast, 169. 

Eggs, to boil, 177 ; to poach, 178. 

Fish, directions lor cooking, 160; brill, 
160 ; cod's head and shoulders, 160 ; 
eels, boiled, 161 ; eels, fried, 161 ; fil- 
leted plaice, 161 ; salt, 160 ; salt, (sec- 
ond day), 160 ; hake (baked), 161 ; her- 
rings (to bake), 161 ; herrings (to fry), 
101 ; turbot, 160 ; whiting, boiled, 161 ; 
fried, 160. 

Fowl, to roast, 169 ; to boil, 170 ; boiled, 
to truss, 170 ; roast, to truss, 169. 

Goose, to roast, 169 ; to truss, 169. 

Gooseberry fool, 175. 

Gruel, to make, 178. 

Ham, to boil, 168 ; pie, 174. 

Hare, to roast, 170 ; to truss, 170. 

Heart, to dress a bullock's (English 
fashion), 163. 

Jam, currant (black and red), 177 ; 
gooseberry, 177. 

Kidney, beef (stewed), 164. 

Lamb, 166 ; chops, 166 ; cutlets, 166 ; 
fry, 166 

Lobster, to dress, 178. 

Mutton, chops (broiled), 165 ; cutlets, 
165 ; hashed, 166 ; leg of (boiled), 165 ; 
neck of, boiled, 165 ; leg of (roasted), 
165 ; loin of, roasted, 165 : loin of, 
(rolled), 165 ; pie, 174 ; minced, 166 ; 
sheep's head, 166 ; shoulder of (roast- 
ed), 165 

Oysters, scalloped, 161. 

Partridge, to roast, 170 ; to truss, 170. 

Pheasant, to roast, 170 ; to truss, 170. 

Pickles, 177 ; cabbage (red), 177 ; onions, 
177 ; walnuts, 177. 

Pies, crust for (very light and cheap), 
173 ; mince, 175 ; mince meat for, 175. 

Pigeon, pie, 174 ; to roast, 170 ; to truss, 
170. 

Pork, 167 ; to boil a hand of, 168 ; to 
boil pickled, 168 ; pig's head, roast- 
ed, 168 ; roast, sage and onion stuf- 
fing for, 167. 

Puddings, apple, 173 ; beefsteak, 174 ; 
carrot, 175 ; cheese, 176 ; currant, 174 ; 
custard, (plain boiled,) 176 ; fruit, 
174 ; German, 175 ; plum (plain with- 
out eggs), 174; rice (plain), 175; (with- 
out eggs), 175 ; roily polly (with jam or 
treacle), 174 ; suet (plain), 173 ; suet 
crust for, 173 ; tapioca (plain), 175. 

Puff paste, 173. 

Rabbits, to boil, 171 ; to roast, 171 ; to 
truss, 171. 

Roast, how to, 156. 

Salmon boiled, 160. 

Sauces, 161 ; apple, 162 ; fennel, 162 ; 
egg (common), 162; lobster, 162 ; onion, 
common, 162; oyster, 162 ; parsley, 162. 

Soles, boiled, 161 ; fried, 160. 

Soups, of what they are made and how 
they are made, 156 ; beef, 157 ; brown- 
ing for, 157 ; cheap and good, 158 ; 
carrot, 159 ; chicken broth, 158 ; 
conger eel, 159 ; cottage, 157 ; cottage, 
baked, 157 ; family, 159 ; French, 158 ; 
onion (brown), 15!) ; poor man's, 158 ; 
Scotch mutton broth, 158 ; white, 159 ; 
pea, without meat, 159 ; Wrexham 
(very cheap), 158. 



INDEX. 



677 



Sprats, 161. 

fitew, Irish, 166. 

Tartlets and patty pans, 175. 

Tans, apple, 175 ; currant, 175 ; goose- 
berry, 175 ; open jam, 175. 

Tea, beef (to make), 178. 

Tongue, ox, 163. 

Tripe, loo. 

Turkey, roast, 168. 

Utensils required in a kitchen, 156. 

Veal, cutlets, 167 ; stuffing, 166 ; lillet 
of (to roast), 166 ; pie, 171. 



Vegetables, artichokes (to boil), 172 ; 
artichokes, (.Jerusalem) to boil, 172 ; 
asparagus (to boil), 172 ; beetroot (to 
boil), 173; broccoli (to boil), 172; beans 
(broad), to boil, 172 ; beans (French), 
to boil, 172 ; cabbagd, to boil, 171 ; 
peas- green, to boil, 172 ; p.arsnips, to 
boil, 173 ; potatoes, baked, 171 ; pota- 
toes, boiled, 171 ; potatoes, fried, 171 ; 
potatoes, to mash, 171 ; potatoes, to 
steam, 171 ; marrow, to boil, 173 ; 
turnips, to boil, 172. 



HEALTH AND MEDICAL. 

Pasces 179—250. 



Ablution, 250. 

Abrasion, 199. 

Abscess, 250. 

Ache, ear, 201 ; face, 206 ; head (cure 
for), 226 ; head (sick, cure for), 226 ; 
stomach, 212 ; tooth, 215. 

Ague, cure for, 225. 

Air (foul), 192 ; air (suffocation by), 192. 

Alloys for dentists' moulds and dies, 
212. 

Aiikle, sprained, 194. 

Apoplexy, 193. 

Arrowroot, substitute for, 231 . 

Back, cure for a weak, 226. 

Balm, of beauty, 2.39 ; Alpine hair, 240 ; 
of a Thousand Flowers, 239. 

Balsam, Indian, 231. 

Bathing, sea, 183. 

Beard, liquid for forcing the, 241. 

Bites, of animals, 185 ; of adder. 195 ; of 
frost, 189 ; of gnat, 195 ; of leech (to 
stop bleeding), 191 ; of reptiles, 186 ; 
cure for snake, 227. 

Bleeding, excessive, 229 ; from wounds, 
197. 

Blister, 197. 

Blood, spitting of, 197. 

Bloom of youth, 239. 

Body, muscular and other formations of 
the, 179 ; mechanism of the human, 
179. 

Boils, 229 ; gum, 192. 

Bouquet, eau de, 239; esprit de, 239. 

Breast pang, 201. 

Breath, impure, 221 ; certain remedy 
for offensive, 243. 

Bronchocele, to cure, 227. 

Bruises, 195. 

Brushes, to clean hair, 242. 

Buchu, compound extract of, 235, 

Burns, 1S7. 

Calomel, vegetable substitute for, 231. 

Camphor ice, 2.32. 

Cancer, how to cure a, 225 ; English 
remedy for, 224 ; ointment, 225. 

Candy, cough, 2.34. 

Carminative, Dalby's, 231. 

Cerate, simple, 235. 

Chafing, 195. 

Chapped hands, 196. 

Cliickeii pox, 192. 

Cliilblains, 201. 

Chinese depilatory (to remove super- 
fluous hair), 242. 

Choking, 188. 

Cholera, Egyptian cure for, 227 ; mix- 
ture (Sir Jas. Clarke's), 228 ; tincture 
(Isthmus), 228; Indian prescription for, 
228. 



Cold, to cure, 224; in the head, 224. 

Cologne, eau de {ionr formulas), 238. 

Colors, druggists', 233. 

Complexion, 223. 

Consumption, inhalation of tar for, 220. 

Contagicni, 184. 

Corns, to cure in ten minutes, 229 ; be 
careful about paring your, 226. 

Corpulence, 193. 

Cough mixture, 236. 

Cramp, 193. 

Cream, cold, 240 ; cold oriental, 240 ; 
shaving, 240 ; Circassian, 241 ; crystal- 
line, 241. 

Croup, 247. 

Cuts, 202. 

Deafness, 202; Taylor's remedy for, 223. 

Death, signs of, 221. 

Delirium tremens, 202. 

Diarrhoea mixture (Sir Jas. Clarke's), 
22S. 

Diplitheria, remedy for, 229. 

Dislocations, 202. 

Diuretics, 231 ; for children, 231. 

Drops, diuretic, 231; Imperial (for gravel 
and kidney complaints), 2.35; sweating, 
231. 

Dropsy, pills for, 225 ; syrup for, 225. 

Drowning, 199. 

Drunkenness, cure for, 225. 

Dye, Allen's hair, 240 ; bachelors' hair, 
240 ; Christadoro's hair, 240 ; Clifford's 
hair, 241; Harrison's hair, 240; Pha- 
len's instantaneous: 239 ; Phalen's in- 
stantaneous (another), 240 ; pyro- 
gallic, 241 ; Wood's, 240. 

Ear, abscess in, 205 ; hardened wax in, 

205 ; noises in, 205 ; things in, 205. 
Elixir proprietatis, 227. 
Embalming, new method of, 221. 
Essences, 2o4. 

Essential oil, to extract from wood, 
barks, roots, herbs, etc., 2.33. 

Eye, black, 198; blear, 199; inflamma- 
tion of the, 205; lime in the, 194 ; pre- 
paration, 224; sore, 224 ; India iire- 
scrijition, 224 ; sore eye-lids, 206 ; 
stone, to apply, 200 ; stye in the, 212 ; 
substances in, 206 ; weakness of the, 

206 ; water (Indian), 224 ; watery, 217 ; 
wash for removing particles of metal 
from the. 224. 

Fainting, 189. 

Feet, cold, 192 ; offensive, 206 ; swollen, 

206. 
Felon, to prevent, 228 ; if recent, to cure 

in 6 hours, 228 ; sure remedy for a, 228; 

cure for bone, 228. 
Female complaints, for, 250, 



GTS 



INDEX. 



Fevers, stimulant in, 230. 

Finger, broken, 207j; jammed, 20G. 

Fits, 207. 

Flooding, powder for excessive, 249. 

Fluid, Bogle's hyperion, 231. 

Fly paper, 232. 

Food, dynamic power of various kinds 
of, 220 ; and its mysteries, 180. 

Frangipauni, 23!*. 

Fumigating paper, 235. 

Gas, laughing, 243 ; to inhale, 243. 

Glycerine, preparation, 240. 

Gdnorrhosa, positive cure for, 235. 

Gout, chronic, to cure, 225 ; Dr. Davis' 
mixture for, 226 ; tincture, 226. 

Griping, ini. 

Grocers' disease, 191. 

H:iemorrliage, uterine, 2.50 ; stimulant 
after, 250. 

Hands, to whiten, 242; paste for chapped, 
242. 

Hanging, recovery from, 182. 

Hiccough, 223. 

Hydrophobia, 184. 

Hysterics, 203. 

Indigestion, 203. 

Invigorator, hair, 241 ; Kathairon, ror 
the hair, Lyon's, 240. 

Jockey Club, 239. 

Joints, remedy for stiff. 230. 

Kidneys, for diseases of the, 229. 

Knee, housemaid's, 191. 

Laudanum, 227. 

Leucorrhoea, injection for, 249. 

Liniment, Barrell's Indian, 233 ; bone, 
236; Cook's electro magnetic, 233; Good 
Samaritan, 236 ; London. 229 ; nerve, 
236 ; for old sores, 236 ; paralytic, 235 ; 
sprains, swellings, &c., 236. 

Lip, hare, 183. 

Lockjaw, 190 ; said to be positive cui-e 
for, 228. 

Lozenges, worm, 234 ; vermifuge, 234. 

Lungs, to ascertain the state of the, 219. 

Menstruation (age at which it commen- 
ces), 248 ; for obstructed, 249, 250 ; in- 
jection for obstructed, 250 ; painful, 
249. 

Miller's disease, 192. 

Mouth, sore, 102. , 

Mucilage, liquid, 238. 

Nails, ingrowing, 195 ; ,Scott's wash to 
whiten the, 242. 

Neck, enlarged, 227; stiff, 211. 

Neuralgia, remedy for, 228 ; certain cure 
for, 226. 

Nightmare, 194. 

Nitrous oxide or laughing gas, 243. 

Nose, bleeding at the, 199 ; to extract 
substances from the, 194 ; ulceration 
of nostrils, 194. 

Oil, black, 235; cistor (the best way to 
take), 221 ; castor, common, 235 ; cod 
liver, 225 ; essential (to extract from 
wood, barks, roots, herbs, &c., 233 ; 
Harlem, 235 ; king of ( for neuralgia 
and rheumatism), 235 ; macassar, 241 ; 
star hair, 241 ; of roses, 239. 

Ointment, cancer, 225 ; felon, 234 ; green, 
233; Holloway's, 233; itch, 233 ; Jud- 
kins', 233; magnetic, 229; for old 
sores, 229 ; pile (celebrated), 229 ; pile, 
229 ; salt rheum (Mead's), 233. 

Opodeldoc, liquid, 231. 

Ox marrow, 241. 

Paiu extractor, great, 236. 



Pain killer, Davis' (improved), 234; mag- 
netic, for tooth ache and acute pains, 
234. 

Paregoric, 227, 235. 

Paste, razor strap, 241 ; dentists' nerve, 
213. 

Patchouli, extract of, 239. 

Piles. 200. 

Pills, 231 ; Abernethy's, 232 ; ague, 234 ; 
Brandreth's, 231 ; eraTnenagogue, 249 ; 
dropsy, 225 ; Holloway's, 233 ; liver, 

232 ; to promote menstrual secretion, 
219 ; to sugar coat, 231. 

Pimples, to remove, 242. 

Pink saucer, 240. 

Plaster, court, 232 ; irritating, 238. 

Poisons, to counteract the effect of, 207 ; 

bed bug, 238 ; aerial, 207 ; animal, 207 ; 

mineral, 207 ; vegetable, 207. 
Pondre metallique, 243. 
Powders, composition, 230 ; composition 

or vegetable, 231 ; genuine seidlitz,237; 

perfume, for boxes and drawers, 242 ; 

tooth (excellent), 242. 
Preservative, Atkinson's infant, 234. 
Printer's disease, 20S. 
Pulse, watch the, 219. 
Ready relief, Rad way's, 234. 
Restoratives Phalon's, 240 ; renovating 

resolvent, Radway's, 234. 
Rheumatism, inflammatory, 230 ; French 

remedy for clu-onic, 229 ; remedy for, 

230. 
Rheumatic fluid, German, 2.30. 
Rules, for action, very short and very 

safe, 222 ; hygienic, 220. 
Rum, bay, 241 ; cheap, 241. 
Salt, medical uses of, 232. 
Salve, Downer's, 233 ; Green Mountain, 

233 ; lip, 234 ; Russia, 229. 
Sarsaparilla, Ayer's, 234. 
Scalds, 196. 

Scurvy, 208. 

Sea foam for barbers, 241. 

Shampoo compound, 241 ; liquid, fine, 
241 ; mixture for barbers, 241. 

Shaving, 222. 

Sickness, sea, 208, 

Side, pains in, 209 ; stitch in, 211. 

Sight, dimness of, 209 ; short, 208. 

Silver, nitrate of, 240. 

Skin, eruptions of the, 196 ; artificial, 
for burns, bruises, abrasions, &c., 2,38. 

Sleep, 220; necessary rules for, 219 ; want 
of, 209. 

Snuff, cephalic. 238. 

S<iap, Yankee shaving, 241. 

Spasms, 210, 228. 

Sprains, 211. 

Stammering, 211, 226. 

Stimulants in low fevers, 250. 

Stings, 2-26. 

Strangling, 207. 

Stuns, 212. 

St. Vitus's dance, 212. 

Suffocating, 207. 

Sunburns, 212. 

Sunstroke, 213. 

Sweet spirits nitre, 227. 

Swelling, white, 218. 

Swooning, 213. 

Syncope, 189. 

Syrup, cathartic, 230; for consump- 
tives, 220 ; cough, 224 ; cough (whoop- 
ing) 230 ; hive, 227 ; compound of 
hypophosphite, 230; compound of 



INDEX. 



679 



hypophosphites and iron, 230 ; in- 
fants', 230 ; raspberry (without rasp- 
berries), 237 ; rhnbarb (aromatic), 227; 
ipecac, 227 ; lemon, 237 ; senna, 227; 
soda, 237 ; for soda fountains, 236 ; 
soothing, 230. 

Teeth, preservation of the, 214 ; base 
for artificial, 242 ; dentists', compo- 
sition for tilling decayed, 242, 243 ; to 
extract vpith little or no pain, 243 ; 
wash for the, 243. 

Teething, 213. 

Throat, sore, 210. 

Tinctures, 234 ; diuretic, 231 ; gout, 226 ; 
of Guaiacum, 227. 

Trichina, 226. 

Tumors, to remove, 226. 

Uvula, relaxed, 216, 

Vermifuge, Swain's, 234 ; Fahiistock's, 
2ai. 

Voice, loss of, 216. 

Vomiting, 188. 

Wafers, pulmonic, 221. 

Warts, to cure in ten minutes, 229. 

Washerwoman's scall, 217. 

Wasting. 217. 

Water for soda fountains, 236, 237 ; Con- 
gress, 2.38 ; Hungary, 239 ; Kis.singen, 
237 ; Lisbon, 239 ; mineral, 238 ; seidlitz 
(bottled), 238 ; Tunbridge Wells, 238 ; 
Vichy, 237. 

Wax, bottle, black, 238 ; sealing, gold 
color, 238 ; red, 238. 

Wen, 217. 

Wlieels, dentists' emery, 242. 

Wliitlow. 218. 

Womb, falling of the, 249. 

Worm, cure for tape, 225. 

Xbe Treatment of Infants — Ad- 
vice to ITlotbcrs and Nureies. 

Abdomen, how to prevent enlargement 
of after delivery of child, 244. 

Bath, warm, 246. 

Bottle, feeding, 248 ; cleaning nipple of, 
248 ; best kind of, 248 ; manner of hold- 
ing, 248. 

Bowel complaints, remedy for, 246. 

Bowels, confinement of the. 246. 

Breast, best substitute for the, 244 ; rub- 
bing with spirits, 244; application for, 
when weaning, 244 ; directioi?s for 
treating if milk does not flow, 214. 

Child, diet for wliite-looking lymphatic, 
245 ; for violent tempered, 245,- diges- 
tive powers of the, 245 ; dressing the, 
245 ; dragging the, 247; dosing the, 244 ; 
when to give the breast to the, 244 ; 
how to care for the rickety, 246 ; 
strength of the, 246 ; sympathizing 
with a, 247 ; teeth of the, 245; treatment 
after birth and before weaning the, 
244 ; constitution of the, 245 ; jolting 
and patting the, 244 ; children, com- 
plete code of precepts for bringing up, 
244 ; principles of properly taking care 
of, 244 ; scrofula and consumption in, 
245 ; striking, 247 ; sweetmeats and 
confections for, 245 ; frightening, 247; 
left handed. 246. 



Clothing, rules for, 245. 

Cold water, plunging into, 245. 

Deformities and distortions, 246. 

Diet, when to give solid, 244. 

Exercise, 247. 

Falling, 246. 

Firmness and authority of the mother, 

247. 
Food, animal, 245 ; the best for new born 
babes, 244 ; for children, 245 ; quant- 
ity required, 245 ; variations of, 246- 
Fretfulness and ill temper, 247. 
Government, moral, 247. 
Gums, the, 246. 
Habits, early, 245. 

Hands, face and feet, 245. 

Infants, treatment of, 244 ; when to 
suckle, 244 ; the wants of, 244 ; warmth 
in, 245. 

Jerking and swinging by the arms, 246. 

Liquors, stimulating, 244. 

Milk, method of removing if there be 
too much, 244. 

Mother, the eye of the, 247. 

Mouth, examination of the, 246. 

Nipple, how to enlarge if small or 
turned in, 244. 

Nurses, careless, 246. 

Nurse, the dry, 247 ; selection of, 248 ; 
the wet, 248 ; affection of the child to 
the, 248 ; age of, 248 ; characteristics of 
a good, 248 ; color of hair, 248 ; appear- 
ance of teeth and lips, 248 ; contine- 
ment of, 244 ; constitutional peculiar- 
ities of, 244 ; general appearance of, 
248 ; how to choose, 248 ; how the milk 
should appear when drawn in a spoon, 
248 ; physical qualities of, 248 ; temper 
and disposition, 248 ; temperance in 
eating and drinking, 248 ; what shouUl 
be the age of, 244 ; when to be obtain- 
ed, 248. 

Nursing, kind of dresses to wear when, 
244 ; drinks when, 244 ; appetite when, 
244 ; diet when, 244. 

Nutriment, amount required by differ- 
ent constitutions, 244. 

Over feeding and under feeding, 245. 

Precocity, 246. 

Rickets, or soft bones, 246. 

Shoes, 245. 

Sleeping on the lap. 245 ; with adults, 245. 

Spine, curvature of the, 246. 

Squinting, a common weakness, 246 ; 
how to cure, 246. 

Stiimmering and defective articulation, 
246. 

Study, mental, 246. 

Teething, first signs of, 246. 

Ti-icks and ill habits, 246. 

Umbilical cord, navel, &c., the, 245. 

Unnatural development of the brain, 
246. 

Vaccination, 245 ; when to vaccinate, 245. 

Ventilation, 245. 

Walking, alone, 247 ; position in, 247 ; 
first efforts, 247. 

Weaning, rules for, 244 ; in severe 
weather, 244 ; treatment after, 246. 



680 



INDEX. 



GROCERS, SOAP CHANDLERS, TOBACCONISTS, &c 

Pages 251—264. 



Baking powder, 255. 

Beeswax, imitation, 256. 

Burning fluid, the northern light, 25-f. 

Batter, to cure, 256; to keep, 256; rancid, 
to restore, 256. 

Candles, imitation wax, 258 ; adaman- 
tine, from tallow, 258 ; from lard, 258. 

Cigars, flavor for, 260. 

Coffee, adulteration of, 263 ; ingredients 
used in, 263 ; methods of detecting, 
263 ; essence of , 253 ; Java, 253 ; Tur- 
kev 253; pound packages, 253 ; West 
India, 253. 

Eggs, good, to tell, 256. 

Fire kindlers, 256. 

Fish, to keep, 257. 

Flour, good, unerring tests for, 256 ; 
musty, to correct, 256. 

Fruits, to keep fresh, 256. 

Hams, to keep, 25T. 

Honey, prize, 254. 

Ice chest, to make, 257. 

Marking goods, general rule, 252 ; rapid 
process, 251 ; table of aliquot parts, 
252. 

Measures, weights, &c., 257, 258. 

Meats, to keep, 257. 

Milk, milkman's process, 254. 

Mustard, common, 256 ; French patent, 
256. 

Oil, burning, test for, 255. 

Paste, strong, 254. 

Pickles, peaches, 254 ; gherkins, 253 ; 
mixed, 253 ; Indian, 253 ; onions, 254. 

Pipe stems, amber, to repair broken, 
260. 



Sauce, Napoleon's camp, 254. 

Snuff, Maccaboy, 260; perfumes for, 
261) ; Spani.sh, 260 ; yellow, 260. 

Soap, friction, 257; without lye or grease, 
257 ; hard, with lard, 258 ; manutacture 
of, 258 ; soft, 257, 258 ; very cheap, 259 ; 
English bar, 259 ; camphor, 259 ; Ger- 
man yellow, 259 ; sand, 259 ; transpar- 
ent, 259 ; variegated, 259 ; brown 
Windsor, 259; white Windsor, 259; 
white hard, with tallow, 259. 

Sugar, adulteration of, 263 ; ingredients 
used in, 263 ; detection of, by appear- 
ance, 263 ; by touch, 263 ; by appear- 
ance of the wrapping paper, 263 ; by 
the microscope, 264 ; alarming conclu- 
sions from tests, 264. 

Tallow, to cleanse and bleach, 258. 

Tea, adulteration of, 260 ; ingenuity dis- 
played in, 260 ; black tea, chief adult- 
erations of, 260 ; manner of, 260 ; ap- 
pearance of the leaves, 260 ; use of 
sulphate of iron in, 260 ; adulterations 
of green tea, 261 ; appearance of the 
leaves in different processes of, 261 ; 
use of Prussian blue in, 261 ; appear- 
ance under the microscope, 261 ; de- 
tecting, methods of, 261 ; conclusions 
arrived at, 262. 

Teas, 252 ; black, 253 ; green, 253. 

Tobacco, adulteration of, 264 ; ingre- 
dients used in, 264 ; detection of, 264 ; 
to flavor, 259 ; perfum6e aux fleurs, 260. 

Vinegar, cheap, 255 ; in three days, 255 ; 
white wine, 256. 

Washing fluid, 254. 



BREWERS, WINE AND SPIRIT MANUFACTURERS, &c. 
Pages 265—280 and 656—661. 



Apple toddy, 279 ; apple punch, 279 ; 
arrack punch syrup, 280; milk punch, 
280 ; Glasgow punch, 280. 

Bitters, Cordials, &c. — Clove cordial, 
269; coriander cordial, 269, pepper- 
mint cordial, 269, 276 ; ginger cordial, 
269 ; cherry brandy, 273 ; anisette cor- 
dial, 276 ; Curagoa cordial, 276 ; Berlin 
caraway cordial, 276 ; Curafoa d'Hol- 
lande, 279 ; stomach bitters (equal to 
Hostetter's), 275 ; Baker's bitters, 275 ; 
Stoughton bitters, 275. 

Brewing, the art of, 655 ; the process a 
}iart of the domestic economy of every 
family, 655 ; home brewed purer and 
cheaper than purchased, 655 ; not 
difficult, 655 ; all obstacles overcome 
by experience in, 655 ; the utensils 
used, 655 ; tlw copper, 655 ; the mash tub 
656 ; the under back, 656 ; the cooler 

656 ; the thermometer, 657 ; the ingre- 
dients, 657 ; the mjilt, 657 ; the best to 
choose, 657 ; malt varies in quality, 

657 ; how to tell good, 657 ; old and 
new malt, how to use them, 657 ; the 
quantity to be used, 657 ; hops varia- 
ble iu quality, 657 ; how to choose 



them, 657 ; how long they will keep 
good, 657; the quantity of hops to use, 
657 ; the best water to lie used, 657 ; 
yeast, 657 ; the best kinil of yeast to 
use, 657; the quantity to use, 658 ; the 
operations in the process of, 658; mash- 
ing, 65.S; three distinct processes of 
mashing, 658 ; the manner of fixing 
the mash tub, 658 ; the processes of 
mashing fully detailed, 658; the pro- 
cess of boiling, 659; the process of 
cooling, 669 ; fermentation, 659 ; 
method of mixing yeast with the wort, 
659 ; what to do in case of too rapid 
fermentation, 659 ; what to do if fer- 
mentation is too slow, 659 ; how tha 
commencement of fermentation is 
indicated, 659 ; of what the process of 
cleansing consists, 659 ; when to com- 
mence the process of cleansing, 660 ; 
how to check fermentation after beer 
is put in cask, 660 ; important items 
in the process of brewing to be strong- 
ly insisted on, 660 ; hints and cautions 
worthy of attention, 660 ; when to pur- 
chase malt, 601 ; when to purch-ase 
hops, 661 ; easterly winds bad for 



INDEX. 



681 



brewing, 661 ; precautions to be used to 
prevent the wooden utensils (the mash 
tub, under back &c.) from shvinJiing, 
G61 ; all drugs to be avoided, 6G1. 

Cider, method of making. 266; collection 
of the fruit, 266 ; maturing the fruit, 
266 ; expression of the juice, 266 ; 
storing, 266 ; bottling, 267, 275 ; cham- 
pagne cider, 267, 275 ; cheap cider, 275 ; 
cider without apples, 275 ; to keep 
cider sweet, and sweeten sour cider, 
275 ; cider nectar, 28i). 

Cooling and effervescing drinks. — Sherry 
cobbler, 273 ; apple water, 276; apple 
tea, 276 ; soda water, 27S ; properties 
of, 278 ; soda water powders, 278 ; to 
make, 279; cream soda, 279; bottled 
soda water without a machine, 279 ; 
royal pop, 279 ; silver top drink, 279 ; 
sangaree, 279 ; perfect love, 280 ; old 
man's milk, 280 ; ratafia, 280 ; portable 
lemonade, 280 ; lemonade, 280 ; cider 
nectar, 280 ; imperial cream nectar, 
280. 

Essences, flavoring, 280 ; Butyric ether, 
280 ; amylo-acetic ether, 280 ; pelargon- 
ate, or ethylic ether, 280 ; acetate of 
amylic etlier, 280 ; valerianate of 
amylic ether, 280. 

Malt'liquors, ale, porter, &c., bottling, 
268, 270 ; corking, 269 ; fermentation 
of, 269 ; to restore flat beer, 269 ; 
clarifying, 270 ; to preserve beer, 270 ; 
bottling and lining beer, 270 ; ale, to 
brew, 271 ; table ale, to brew, 271, 277 ; 
ginger beer, 272 ; ginger beer powders, 
272 ; Ottawa root beer, 273, 277 ; Edin- 
burgh ale, 276 ; bottling porter and 
brown stout, 276 ; cheap beer, 277 ; 
ginger ale, 277 ; spruce and ginger 
beer, 277 ; hop beer, very fine, 277 ; 
common small beer, 277 ; Philadelphia 



beer, 277 ; leiron beer, 277, 278 ; hop 
beer, 278 ; root beer, 278 ; molasses 
beer, 278 ; sour beer, to restore, 278 ; 
to improve the flavor of beer, 278 ; half 
and half, 279. 

Punch, 267 ; ordinary punch, 267 ; Oxford 
punch, 267 ; Roman punch, 267 ; Re- 
gent's punch, 267 ; Norfolk punch, 267 ; 
tea punch, 267 ; brandy shrub, 276 ; 
rum shrub. 276. 

Spirits, Brandy, 271 ; British brandy, 
272 ; gin, 268 ; to suit the public taste, 
268 ; sweetened, 268. 

Wines, nature and treatment of, 265 ; 
process of manufacture, 265 ; young, 
appearance of, 265 ; change in color 
of, 265 ; effect When exposed to the 
sun, 265 ; the choicest, 265 ; gaining 
strength by cold, 265 ; wines that 
should not be iced, 265 ; appearance 
of claret when brought out from the 
cellar, 265 ; Burgundy, 265 ; how it 
should be drunk, 265 ; how to cool ii 
decanter of, 265 ; home-made, to im- 
prove, 265 ; to cure acidity, must- 
iness, ropiness, &c., in, 266 ; casks, to 
sweeten, 266 ; bottling, best time for, 
268 ; cherry wine, black, 269 ; cherry 
wine, red, 270 ; to clarify wines, 270 ; 
mulled, 272 ; sherry, 272 ; a rich and 
pleasant wine, 273 ; raisin wine equal 
to sherry, 273 ; port wine, 273 ; British 
Madeira, 273 ; currant and other fruit 
wines, 273, 276 ; blackberry wine, 274, 
277 ; strawberry wine, 274 ; Morella 
wine, 274 ; London sherry, 274 ; En- 
glish patent wine from rhubarb, 274 
ginger wine, 274; gooseberry wine 
274 ; malt wine, 275 ; raisin wine, 277 
flat wine, to restore, 278 ; to flue, 278 : 
American champagne, 279 ; British 
champagne, 279. 



CONFECTIONERS. 

Pages 281—922. 



Almonds, red Verdun sugared, 283 ; 
Spanish sugared, 284 ; superfine van- 
illa sugared, 284 ; common sugared, 
284 ; superfine chocolate sugared, 288. 

Candy, molasses, 281 ; common lemon, 
281 ; rock, 282 ; horehound. 282 ; gin- 
ger, 283; cream, 283; chocolate cream, 
284 ; orange rock, 284 ; rose rock, 284 ; 
vanilla rock, 284 ; ginger tablets, 286 ; 
orange flower tablets, 286 ; vanilla 
tablets, 286 ; peppermint tablets, 287 ; 
liquor tablets, 287 ; cinnamon drops, 
287 ; clove tablets, 287 ; rose tablets, 

287 ; fruit tablets, 287 ; common twist, 

288 ; cocoanut, 289 ; drops or pastilles, 
289. 

Caramel, lemon, 289 ; orange and lime, 

289 ; coffee, 239 ; chocolate, 289 ; van- 
illa, 289 ; orange cream, 289. 

Che%ving gum, 286. 

Colors, confectioners', 281. 

Coriander, in bottles, 288. 

Corn, popped, 282. 

Cream, substitute for, 285 ; orange cara^ 

mels, 289. 
Drops, acid, 284 ; orange, jasmine and 

clove, 285 ; salad, 285 ; saffron, 285 ; 

heliotrope, 285 ; pink, 285 ; cinnamon, 

285 ; marshmallow, 286; liquorice, 286 ; 



rose, 286 ; lemon, 286 ; orange, 286 ; 
violet, 286 ; coffee, 286 ; chocolate, 286; 
vanilla, 286 ; imitation currant, 286 • 
peppermint, 286 ; lemon, 287 ; bar- 
berry, 287 ; barley sugar, 287 ; candy 
or pastilles, 289; currant and raspber- 
ry paste, 290 ; damson paste, 290 ; pear 
paste, 290 ; apple paste, 290 ; pineap- 
ple paste, 290. 

Filberts, superfine sugared, 288. 

Freezing preparation, 285. 

Fruit, candied, 284 ; jellies without, 287; 
candy tablets. 287 ; to preserve with- 
out sugar, 290, 291 ; juice, to preserve 
without heat, 291. 

Ice cream, 284, 285 ; flavored, 285 ; Chic- 
ago, 285. 

Jujubes, 288 ; Spanish liquorice, 289 ; 
raspberry, 289 ; black currant, 289 ; 
red currant, 289 ; ordinary, 289. 

Lemon peel, candied, 285. 

Lozenges, peppermint, 287 ; gingei', 
288 ; horehound, 288 ; cinnamon, 288; 
clove, 288 ; orange, 288 ; lemon, 288 ; 
colt's foot, 288 ; Cayenne and cate- 
chu, 288. 

Pastilles, extemporaneous, 286 ; gum oi 
jujubes, 288. 

Sugar, to candy, 281 ; clarified, 282 ; sub- 



682 



INDEX. 



stitute for, 287 ; stick apple, 290 ; to 
preserve fruits without, 290, 291 ; 
vases, baskets, figures, animals, &c., 
in, 290 ; to clarify, 292. 



Sugar plums, coriander, 288 ; anise BeeU 

288 ; mint, 288. 
Syrup, 291 ; clarified, 282. 
Taffy, Everton, 290. 



DYERS, BLEACHERS, &c. 
Pages 293—312 



Aniline colors, new mordant for, 301 ; 
to render solutile in water, 301. 

Broadcloth, to remove stains from, 309, 
310. 

Calicoes, washing, 298. 

Cottons, bleaching, 312 ; cottons, dyes 
for, see Dyes. 

Dyes, black, 299, 300, 305, 311 ; to fix, 299 ; 
yellow, 300, 301, 305, 306 ; for furs, 300 ; 
blue, 300, 305, 306, 307. 308, 311 ; purple, 
300, 304, .305, 306 ; green, 301, 305, 306, 
307 ; golden, 301 ; red, 301, 302, 303, 
305, 311; slate color,.301, 311; brown, 301, 
302, 305, 308; cinnamon, .302; bronze, 302; 
reddish brown, 302 ; crimson, 303, 305 ; 
pink, 303, 305, 306 ; red madder, 303 ; 
scarlet, 303, 306 ; lilac, 304, 306 ; mul- 
berry, 304 ; dark steel, 304 ; light silver 
drab, 304 ; orange, 304 ; violet, 304, 

305 ; wine color, 305 ; solferino, 305 ; 
magenta, 305 ; plum, 305 ; carnation, 

306 ; for hats, 311 ; silver gray, 312 ; 
solitaire, ,301. 

Feathers, dyes for, 305, .306 ; to clean, 
306 ; ostrich, 300 ; to bleach, 306, 307. 

Flannel, properties of, 294 ; to clean and 
preserve, 294 ; to wash, 294, 299 ; to 
scour, 294 ; to prevent from shrinking, 
294 ; to preserve the cf)lor of, 294. 

Flowers, artificial, colors for, 307. 

Furs, dyes for, 300 ; to clean, 309. 



Gloves, kid, to clean, 296 ; doeskin, 
buckskin, and wash leather, to clean, 
297; to wash, 297. 

How to make old clothes look new, 310. 

Hats, waterproof stilleiung for, 312. 

Lace to clean, 293 ; point, to clean, 293; 
white silk or blonde, to clean, 293 ; 
thread, to wash, 293 ; white, to wash, 
294, 298. 

Lime water for dyers' use, 300. 

Linen, properties of, 295 ; for summer 
clothing, 295 ; preservation of , 295 ; to 
prevent discoloration, 295 ; mildewed, 
to restore, 295, 309 ; to remove stains 
from, 295, 311 ; to bleach, 301 ; to dye 
brown, 301. 

Mildew, to take out, 310 ; to preserve 
goods and clothing from, 301. 

Renovater for clothing, 308. 

Silks, discolored by acid, to restore, 309 ; 
old, to renew, 309 ; to clean, 310, 
to bleach, 312 ; dyes for, see Dyes. 

Stains, paint, grease, &c., to remove, 
309, 310, 311. 

Starch, to make, 298 ; polish, 297. 

Straw bonnets, dyeing, 302, 311. 

Straw goods, bleaching, 312. 

Washing, to make easy, 298. 

Woollens, to clean and wash, 296 ; to 
preserve, 296 ; dyes for, see Dyes. 



TELEGRAPHY. 

Pages 313—354. 



Abbreviations used, 336, 337. 

Adjustable screws, the use of, 344. 

Alphabet, the Morse, 319 ; dots and 
dashes, how understood, 319. 

Apparatus, connecting the, 345. 

Armature, the, 344. ' 

Arrangement of a terminal station, 346 ; 
of a way station, 347. 

Batteries, connecting different, 323 ; 
powerful, 345. 

Battery, the, 316 ; action of, 316 ; genera- 
tion of the electric fluid, 316 ; the 
gravity, 315 ; how and of what it is 
made, 316 ; size on long lines, 315 ; to 
put in operation, 315 ; what it is sup- 
plied with, 316 ; addition of water, 310; 
when to clean and how. 316 ; power of, 
316 ; to get the most active effect, 316 ; 
to decrease the power, 310 ; amount re- 
quired for different purposes, 324 ; the 
galvanic, 339 ; the grove, 339 ; carbon, 
3,39 ; Daniell, 339 ; accumulation of 
copper in the, 310 ; the positive and 
negative poles of the, ,340 ; freezing of 
the, .341 ; where the main and local are 
respectively placed, 346. 

Blue vitriol, "what it is, 340 ; how form- 
ed, 340. 

Brt^aks, 349 ; method of detecting the lo- 
cation of, .349. 

Characters, the, 326 ; their number, 326 ; 



elements, 326 ; formation, 326 ; combi- 
nations, 326 ; the dot, 326 ; the dash, 
320 ; the spaces, 326 ; quotations, 326 ; 
italics, &c., 326 ; the main points of, 
326 ; the principle of the, 326 ; how to 
form, 331 ; how to learn, 331. 

Circuit, what the word means, 346 ; what 
constitutes the, 346. 

Circuits, main and local, 345; what is 
understood by " main " and local, 346. 

Circuit breaker, the, 318 ; its use, 318 ; 
how operated, 318 ; effect produced, 
318. 

Communication, stx)ppage of, 324 ; the 
reason, 324. 

Conductor, how to compel the current 
to follow the whole length of the, 342 ; 
the spools of, 342 ; the use of wire as, 
and non-conductors, 316 ; what are, 
316 ; outside, 316 ; the most perfect, 
316 ; cheapest and most durable, 316 ; 
the kind generally used, 31G ; the earth 
as a, 316. 

Counting words, 332. 

Covering the wire with silk, 342. 

Crosses, 351 ; annoyance of, 351. 

Cups or cells, coiiiieoting, ,340, 

Design of this work, the principal, 325. 

Electricity, frictional, a38 ; is it sub- 
stance or matter, 345 ; effects of, 345 ; 
what Professor Faraday says of, 345. 



INDEX. 



683 



Electro-magnetic, the meaning of the 
words, 33?. 

Escapes, 350 ; what is undei-stood by, :'50, 

Ground wire, the, 321 ; how to make a, 
321 ; the best attachment for, 321. 

Hand, position and movement of tlie, 
326 ; grasping the button, 327 ; the 
wrist, 327 ; exertion of thumb and 
fingers, 327 ; force borrowed from the, 
327; upward and downward motion, 327; 
how the majority of students move 
the, 327 ; pressing down the Angers, 
327 ; downward movement, 327. 

Instruction, the system adopted, 325. 

Instrument, to set up for practice, 321 ; 
movement of the lever, 325 ; eHect if 
spring is drawn too tightly, 325 ; wlien 
not in use, 325 ; economizing power, 
325 ; ease with which the '■ click " is 
understood, 325 ; of different resis- 
tance. 325 ; adjustment and care of, 
a>2. 

Insulations, 316 ; mediums, 316 ; the use 
of glass, 316 ; where and liow they are 
fastened, 316; how the wire is attached 
to the glass, 316 ; kind used on inside 
of ollices, 316. 

Key, the, 318 ; use of, 318 ; method of 
grasping, 318 ; operation of, 318 ; effect 
when open, 318 ; when closed, 318 ; 
motions made by the hand with, 318 ; 
regulating the, 321 ; description of, 343. 

Lightning, entering offices, 324 ; damage 
to instruments by, 324 ; method of 
making it our obedient servant, 338 ; 
arrester and cut out, 324 ; use of the, 
324 ; its efficacy, 324. 

Magnet, the electro-, 317 ; manner of, 
construction, 317 ; the " cores," 318 ; 
the " armature," 318 ; power of, 318. 

Magnetizing iron, 342, 343. 

Magnets, 341 ; what is a, 341 ; substances 
that are, 341 ; of soft iron, 341 ; how 
to obtain the full power of, 342 ; how 
affected when placed long distances 
apart, 343 ; the attracting power of, 
344 ; charging, 344. 

Main lines, 324 ; how arranged, 324 ; tap- 
ping in case of railroad accidents, &c., 
324 ; how it is done, 324. 

Management of instruments, wires and 
batteri^^s, 343. 

Manipulations, instructions in, 326, 

Messages, the form of, 331 ; terms ap- 
plied to different portions of. 331 ; 
method of counting words, 331 ; brevity 
in, 331 ; rules for counting words in, 
331 ; compound words in, 3:il ; abbre- 
viations in, 332 ; insuring transmission 
of, 332 ; rates for transmitting, 3.32 ; 
forms of, 332 ; the period, 332 ; punc- 
tuating, 3.32 ; telegraphic illustration 
of messages, 333 ; paid and unpaid, 
333 ; checks on and for, 333 ; collecting 
on account of other companies for, 
333 ; dead head, 334. 

Morse characters, 353 ; should not he 
learned in alphabetical order, 325 ; sys- 
tem, the, 343 ; maimer of communica- 
tion, 343. 

Morse combination of instruments ready 
for use. See frontispiece. 

Non-conductors or insulators, 338. 

Numbering messages, 335. 



Office calls and signals, 335 ; O. K., what 
it means, 335 ; calling and answering, 
335 ; method of making. 323. 

Operators, speed of in transmitting, 325 ; 
who is considered r.ipid. 325 ; who are 
considered first class, 319. 

Porous cups, the, 340. 

Practical directions, 324. 

Practise, a good way to, 322. 

Reading from paper, 325. 

Reading by sound, 319 ; practice makes 
perfect, 321 ; time required to learn, 
321 ; separate practice in, 321. 

Register, the Morse, 318 ; how operated, 
318 ; Tillotson's premium, 320. 

Relay, description of the, 348. 

Reversed currents, 351. 

Short lines, 348. 

Signals, the means employed to trans- 
mit, 317- 

Speed in writing, 327. 

Telegraph, general principles of the 
electro-magnetic, 338 ; lines, how to 
construct, 346, 317 ; system, the whole 
basis of the 318. 

Telegraphy, introduction to, 313 ; in- 
crease in the practical use of, 313 ; 
its convenience to manufacturers, 313; 
value to the clerk, book-keeper and 
salesman, 313 ; its simplicity, 313 ; a 
pleasant pastime, 313 ; acquirement of 
skill, 313 ; the time necessary, 313 ; 
the best method of learning, 313 ; 
different residences connected, 313 ; 
owning a joint wire, 313 ; electrical 
communication and conversations, 
313 ; the cost of erecting lines. 313 ; 
mechanical instrument for students, 
colleges, &c., 313 ; erecting poles, 313 ; 
the object of this work, 313 ; practical 
science of 338 ; the five principal parts 
in, 338. 

"Wet weather, effect on telegraphing, 
350. 

Wire, opening and closing the, 344; 
kind used in offices, 345 ; to splice or 
join a, 322, 338 ; method of fastening 
iusidfe of building, 322 ; kind required 
for different purposes, 324, 325 ; 
ground, description of, 348. 

Writing, Morse, 321 ; the best way to 
acquire habit of, 321 ; mental effort 
not required in, 321 ; separate prac- 
tice in, 321 ; how to begin to learn, 

327 ; uniformity required, 327 ; breaks 
and not spaces required, 327 ; how to 
hold the lever in, 327 ; the upward 
and downward motion, 327 ; how to 
make dots, 327 ; how to make dashes, 
327 ; how to form letters, 327 ; the 
time of making dots, 327 ; the 
time of making dashes, 327 ; the 
six fundamental principles in, 327, 

328 ; exercises in, .328, 329 ; the forma- 
tion of certain lettei-s, 329 ; rule for 
parenthesis, .329 ; similarity of certain 
letters, .329; the common desire in, 330 ; 
uniformity of space in, 330 ; the space 
between words, 330 ; figures in, 330 ; 
expressing fractions, 330 ; signs for 
dollars and cents, 331 ; private marks 
in, 331 ; transmitting characters, 331 ; 
errors in, 335. 



684 



INDEX. 



ARTIFICIAL FLOWERS, FRUIT, &c. 
res 355—358. 



Page 



Feather flowers, liow to choose and 
pluck the feathers for, 357 ; how to 
cut out the petals, 357 ; how to heud 
the feathers into the desired sh.ipo, 
357; care necessary in bending, 357; 
how to make tlie stem of the flower, 
357; materials of which it is to be 
made, 357; how to make the heart of 
the flower, 357 ; materials for, and 
how to make the stamina, 357; how 
to arrange the petals, 357; the calyx, 
of what it is composed, 357; recipe for 
the paste of which the calyx, heart 
and buds of flowers are made, 357; 
how to make the farina, 357; particu- 
lar instructions for the formation of 
various parts of double flowers, 357 ; 
how to color the flowers, 358 ; use of 
artificial flowers and iuexpensiveness 
of the process of making them, 35S. 

Flowers, preservation of, 358 ; how to 
keep flowers in a fresh state for a con- 
siderable length of time, 358; how to 
restore faded flowers to their pristine 
state of natural beauty, 358; how to 
make flowers bloom in winter, 358; 
roses at Christmas, 358; fruits all the 
year round, 35S. 

Leaf impressions, how to take perfect 
impressions of leaves more accurately 
than in the most careful drawings by 
the best artists, 358. 

"Wax flowers, 355 ; modelling, 355 ; its 



simplicity, 355 ; cost of materials, 355; 
where to obtain them, 355 ; induce- 
ments to learn the art, 355 ; what 
the leaves are made of, 355 ; how the 
stems are made, 355; best guide for the 
learner in his first endeavors, 355 ; 
how to cut out the petals, leaves, etc., 
.355 ; but few instruments required 
355; how to impart the venous appear 
ance of the leaves to the wax, 355 
the importance of closely following 
nature in the formation of sprigs, 355 ; 
how to color the flowers, 355. 
Wax fruit, 356 ; how to model, 356 ; 
materials for moulds, 356 ; where it can 
be procured, 356 ; substitute for the 
best plaster of Paris, when this cannot 
be procured, 356 ; how to make the 
mould, 356 ; good subject for first ex- 
periments, 356 ; importance of care in 
casting, 3.56 ; trimming the moulds, 

356 ; how to make the halves of the 
plaster mould fit accurately, 3.56 ; easi- 
ly obtained materials for first experi- 
ments,356; great care necessary in melt- 
ing the wax, 356 ; how to cast the fruit 
hollow, 356; cooling the model, 356; 
how to trim, polish, and finish the wax- 
en fruits, 357 ; practice necessary for 
perfection, 557 ; coloring the fruit, 

357 ; how to produce a good imitation 
of the surface, 357 ; how to treat 
oranges, lemons, cucumbers, &c., 357. 



ARTISTS AND PICTURES. 

Pages 359—362. 



Ferrotype, tin type and other positive 
pictures, the manner of taking, 3.59 ; 
formuL-B for photographers, .361; paint- 
ing in oil colors, water colors, &c., 361; 
chemicals required, 359 ; the develop- 
er, 359 ; the fixing solution, &c.,359; 
collodion and how to make it, ,359 ; 
how to immerse the plate in the bath, 
3.59 ; how to use tlie developer, fixing 
solution, &c., 359 ; finishing the plate, 
359 ; list of neeerfsaries in a photo- 
grapher's business, 360 ; how to choose 
a studio, 360 ; best aspect, 360 ; where 
to place the background, 360; proper 
length of time for exposure, 360 ; the 
process in detail, 360 ; silver bath for 
albumen paper, for summer use, 
361 ; for winter use, 361 ; another silver 
bath, 361 ; sal soda toning bath, 361; 
chloride of lime bath, 361; bicarbonate 
of soda bath, 361 ; fixing bath, 361 ; 
bath for salting the paper, 361 ; pho- 
tograph painting in oil colors, 361 ; 
tints for the first painting, .361 ; flesh 
color, 361 ; grey, pearly, and half 



tints, 361 ; deep shades, 3C1 ; car- 
nations, 361 ; Ught hair, 361 ; dark 
brown hair, 361; tints for the second 
and third painting, 361 ; high lights, 
361; carnations, 361; green tints, 361; 
grey tints, 361; purple tints, 301; pow- 
erful shadow tints, 361; strong glazing 
colors, 361; draperies, ,361; back ground 
colors, .361; pearly. 361; grcfy, 361; yel- 
low, 361; olive, 361; stone, 361; sky, 
.361; edges of clouds, 361; clouds, 361; 
photograph water colors, 361 ; flesh 
tints, 361; fair complexion, 361 ; mid- 
dling complexion, .361; dark complex- 
ion, 361 ; childrcns' portraits, 362 ; 
portraits of aged persons, 302 ; to 
clean old oil paintings, 362; to renew 
old oil paintings, 362; to transfer pic- 
tures from paper to wood for re-en- 
graving, ,362; to transfer prints &c., 
362; quality of the glass to be used 
362; to apply decalcomanie pictures, 
362; care to be taken in purchasing so 
as to get the right sort, 362; to print a 
picture from the print itself, 362. 



Bagatelle* 

B.agatelle, how it is played, 371; de- 
scription of the board, 371; the French 
game, 371; the canon game, 371; the 
Irish game, etc., 371; the prettiest and 
most scientific strokes, 372. 



INDOOR GAMES. 

Pages 363—374. 

Billiai'ds. 

Billiards. How the game is played, 363; 
the first thing to attend to in learn- 
ing, 363 ; the key to, 364 ; the bridge, 
how it is formed, 363; on counting, 
364 ; the cue, how to adapt it, 363; the 



INDEX. 



685 



American or four-ball game, 364 ; a 
good plan to proceed upon, 364 ; losing 
Lazards, 304 ; winning hazards, 364 ; 
points, the number played, 365 ; po- 
sition assumed in striking, 363 ; prac- 
tice required, 364 ; varyingthe, 364; reg- 
ulation of the eye of the striker, 363 ; 
rules of the game, 367 ; the scores, 364 ; 
strength, the degree necessary to ob- 
tain the end desired, 363; the position 
of the striker, 364 ; the stroke, how to 
make it accomplish the purpose of the 
player, 363; how to prove the truth of 
the stroke, 361; upon what the accu- 
racy will depend, 363 ; vocabulary of 
terms and phrases used in the game, 
386. 

Angles of the table, 304. 

Balls. Where they are placed at the 
commencement of the ganje, 364 ; the 
object, 364 ; the practice with a single, 
304 ; the red, 364 ; how to strike the op- 
posing, 363 ; the white, 364 ; the baulk, 
364. 

Pool,' 368; the number of balls used, 368; 
how the game is played, 368 ; the lead, 
368. 

Pin pool, 369; as played in New York, 
369; the number of pins used, 369; how 
they are placed on the table, 369; how 



they are designated, 369; the object in 
playing, .369; how the game is played 
in Philadelphia, 369; rules, 370; who 
wins the pool, 369; the number twenty- 
one, 369. 
Ball, the private, 369; the red, where it 
is placed, .369. 

Ci'ibbage. 

Cribbage. \Vliat it is, 373: method of 
playing, 373; progress of the game, 373; 
the number of cards dealt each player, 
373; the eldest hand, 373; fifteen, 373; 
thirty-one. 373; the cards played, 373; 
the remaining cards, 373; rules for, 
373; maxims for laying crib cards, .374; 
the best card to baulk a crib, 374; the 
terms used in, 374; his heels, his nob, 
374. 

Dominoes. 

Dominoes, 372; the number of persons 
that can play, 372; the number of 
pieces, 372; the names of the pieces, 
372; the manner of setting, .372; draw- 
ing, 372; the eldest hand, 372; a blocker 
game of, 372; the advantage of the 
player, 372; play or draw, 372. 



ATHLETIC EXERCISES. 



Paws 375—384. 



Oyni nasties. 



Gymnastics, 381 ; best age for commenc- 
ing, 381; jumping, 381; leaping, 381; 
vaulting, 381; climbing the rope, 381; 
climbing trees, 381; climbing the 
wooden ladder, 381; climbing the in- 
clined board, 381; climbing the pole, 
381; p.arallel bars, 381; balancing, ris- 
ing and sinking, 382; to kiss the bar 
behind the hands, 382; the horizontal 
bar, 382; kicking the bar, 382; circling 
the bar, 382; the balancing bar, 382. 

Quoits. 

Quoits, 372; articles used in playing, 
372; the hob, 372; how the players are 
arranged, 372; the iron ring, 372; rules 
for playing, 372. 

Roiriug. 

Rowing, the boat and its management, 
383; sculling, 383; feathering, 383; 
river rowing, 383; backing water, 383; 
turning, 383; passing another boat, 383; 



the rule of the river, 383; landing, 383; 
sea rowing, 383; launching a boat, .384; 
the stroke, 384; keeping time, 384, land- 
ing on a sea beach, 384; duties of the 
bowman, 384; hauling up, 384; cautions 
and hints, 384; steering, 384. 

SMrimuiiug, 

Swimming, 375; places ind times for 
bathing and swimming, 375; mechani- 
cal apparatus for learning to swim, 
375; entering the water, 375; aids to 
swimming, 370; striking off and swim- 
ing, .376; how to manage the legs, .376; 
plunging and diving, 377; swimming 
under water, 377 ; swimming on the side, 
377; swimming on the back without 
employing the feet, 377; floating, 378; 
treading water, 378; the fling, 378; 
swimming on the back, 378; thrusting, 
379; the double thrust, 379; to swim like 
a dog, 379; the mill, 379; the wheel 
backwards and forwards, 379; to swim 
with one hand, 379; hand over-hand 
swimming, 379; balancing, 380 ; the 
cramp, 380. 



CAGE BIRDS, 

Pages 

Cage Birds. 

Breeding cage, how made, 386 ; size of 
perches, 386 ; where placed, 386, how 
to arrange it inside, 386. 

Bullfinch, how to treat the, 392 ; their 
food and requirements, 392 ; number 
of eggs laid by the female, 392 ; how to 
teach them, 392 ; how to distinguish 
the male from the female, 392 ; their 
memory, 392 ; method of taming, and 



TAXIDERMY, &c. 
385—394. 

training, 392 ; diseases of the, 392; rem- 
edies for diseases of the, 393. 

Cage Birds, the diseases of, 387. 

Canary, the, 385 ; where always found in 
this county, 385 ; the color of the best 
385 ; how and where to keep them, 
385 ; effects of cold weather upon them, 
385 ; where to hang cage in dry sum- 
mer weather, 385 ; improper time of 
moulting, 385; the reason for it, 385; 
the kind of cage for breeding pur- 



686 



INDEX. 



poses, 385; bow to prevent diseases, 
385; bow the cage sbould be construct- 
ed, 385; bow kept, 385; the best food for 
the, 3S5 ; when bemp seed may be 
given, 385; substitute for paste, 385; 
leugtli of time it will keep, 385; green 
food in summer, 385; cake, 385; bow 
to spoil the singing of a, 385; the 
breeding of tbe, 385; when to pair tbe 
birds, 385; number of eggs usually laid, 
385; wbat to do witb tbe eggs, 385; 
wbeu to replace tbem, 385; tbe period 
of incubation, 385; food for young 
birds, 385; wbere to place it, 385; what 
will mate with tbe, 386; tbe diseases 
of the, 386; the best remedies, 386; 
bow to teach canaries, 386; amount of 
patience required, 386; full directions 
for instructing tbem, 386; bow to dis- 
tinguish tbe male from tbe female, 386; 
taming the, 387; the most approved 
method of taming tbe, 387; food pre- 
ferred by tbe, 387; receipt for making 
paste for tbe, 3S7; water for tbe, 387; 
pills for the, 387 ; diseases of, bow to 
successfully treat them all, 387, 388. 
Parrots, general directions for treat- 
ment, 388 ; different treatment requir- 
ed for than other birds, 388 ; the coun- 



tries from which they come, 388 ; kind 
of food necessary, 388 ; temperature in 
which they sbould be kept, 388 : en- 
courage tbem in exercising, 388 ; treat- 
ment they should receive, 38S ; their 
nature, 388 ; bird nature like human 
nature, 388 ; teasing, 388 ; cleanliness 
of the, 389 ; washing the feet, 389 ; 
what their staple diet generally con- 
sists of, 389; zinc and pewter vessels, 
389 ; how to tame, 388 ; diseases of, 
what they are and how to success- 
fully treat them, 389. 
Thrash, the, 391 ; where found, 391 ; 
how treated in conlinement, 391 ; re- 
quirements, 391 ; how to distinguish 
tbe male from the female, 392 ; when 
the young birds are hatched, 392 ; 
what to teed them with, 392. 

TaxitleriU}"- 

Taxidermy, (bmi stuffing)^ 393 ; instruc- 
tions in, 393; manipulation necessary, 
393 ; instruments and articles neces- 
sary, 393; poisons necessary, 393 ; how 
to keep them, 393 ; the whole process 
in detail, 393. 



BEES, THEIR HABITS, M.INAGEMENT AND TREATMENT. 

Passes 395—399. 



Bees, 395; their habits, .395; management 
and tre.itment, 395; great recommen- 
dations to keep tbem, 395; time of tbe 
year to purchase, .395; how to choose 
the hives in making purchases, 395; 
dilf erence between old .and new combs, 
395; why an old comb should be re- 
jected, 395; why one should not pur- 
chase bees in summer, 395 ; reason why 
many bees are destroyed, 395; aspect 
of tbe hives, 395; situation of tbe hives, 
395; position of tbe hives. 395; how to 
keep out toads, mice and other ene- 
mies to the bees, 395; how to keep the 
hives dry, 395; the arrangement of the 
hives, 395; necessity' of a plentiful sup- 
ply of water, and of keeping tbe en- 
trances clear and unobstructed, 395; 
importance of cleanliness, 395; care to 
be taken of the hives during the 
winter, 396; construction of the hives, 
396; the Polish hive, 396; size of the 
hives, 396; the cottage hive, 396; period 
and cause of swarming, 396; bow to 
hive a swarm, 396; what to do if there 
are several queens in a swarm, 396; 
what to do if swarms from several 
hives form a junction, 396; feeding the 
bees after hiving, 396; precautions to 



be taken whilst hiving a swarm, 3.16; 
indications of swarming usually given 
by the bees, 396; what to do in case 
a swarm sbould be hived without a 
queen, 397 ; Polish method of making 
a swarm pass from one hive to another, 
397; best time for taking tbe honey, 
397; bow to take the honey, either in 
part or the whole comb, 397; economi- 
cal and humane method, 397; feeding 
the bees in spring and .autumn, 397; the 
most appropriate food, 397; quantity 
required for a well stocked hive, 397; 
bow to extract the honey from the 
comb, 397; bow to distinguish the, 397; 
various kinds of bees, 397; the queen 
bee, .398; management of bees accord- 
ing to the exigencies of the season, 
with directions for each month, 398; 
list of plants which are in most favor 
with bees, 398, .399; nature of honey, 
399; how it is intlueneed by tbe species 
of flowers from which it is obtained, 
399; how to tell new honey, 399; virgin 
honey, 399; moderation in tbe use of 
honey at table, 399, its properties as a 
medicament, 399; vinegar from honey, 
399; mead, 399. 



HARMONY, THOROUGH BASE, TUNING, &c. 

Paafes 400—424. 



Accident.als, examples of, 402 ; wbat 
they refer to, 402. , 

.^olian harp, to construct an, 408. 

Common chord of C in its different 
fonns, 402 ; manner in which tbe 
different forms are played, 402 ; the 
major, 402 ; the minor, 402 ; what con- 



stitutes the, 402 ; number of positions 
taken by the, 402 ; when the first posi- 
tion occurs, 402 ; when the second 
position, 402 ; when the third position, 
402 ; tbe position that is not generally 
figured, 402 ; why we have figured it, 
402 ; why it is sometimes figured, 402 ; 



INDEX. 



687 



resolution of the, 404 ; root of the, 
where it is found when 6 or 6-t are 
written under the base, 402 ; dominant 
seventli of the, 403 ; wliat it consists 
of. 403 ; surplus flf tli, tlie chor+l of the, 
406: seventh, ninth, and eleventh, the 
chord of the, 400 ; seventh and ninth, 
the cliord of the, 406 ; its dilftyent 
forms, 406 ; seventh and eleventh, the 
chord of the. 406 ; ninth, the chord of 
the, 406; its different forms, 406; ninth 
and eleventh, the cliord of the, 406 ; 
its ditferenc forms, 406 ; eleventh, the 
chord of the, 406 ; its different form i, 
406. 

Discordants. the, 406 ; their number, 406. 

Dominant, the, what it is, 403. 

Figures under the base, why they are 
not placed there when the music 
is written on two staves only, 401 ; what 
6 and fi-3 incjicate, 402 ; how the base 
and txeble should hi played where 
they appear, 402 ; how the intervening 
notes should be played, 402 ; what 6-4 
indicates, 402 ; how ithe base and treble 
should be played where they appear, 
402; how the intervening notes should 
be plaved, 402; figured base, playing 
from, 401-406. 

Harmony, instructions in, 401-406 ; 
" dispersed." what it means, 401 ; 
" close," what it means, 401. 

Highest note, the, what it is called, 
402 ; lowest note, the, what it is 
called, 402. 

Iiistrimients, how to detect defects, 401 ; 
number used in this country, 401 ; 
tuning, 401 ; major seventh, the chord 
of the, 406 ; its different forms, 406. 

Metronome to construct a, 408. 

Modulation, what the word means, 404 ; 
beauties of, 407 ; a pleasant study, 
407. 

Music, the chords used in 401-406 ; 
their progressions and resolutions, 
401-406; playing sacred, 401-406; sacred, 
the great desire to learn to play, 401; 
difficulty in reading or playing when 
written on fonr staves, 401; how the 
majority is written, 401. 

Organs, melodeons and other instru- 
ments of a similar kind, the great 
number in use, 401. 

Pianofortes, selecting, 407 ; the grand 
400 ; the square, 400; the great art 
in choosing, 407; noisy instruments 
unfit for use, 407 ; care to be taken to 
deal with only responsible parties, 
407; a heavy touch the best in the end, 
407 ; the best the cheapest in the end, 
407 ; an erroneous supposition with 
regard to learners on the pianforte, 
407 ; the preservation of, what it re- 
quires, 407, 40S ; to be kept shut when 
not in use, 408 ; to re-cover hammers 
in, 408. 

Players, ordin.ary, what they can do and 
what they cannot do, 401. 

Seventh, dominant, circle of the. 403 ; 
example of some of the resolutions of 
the, 404 ; how and to where it resolves, 
404 ; chord of the, the figures applied 
to it, 403; the number of different forms 
assumed by the,403; how the different 
forms are figured, 403 ; on what it is 
founded, 403. 



Thorough base, the moderate dsgree of 
attention required by the student to 
be entirely successful in learning, 401. 

Voice, management and preservation of, 
404 ; position in which to hold the 
body, 404; how to exercise the extrem- 
ities of the, 401; the age at wliich to 
begin practice of singing, 401; when 
the voice has attained its greatest 
power, 401; what to take to clear the 
voice, 401 ; what to avciid when you 
intend to sing, 404 ; what the student 
is supposed to" know, 401. 

InstriictionM for tnniiig the Pia- 
no-Forte, ITIelodeon, Seraphiue, 
and Reed Organ. 

Bearings, laying the, 413 ; accuracy re- 
quired, 414. 

Beats and wave, 410, 411. 

Concords. 411. 

Damper, noise in the, causes and reme- 
dies, 419 ; sticking of, causes and 
remedies, 421. 

Damper levers, noise in the, causes and 
remedies, 420; sticking of, causes and 
remedies. 421. 

Damping, defective, causes and reme- 
dies. 420. 

Defects and remedies, 418 to 424. 

Experience, what it teaches, 411. 

Flattening the fifths, 412. 

Hammer, blocking of a (the cause and 
remedy) 420; a rattling or noise in the 
under, causes and remedies, 419; noise 
in the upper, causes and remedies, 
419 ; sticking of, cause and remedy, 
421 ; touchinij the wrong strings, caus- 
es and remedies, 422. 

Hoppers, noise in the, causes and 
remedies, 419; sticking of, causes and 
remedies, 421. 

How to tune the fifth, 411; the octave, 
411; third, 411; the unison, 410. 

Interval, the easiest to begin with, 410 ; 

Key board, view of the, (six octave pi- 
ano forte) 409. 

Keys, rattling, clicking, &c., causes and 
remedies, 418. 

Manufacturers, favorite practice of, 
424. 

Melodeon, seraphine and reed organ, 
tuning the, 424; how they should be 
placed, 421 ; manner of tuning, 424 ; 
pressure in blowing, 424 ; effects of 
damp weather, 424. 

Octave, the resemblance of the sounds, 
411. 

Pedal, defects in, causes and remedies, 
422. 

Pianoforte, great difference between 
the sounds when in perfect tune or 
otherwise, 410; every person, especial- 
ly those living in the country, should 
be able to tune their own. 410 ; the 
great advantage of being able to tune 
a, 410; number of strings to. square, 
cabinet or boudoir, 410 ; method of de- 
termining the pitch of above named, 
410 ; how to tune a boudoir, 415 ; how 
to tune a grand, 41.5 ; how often to 
tune, 415; the great enemy of, 415 ; ef- 
fect of leaving" open, 415 ; cause of vi- 
bration in, 415 ; effects of heat and 
cold on, 415; effects of cold on base 



INDEX. 



strings, 415 ; care necessary, 415; vari- 
ous examples in tuning the, 410 ; the 
different systems of tuning, 41G; causes 
of defects in, 417; remedies for defects 
in, 417; causes that prevent keeping in 
tune, 422; peculiarities of the horizon- 
tal piano, 423; the form of, 423 ; the 
action of, 423 ; the key frame, the dam- 
per, etc., 423. 

Rest pins, defective, causes and reme- 
dies, 422. 

Strings, effect of relaxing the, 410 ; ef- 
fect of tightening the, 410; how to stop 
vibrations of, 411 ; how to replace a 
string, 415 ; requirements of new, 415; 
or wires, jingling or jarring, causes 
and remedies, 420. 



Temperament, 411. 

The object of this work, 41#. 

The practical ear, 412. 

The severest test, 414. 

Touch, how to alter the, 421. 

Tuned, notes already, 414 ; notes to be, 
414. 

Tuning, the art of, 410 ; practical intro- 
duction to, 410 ; the intervals chiefly 
made use of in, 410 ; unisons and 
octave, manner of, 410; the fifth, 410; 
major and minor thirds, 410 ; man- 
ner of, 410 : how to begin operations, 
410; perfect, 411; familiarity with per- 
fect, 411; the principles of, 424. 

Tuning fork, 424. 

Unison, the, 410. 



BOOK-KEEPING BY SINGLE AND DOUBLE ENTRY. 

Pages 425—442. 



Accounts, general, 427 ; how treated, 427; 
real, 427, personal, 427 ; what they re- 
spectively are, 427; commission, 427; 
interest, 427 ; overposting and uu- 
derposting, 427. 

Balance (the double entry ledger), what 
the Dr. and Or. sides of this account 
show, 441. 

Balancing books, 427. 

Bank account, how to keep, 428. 

Bill book, the uses of, 428. 

Bills payable, the form for, 431; what 
it shows, 431. 

Bills receivable, the form for, 431 ; 
what it shows, 431. 

Books, the principal ones used, 425 ; 
the adjustment of, 427; the subsidiary, 
428. 

Book-keeping, the art of, 425; the 
science of single and double entry 
fully explained, 425; the systems com- 
pared side by side, 425; what is, 425; 
the two methods of, 425; the impor- 
tance of, 428. 

Cash book, the, what should be entered 
in, 425 ; under what circumstances 
and on which side of, 425 ; when it 
should be balanetid and how often, 
425 ; the form of, 429; posting from 
(to ledger), 429 ; signs and char- 
acters used in, 429 ; the Dr. side of, 
429; the Cr. side of, 429. 

Cash (double entry ledger), what the 
Dr. side shows, 438, what the Cr, side 
shows, 438. 

Closing books, the meaning of, 430. 

Day book, the, 425; what it contains, or 
should contain, 425 ; the form of 
(single entry), 430; items not required 
to be posted from, 430 ; the form of 
double entry, 436, 437. 

Double entry, beauty of the system of, 
442; the system of, 425; how it operates, 
425; how items are entered and when, 
425; the advantages of, 425; the trouble 
and inconvenience of taking stock fre- 
quently avoided by using, 425; a check 
on errors, 425; the principle of, 427; 
simple rule for, 477; single compared 
with, 428. 



Entries, from whence they are traced, 
and to where, 427; the omission of (in 
posting), 427. 

Errors, how to detect, 427; correcting, 
how to accomplish it properly, 427; 
the most dangerous of all, 427. 

First time, the, 428. 

Forms for study, independent of any 
, other portion of this subject, 442; pur- 
pose of introducing them, 441. 

Index, the, what it is used for, 426. 

Interest, average, etc., 428. 

Journal, the, 426; how used, 420; what 
is entered in the, 426; the most impor- 
tant book, 426. 

Ledger, the, 425; uses of the, 425; what 
is entered in the, 425; form of single 
entry, 432, 433; form of double entry, 
4.38, 439. 

Loss or gain in single entry, method of 
arriving at, 434. 

Merchandise (double entry ledger), 438 ; 
what the Dr. side shows, 438; what 
the Cr. side shows, 438. 

Note, when due, 431. 

Otftee fixtures, 440; (double entry ledger), 
what balance shows, 440. 

Partnership settlements, 428; settle- 
ment, single entry, 434, 4.35. 

Profit and loss, how it affects the part- 
ner's accounts, 428 ; and balances of 
assets and liabilities, form of, 434. 

Robert Smith (partner), what the Dr. 
side of his account shows, 438; what 
the Cr. side shows, 438. 

Single entry, the system of, 425; to 
what it is confined and how used, 425; 
the imperfections of, 425; the books 
necessary in, 425 ; compared with 
double, 425. 

Stock, the term, what it means in some 
cases, 428. 

Stindries, the term, and how it is used, 
437; the advantage of it, 437. 

Three days' grace, what it means, 431. 

Trial bahanee, purpose of the, 427 ; how 
it should appear when items have 
been correctly posted to ledger, 427. 
(double entry ledger,) 441 ; when it i> 
usually written up, 441. 



INDEX. 



QSd 



LETTER WRITING AND GRAMMAR. 

Pages 443—450. • 



Letter writing, the importance of epis- 
tolary writing, 443 ; unpleasant situa- 
tion of a person unable to communi- 
cate his sentiments to another, at a 
distance without the intervention of a 
third, 443; pleasures of letter writing, 
443; the delivery of the Holy Gospel 
by the Apostles, 443 ; perfection at- 
tained by the Romans in the episto- 
lary art, 443; the letters of Oicero, 443; 
eminent French writers, 443; triumph 
of epistolary writing over all other 
species of composition, 443; use of the 
art by novelists and poets, 443 ; 
to travellers, during a lingering 
period of absence from friends 
justly endeared to their hearts, the 
only consolation, 443 ; letters the 
fountain of trade, the food of love, 
the pleasure of friendship, the enjoy- 
ment of the politician, and the gener- 
al entertainment of all mankind, 443; 
the rise and progress of writing, 443; 
hieroglyphics and symbols,444; picture 
writing, 444; rude means employed to 
communicate thoughts and sentiments 
in the early ages of the world, 444; 
the birth-place of the art of writing, 
444; method of writing employed by 
the Mexicans, 444; the Peruvian meth- 
od, 444; Chinese characters, 444; their 
immense number, 445 ; great disad- 



vantage arising from, 445; peculiari- 
ties or the Japanese, Tonquinese and 
the Oorolans' languages, 445 ; arith- 
metical figures, 445; invention of an 
alphabet of syllables, 445; retention of 
this in India and Africa, 445; the al- 
phabet first introduced into Greece, 
445; derivation of the letters in modern 
use, 445 ; the ancient Greek, Hebrew 
and Phoenician, characters, 445; man- 
ner of writing among the Abyssinians, 
Phcenicians, Arabians, and Hebrews, 
445 ; boustrophedon, 445 ; substances 
employed for writing on, 456; date of 
the invention of writing on paper, 
446; 
Grammar, an easy introduction to, 
446; orthography, etymology, syntax, 
and prosody, 416; syllables,446; words, 
"447; rules for spelling, 447; exceptions, 
447; etymology, 447 ; the substantive 
or noun, 447; the article, 448; the ad- 
jective, 448 ; the pronoun, 448 ; the 
verb, 448; the adverb, 448; the prepo- 
sition, 448; the conjunction. 448; the 
interjection, 448; prosody, 448; syntax, 
448; necessary directions for letter 
writing, 449; the importance of care- 
ful considerati<)n in writing on all 
matters of business, 44'J; pronuncia- 
tion, 449; hints to avoid glaring errors 
in, 450. 



INFORMATION CONCERNING PATENTS. 
Pages 451—462. 



Patents, who may obtain 451 ; joint 
inventors, 452 ; by whom applica- 
tion must be made, 452 ; by whom if 
the inventor is dead, 452 ; form of pe- 
tition for a, 452 ; power of attorney, 

452 ; separate inventions, 452 ; by whom 
the specification must be signed, 452 ; 
i\umber of witnesses required, 452 ; 
full names given, 452 ; the oath of in- 
vention. 4.52 ; what should follow spe- 
cifications, 452 ; aliens and, 4.52 ; form 
of oath for joint inventors, 4.52 ; be- 
fore whom it may be made, 452, 453 ; 
the drawings, 4.53 ; rules of the patent 
oftice in respect to them, 453 ; the 
kind of paper to be used, 4.53 ; manner 
in which the outlines must be execu- 
ted, 453 ; tints that must not be used, 

453 ; shading, lines of black, 453 ; what 
will not be permitted, 453 ; colors to 
avoid in drawing, lettering and signa- 
ture, 453 ; agents' or attorneys' stamps, 
453 ; the model, 453 ; what it must show 
plainly, 453 ; how it should be made, 
453 ; the size, 453 ; kind of wood (if 
wood is used), 453 ; using glue, 453 ; the 
otficial examination, -153 ; when appli- 
cation cannot be made, 45J ; the order 
in which cases are taken up at the 
patent office, 4.53: peculiar importance 
of certain inventions, 4.53 ; personal 
attendance of the inventor at the pat- 
ent "fflo" >f no ^vantage, 453; how 



the business can be done, 453 ; specifi- 
cations not returned for amendment, 
453 ; preserving copies of papers. 
453; the final fee, 453 ; when it must be 
paid, 4.53 ; if not paid within the speci- 
fied time what the result will be, 4.53 ; 
within what time a new application 
can be made after delay, 453 ; if the 
original h.as been lost, 4.55 ; forms of 
assignments of the entire interest in 
an invention before the issue of the 
Letters, 4.56 ; form of exclusive ter- 
ritorial grant by an assignee, 456, 
4.57 ; form of license and shop-right. 

458 ; table of oflicial fees, 4.58 ; the first 
inquiry that presents itself, 458; cav- 
eats, 458 ; the importance of them, 458 ; 
of what a caveat consists, 458 ; no model 
required, 458 ; the expense small, 458 ; 
filing the caveat, 458 ; who only can 
file them, 4.'iS ; how to apply for, 458 ; 
total co.st ot obtaining a, 458 ; years for 
which granted, 458; the average time 
required to procure a, 459 ; the time 
in which they are frequently obtained, 
4.59; model, 4.59; remittances etc., for, 

459 ; medicines, 459 ; designs, 4.59 ; 
to whom a design may be granted, 460; 
length of time, 460 ; trade marks, 460 ; 
Information concerning, 451 ; caution 
to persons desiring and aj^plying for, 
451 ; why many valuable inventions 
have been lost to the inventor, 451 ; 



GDO 



INDEX. 



unscrupulous persons, 451 ; reasons 
why inventions have sometimes 
been denied, 451 ; inexperienced 
agents, 451; who to go to if you 
desire to obtain a, 451 ; when they be- 
come public property, 453; appeals {if 
rejected ), 454 ; who may appeal, 454 ; 
how to appeal, 454 ; decisions of the 
commissions, 454 ; mode of appeal, 
454 ; time allowed for appeal, 454 ; in- 
terference, 454 ; what it is, 454 ; 
issuing to two or more independ- 
ent inventors for the same invention, 
454 ; when it can b ; done, 454 ; what is 
required in case of interference, 454 ; 
the statements of parties, 454 ; the 
time an invention may be in use un- 
patented to become public property, 
454 ; remedies in case of interference, 
454 ; proving a case, 454 ; taking testi- 
mony, 454; re-issues, 455 ; to whom 
granted, 455 ; petition for re-issue of, 
455 ; statement under oath, 455 ; the 
general rule, 455 ; when re-issues ex- 



pire, 455 ; when re-is8ues are actr \ up 
on, 455 ; dilferent parts may havt 
separate, 455; each division, 455; re 
examination of original claim, 455; the 
documents required for re-issue, 455 ; 
dividing, 455 ; doubtful and defective 
claims, 455 ; assignments of, 455; when 
they may be assigned, form necessary, 
455 ; time allowed for recording re- 
issues, 456 ; what rights the patentee 
can convey, 456 ; who may secure pro- 
tection for trade mark, labels, etc., 
460; particulars to be stated when ap- 
plying, 460 ; in regard to trade marks, 
461. 
Copyrights, who may obtain, 461 ; on 
wiiat they may be obtained, 461; when 
they cannot be obtained, 461 ; agents' 
charges, 461; time for which they are 
granted, 461 ; renewals, 401 ; assign- 
ments of, 461 ; inf ringerSj 461 ; who 
cannot obtain, 461 ; toreiguers aud 
non-residents, 461. 



MASONS, BUILDERS, &c. 
Pages 463—470. 



Measurements, estimates of labor, mor- 
tar, plaster, marbles, etc., 4(;.3; labor 

. on embankments, 463; hauling stone, 
463; earth digging, 463; weight of 
earth, rock, etc., 403; fireproof houses, 
463; tiles, 404; walls, 464; turf walls, 464; 
stone and turf walls, 464; mud and 
straw walls, 464; stone walls, 464; 
walls of rammed earth, 464 ; how to 
build gravel houses, 465 ; excellent 
cheap rooting, 465; cubic or solid 
measure, 465 ; measurement of stone 
or brickwork (masons' or quarry- 
mens' measure), 466 ; number of 
bricks required in wall per square 
foot face of wall, 467; square measure, 
467; mortar, plaster, etc., 467; stone 
mortar, 467; brown mortar, 467 ; brick 
mortar, 467; Turkish mortar, 467; in- 
terior plastering, coarse stuff , 407; line 
stuff, 467; gauge stuff, or hard liiiish, 
468; stucco, 468; scratch coat, 468; one 



coat work, 468; two coivt work, 468: 
screed or floated coat, 408; slippea 
coat, 408; cement for external use, 408; 
c 'mposition for streets and roads, 408; 
as[)halt composition, 468; asphalt mas- 
tic, 408; asphalt for walks, 468; mastic 
cement for covering the fronts of 
houses, 468; cement for tile roofs, 468; 
cement for outside of briclc walls, 469; 
water lime at fifty cents per barrel 
40',i; cement for seams in roofs, 46i); 
estimate of materials and labor foi 
one hundred square yards of lath and 
plaster, 409; varnish for plaster casts 
469; the bronzing of plaster casts, 469' 
substitute for plaster of Paris, 469 
modelling clay, 469; to polish piaster 
of Paris work, 469; to make plaster ot 
Paris as hard as marble, 469 ; to taka 
a plaster cast from a person's face, 470, 
hre-proof boxes, closets, etc., 470. 



PRINTERS AND BOOKBINDERS. 

Pages 471—480. 



fcEow to use ink, 471; the amount re- 
quired for different kinds of work, 
471 ; mixing colors, 471; rollers, 472; 
black inks, 472 ; illustrated catalogues, 
473; book illustrations, 473; posters, 473; 
tint blocks, 473; blue inks, 473; flat 
surfaces, 473 ; posters, 474 ; red 
inks, posters, 474 ; flat surfaces, 474 ; 
yellow, 475; brown, 475; green, 475; 
aiuline colors, 475; white inks, 475; 
printing in colors, 476; work in bronze, 
4r7; dry color work, 477; crystal or 
spangled work, 477; flock work, 477; 
printers' rollers, 477; black compo- 
sition. 477; for winter use, 477; strong 
middle weather rollers, 477; printing 
on glass, 477; liquid for brightening 



common qualities of black or colored 
inks, 478; good reducing dryer, 478, 
hardening gloss for inks, 478; to giva 
dark inks a bronze or changeable una 
on wood cuts and new wood type, 478 
Bookbinders, 478 ; to marble books oi 
paper, 478; bookbinders' varnish, 478, 
red sprinkle for bookbinders use, 478; 
tree marble, 479; rice marble, 479,' 
spotted marble for books, 479; Japan 
coloring for leather book covers, etc., 
479; gold sprinkle for books, 479; to gild 
the edges of books, 479; Chinese edge 
for books, 479; quick dryer for inks 
used on bookbinders' cases, 480; to re- 
new a hard roller, 480; glossary of 
terms, 480. 



INDF.X. 



691 



PAINTERS AND PAPER-HANGERS. 

Paofes 481—520. 



Painter!^. 

Carriage painters. Useful Lints for, 
510 ; colors for, .510 ; dark green, olive 
shade, 510 ; ultramarine blue, 510 ; 
claret or lake, 511 ; Japan brown, 511 ; 
chrome greens, 511 ; carmine color on 
fire engines, cheap method, 511 ; Ox- 
ford brown, 511 ; rieli purple, 511 ; 
fawn color, 511 ; drab color, 511 ; plum 
brown, 511. 

Carriage work. Priming for, 513 ; first 
and second coats of lead, 513 ; third 
and fourth coats, 513 ; facing lead for, 
513 ; hard drying putty, 513 ; rough 
stulf , .513 ; prepared oil for, 513. 

Coaches and carriages, varnishing of, 

512 ; gilding and ornamenting, 512 ; 
bronzing, 512. 

Coach painting, 513 ; ground colors, 

513 ; lake, 513 ; ultramarine, 513 ; ver- 
milion, 513 ; green, 513. 

Colored potters' glazings, 509 ; white, 
509 ; yellow, 509 ; green, 509 ; violet, 
609 ; blue, 509 ; black, 509 ; brown, 
509. 

Fresco painting, 516 ; French size for 
gilding ornaments, ceilings, &c., 516. 

Good colors for business wagons, 512 ; 
body, 512 ; running gear, 512. 

How to write on glass in the sun, 509. 

Ornaments, 511 ; to copy, 511. 

Painters' recipes, paint, 481 ; white 
house paint, 481; cheap paint im- 
pervious to the weather, 481 ; green, 
for garden stands, oil paint, sub- 
titute for, 481 ; painting houses, 
best season for, 481; window painting, 
482; diaphanie, 482; painted gjass, to 
preserve, 482; paint, to remove the 
smell of, 482; useful hints to painters 
483; painters' colic, 483; to remove 
paint from clothing, 483; to dissolve 
paint skins, cleanings of pots, brushes, 
etc., 483; to clean brushes, 483; to clean 
paint pails, 4S3; sanding, 483; house 
painting, 483; priming, 483; outside 
second coat, 483; outside third coat, 
483; inside second coat, 483; inside 
third coat, 483; fourth coat Hatting, 
483; di-awn tiatting, 483; phistered 
walls, 483; killing smoky walls or ceil- 
ings, 483; hard drying paint, 483; paste 
for paper hangings, books, paper 
boxes, etc., 484; to remove old paint, 
484; refuse paint and paint skins, 484; 
to use smalts, 484; to harden white- 
wash, 484; whitewash that will not rub 
off, 484; whitewash, 484; recipe for 
knotting, 484; another, 484; white 
lead, 484; to cure damp walls, 485; to 
protect wood and brick work from 
damp weather, 4(^5; putty for reiwdr- 
ing broken walls, 485; transparent 
painting on window shades, 485; to 
paint magic lantern slides, 485; ma- 
rine paint for metals in salt water, 
485; crystal varnish for maps, etc., 485; 
best wash for bams and houses, 485; 
durable outside paint, 485; farmers' 
paint, 486; to paint baimers, etc, on 



cloth or silk, 486; japanned tin signs, 
486; changeable signs, 486; transparent 
cloth, 480; tinselled letter glass signs, 
486; to incrust window glass with 
jewels, 486; to paint in imitation of 
ground glass, 487; another method, 487; 
another, 487; pencils for writing on 
glass, 487; French putty, 487; Japan 
drier, best quality, 487; to reduce oil 
paint with water, 487; another method, 
487; flexible paint for canvass, 487; 
painters' cream, 4^8 ; smalt, 488; 
factitous linseed oil, 488; substitute 
for white lead, 488; paint for black 
boards in schools, 488; compound 
iron paint, 488; tilling compositions, 
488; furniture pastes, 488; furni- 
ture cream, 489; polishes, 489; car- 
vers' polishj 489 ; French polish, 
489; polish tor dark colored woods, 
489; water proof polish, 489; finishing 
polish, 489; polish for removing stains, 
spots and mildew from furniture, 489; 
polish for reviving old furniture, 489; 
jet or polish for wood or leather, black, 
red or blue, 489; polish for turners' 
work, 489; furniture polish,489; Fiench 
polishes, 489; black walnut polish, 489; 
to polish wood, 490; clock case and 
picture frame polish, 490; white polish 
for white woods, 490; oil finishes, 490; 
porcelain finish, very fine for parlors, 
490; silver polish kalsomine, 490; Prus- 
sian blue, 490; another, 490; chrome 
yellow, 490; chrome green, 490; ano- 
ther green, durable and cheap, 491; 
pea brown, 491; rose pink, 491; patent 
yellow, 491; Naples yellow, 491; cheap 
yellow paint, 491; stone color paint, 
491; glaziers' putty, 491; to imitate 
brown freestone,491; German carmine, 
491; stain for floors, 491; lea>l color for 
iron, 491; a good imitation of gold, 491; 
beautiful white paint, 491; a pure 
white paint, 491; to mix common white 
paint, 491; to give lustre to a light 
blue ground, 492; invisible green for 
outside work, 492; bright varnish green 
for inside blinds, fenders, &c., 492; 
compound greens, 492; pea green, 492; 
vermilion, 492; compound colors, 492; 
blue, 492; straw, 493; steel, 493; purple, 
493; French gray, 493; drab, 493; an- 
other, 493; dark red for common pur- 
poses, 493; lighter red, 493; imitation 
of vermilion, 493; deep red, 493; un- 
fading orange, 493; bright yellow (for 
floors), 493; dark yellow, 493; light yel- 
low, 493; another, 493; another in oil, 
493; another shade, 493; another, light, 
493 ; another, olive, 493; distemper, 493; 
freestone color, 493; olive green, 493; 
light grey, 493; buff, 493; silver or pearl 
grey, 493; tlaxen grey, 493; brick color, 
493; oak wood color, 493; walnut tree 
color, 493; jonquil, 493; lemon yellow, 
493; orange color, 493; violet color, 493; 
purple, 493; carnation, 493; gold color, 
493; olive color, 493; distemper, 493; 
chestnut color, 493; light timber color, 
494; flesh color, 494; light ^villow 



692 



INDEX. 



green, 49-1; grass green, 494; stone ' 
color, 491; dark lead color, 494; fawn 
color, 494; chocolate color, 494; Port- 
land stone color, 494; rose color, 494; 
salmon color, 494; pearl color, 494; 
slate color, 494; pea gveeu, 494; cream 
color, 494; straw color, 494; peach blos- 
som color, 494; brown, 494; dark green, 
494; olive color, 494; snnff color, 494; 
spirit graining for oak, 494; oil for 
graining oak, 494 ; to prepare the 
ground for oak rollers, 494; to imitate 
old oak, 494; ditto, in oil, 494; to imi- 
tate pollard oak, 494; to imitate mot- 
tled mahogany, 494; to imitate rose- 
wood, 495; another rosewood imitation 
in size, 495; to imitate birdseye maple, 
495; to imitate curled maple, 495; 
curled maple in oil for outside work, 
495; satin wood, 495; to imitate yew 
tree, 496; to imitate black and gold 
marble, 496; red marble, 496; jasper 
marble, 496; blue and gold marble, 496; 
to imitate granite, 4!)G; another, 496; 
to imitate hair wood, 496; inlaid 
mother of pearl work, 497; another 
method, 497; to imitate tortoise-shell 
497; fancy figures on wood, 497; stains 
for wood, 497; cheap black walnut 
stain, 497 ; ebony stain, 497 ; bright 
yellow stain, 497; extra black stain 
for wood, 497; imitation of mahogany, 
497; to imitate wainscot, 497; to imi- 
tate stained wood, 497; rosewood stain, 
very bright shade, 497; cherry stain, 
497; rose pink stain, and varnish, 497; 
blue stain for wood, 497 ; imitation of 
botany bay wood, 498; mahogany color, 
dark, 498; boxwood brown stain, 498; 
light red brown, 498; purple, 498; red, 
498; mahogany stain on wood, 498 ; 
mahogany stain on maple, 4C8 ; crim- 
son stain for musical instruments, 498; 
purple stain, 498 ; green stain, 498 ; 
black stains for wood, 498; black-wal- 
nut stain, 499; miscellaneous stains, 
499; to improve the color of stains, 499; 
to ebonize wood, 499; etching on glass, 
499; etching varnish, 499; fluoric acid 
for etching purposes, 499; glass grind- 
ing for signs, shades, etc., 500 ; to drill 
and ornament glass, 500; gilding glass 
signs, 500; another method, 500 ; orna- 
mental designs on glass, 500 ; glass 
and ijoreelain gilding, 501 ; drilling 
china, glass, etc., 501; gold lustre for 
stone-ware, china, etc., 501 ; gilding 
china and glass, 501; painting on glass, 
501; instructions for sign writing, with 
colors to be used for ground and let- 
ters, 501; to gild letters on wood, 501; 
gilding on wood, 502; silver leaf, 502; 
superfine size for gilding, 502; size to 
fix the pearl en glass signs, 502 ; gild- 
er's gold size, .502 ; French burnished 
gilding, 502 ; encollage, or glue coat 
502; white preparation, 502; gold water 
size, d02 ; brojiziug or gilding wood, 
503 ; mosaic gold powder for bronzing, 
50:5 ; true gold powder, 503 ; Dutch 
gold powder, 503 ; copper powder, 503; 
bronze powder, 503 ; general direc- 
tions for bronzing, 503; bronzing iron, 
504 ; dyes for veneers, 504 ; a fine 
black, 504 ; a fine blue, 504 ; fine yel- 



low, 504 ; bright green, 504 ; purple, 

504 ; orange, 504 ; strong glue for in- 
laying or veneering, 504 ; beautiful 
variiish for violins, 504 ; varnish for 
frames, &c., 504 ; banner painting, 504; 
oil cloth painting, 505 ; to imitate 
marble, 505 ; to repair the silvering of 
mirrors, 505 ; to silver looking glasses, 

505 ; to attach glass or metal letters to 
plate glass, 505. 

Paint, milk, for barns, any color, 507 ; 
to make without lead or oil, 508 ; 
beautiful green, for walls, 508 ; pre- 
mium, without oil or lead, 508 ; green 
for garden stands, blinds, &c., .508 ; 
mixture to removfe old, 508 ; paris, 
green, 508 ; blue color for ceilings, 

508 ; painting in milk, 508 ; to bleach 
oil, ,508. 

Porcelain colors, 509 ; fluxes, 509 ; gray 
flux, 509 ; flux for carmines and green, 
509; indigo blue, 509; deep azure 
blue, 509; emerald green, .509 ; grass 
green, 509 ; yellow, 509 ; fixed yellow 
for touches, 509 ; deep nankin yellow, 

509 ; deep red, 509 ; liver brown, 509 ; 
white, 509 ; deep black', 509 ; the ap- 
plication, 509. 

Rules for measuring painters' work, 

513 ; prices per square yard, 513 ; com- 
mon cheap colors, 513 ; blues, chrome 
yellow and light green, 514 ; dark 
green, emerald, and other costly col- 
ors, 514 : sanding, 514 ; painting on 
brick, 514 ; graining, 514 ; polishing, 

514 ; puttying, 514; sand-papering and 
cleaning, 514; girthing or measuring, 
514 ; measuring brick work, 515 ; 
prices for glazing, 515 ; prices of sign 
painting, 516. 

Striping or picking out for carriage 
work, 511. 

Varnishes, 505 ; common oil, 505 ; Chi- 
nese, 505 ; metallic, for coach bodies, 
505 ' mastic, 505 ; turpentine, 505 ; 
pale, 505 ; lacquer, 505 ; gold, 505 ; 
deep gold colored lacquer, 500 ; gold 
lacquer, 506 ; for tools, 506 ; beautiful 
pale amber, 506; black coach, 506; 
body, 506 ; carriage, 506; cabinet 
makers', 506 ; japanners' copal, 506 ; 
copal, .506 ; gold vaTuish of watin for 
gilded articles, 50G ; transparent, for 
ploughs, 506 ; fine black, for coaches, 

506 ; mordant, 505 ; to imitate gold or 
silver, &c., 506 ; transparent, for wood, 

507 ; patent for wood or canvas, 507 ; 
black, for coal buckets, .507 ; for iron, 
507 ; for smooth moulding patterns, 
507 ; for boilers, 507 ; for baskets, 507 ; 
for card-work, 507 ; for drawings, 507 ; 
for grates, 507 ; for paper hangings, 
507. 

Paper Haulers- 
Paper hangings, 517 ; choice of, 517 ; to 
clean, 517; tools for, 517; paste for, 
518 ; sizing walls, 518 ; preparation of 
walls or grounds, 518 ; in white or col- 
ored walls in distemper, 518 ; the pre- 
paration of grounds affected with 
damp, 519 ; ivy on outside walls, 519 ; 
on hanging common papers, 519 ; on 
pasting paper, 519 ; lining paper, 520 ; 



INDEX. 



693 



panelling 520 ; hanging flock papers 
with crimson-stained ground, 520 ; 
■wood hangings, -lO inch tints, 520 ; 



cautions to paper hangers, 520 ; pois- 
onous paper, 520. 



MARBLE AND IVORY WORKERS. 

Pao-es 521—521 



Marble and ivory workers. Marble, to 
cut and polish, 521 powerful cement 
for broken, 521 ; colors for staining, 
521 ; blue, 521 ; red, 521 ; yellow, 521 ; 
gold color, 621 ; green, 521 ; brown, 

621 ; crimson, 521 ; to vein, 521 ; per- 
petual ink for tombstones, 521 ; to 
clean old marbl-e, 521 ; to extract oil 
from marble and stone, 521 ; marble, 
to gild letters on, 522 ; to clean, 522, 
523 ; to imitate, 522 ; to take stains 
out of, 522 ; to take iron stains out of, 

622 ; alabaster, 522 ; to cleanse, 522 ; to 
bronze, 522; to imitate 522; to join, 523. 



Ivory, 523 ; to stain, 523 ; black, 523 ; 
blue, 523 ; brown, 523 ; green, 523 ; 
purple, 523 ; red , 523 ; yellow, 523 ; to 
polish, 523 ; etching fivlid for, 523 ; to 
gild, 523 ; to silver, .523; to soften, 523; 
to whiten, 524; another way, 524; dyes 
for ivory, horn and bone. 524 ; black, 
624; blue, 524; green, 524; red, 524 ; 
scarlet, .524 ; violet, 524 ; yellow, ,524. 

Mother of pearl work, 524 : to polish 
pearl, 624 ; horn iu imitation of tor- 
toise-shell, 524. 



GUNSMITHS, TINSMITHS, &c. 
Paares 525 — 530. 



Guns, care and management of, 525 ; 
taking to pieces, 525 ; taking off 
the mainspring, 525 ; cleaning, 525 ; 
putting by for the season, 526 ; to re- 
move rust from the inside of the bar- 
rel, 526 ; precautions respecting, 526 ; 
to remedy scattering, 526 ; bronzing 
fluid for, .526 ; blueing on revolvers 
and gun barrels, 526 ; gun barrels, 
fine blue finish for, 527 ; browning 
for, 527 ; browning for twist barrels, 
527 ; varnish and polish for gun 
stocks, 527 ; boring gun barrels, 527 ; 



Damascus twist and stub-twist gun 
barrels, 527 -, damaskeening, 528. 

Gunpowder, 528 ; blasting powder, 528 ; 
blasting rocks, &c., .528 ; to make 
dualin, .529 ; to clean cotton waste, 529. 

Tinsmiths, 520 ; table of sizes of tinware 
of difiEerent kinds, 529 ; gold lacquer 
for tin, 530 ; rose color, 530 ; blue, .530 ; 
purple, 530; green, 530; crystallized 
tin plate, .530 ; to crystallize tin, 530 ; 
tinning small articles, .530 ; japanners' 
gold size, 530 ; black varnish for iron 
work, 5.30. 



TANNERS, LEATHER DRESSERS, HARNESS MAKERS, &c. 
Pages 531—538. 

Harness, waterproof varnish for, 531 ; 
blacking for, .531 ; best varnish for, 

531 ; oil, 531 ; bridle stain, 531 ; bril- 
liant varnish for leather, 531 ; keep- 
ing harness pliable, 531. 

Rubber goods, 537 ; light buffer springs, 
537 ; grey packing for marine engines, 

537 ; rag packing for valves, bearing 
springs, &c,, 537 ; composition for 
suction hose for fire engine, etc — 
637 ; common black packing, 5.37 ; 
common white buffer rings, 537 ; 
Vulcanite or Ebonite, 538 ; best pure 
springs, or washers, 538 ; a simi- 
lar quality, 538 ; hypo-cloth for water 
proof coats, 538 ; to .vulcanize India 
rubber, 538; to deodorize rubber, 538 ; 
gu':ter percha and rubber waste, 538 ; 
to repair leakages in fire engine hose, 

538 ; to repair rubber hose, 538 ; var- 
nish for faded rubber goods, 538. 

Taiming, 531 ; cheap, without bark or 
mineral astringents, 532 ; new eompo- 
Bition for, 532 ; for harness leather, 

532 ; for wax leather, 532 ; for sheep 
skins, 532 , deer skins, tanning and 
butflng for gloves, 532 ; tanning with 
acid, 532 ; another method, 532 ; Cana- 
tiian process, 5.33 ; process of tanning 
CEi.f, kip, and harness leather, in from 
six to thirty davs, 533 ; to tan raw 
hid;>, .5.33 ; to taii fur skins, 5.33 ; to 
tan muskrat skius with the fur ou, 



533 ; to tan skins with the fur on, 531 ; 
currier's size, .534 ; currier's paste, 

534 ; currier's skirting, 534 ; skirting, 

534 ; dyes for morocco and sheep lea- 
ther, 534 ; to dye leather yellow, 535 
green dye for leather, 5.35; best color 
for shoe and harness edge, 535 ; cheap 
color for the edge, 535 ; beautiful 
bronze for leather, .535 ; superior edge 
blacking, 535 ; French finish for lea- 
ther, 5.35 ; French patent leather, 5.35 ; 
brilliant French varnish for leather, 

535 ; liquid Japan for leather, 536 ; 
French polish, or dressing for leather, 
536; gold varnish, 536; grain black 
for harness leather, 536 ; to utilize 
leather scraps, 535 ; sizing for boots 
and shoes in treeing out, 536 ; black 
varnish for the edge, 536 ; beautiful 
stains for boots, shoes, and leather 
goods, 536 ; waterproof oil blacking, 
536 ; shoemaker's heel ball, 536 ; best 
heel ball, 536 ; ehanneller's and shoe- 
maker's cement, 536; cement for leath- 
er or rubber soles, and leather belting, 

536 ; German blacking, .536 ; oil paste 
blacking, 537 ; polish for patent lea- 
ther, 537 ; superior water proof com- 
position for leather, .537 ; waterproof 
comj-osition for boots and shoes, 637 ; 
fine blacking for shoes, 537 ; oil paste 
blacking, 537 ; liquid blacking, 537. 



694 



INDEX. 



WATCHMAKERS. 

Pases 539—558. 



Clocks, how to make strike correctly, 
553; care in putting up, 553; wliat 
causes the sound in "cuckoo," 553 ; de- 
fect to look after, 553; what stops clocks 
frequently, 553; to re-black the hands 
of, 553. 

Watches, how to clean, 539 ; removing 
hands, movement, dial, wheels, etc., 
539 ; how to let down the main spring, 
639 ; how to remove the " stud," or 
small post, without unkeying the 
spring, 539 ; on loosening the lever in 
English and American, 539 ; what to do 
when the watch is taken apart 539; ex- 
amining the teeth of wheels and leaves 
of pinions, 539 ;_ the size of the holes, 
639 ; the escapement, 539 ; the lever, 
639 ; the cylinder, 539 ; avoiding fric- 
tion of the wheels, 539 ; the turning 
of the balance, 539 ; rubbing of the 
balance, 539 ; judgment, 540; breathing 
on the plate or bridge, 540 ; cleaning 
the pinion, 540 ; when the holes pass 
through jewels, 5-10 ; the chemical pro- 
cess of cleaning, 540 ; the process of 
operation, 540 ; what gives watches 
an excellent appearance, 510; to pre- 
pare chalk for cleaning, 540 ; pivot 
wood, 540 ; what it is, and where ob- 
tained, .540 ; when to be cut and how 
treated, 540 ; pith for cleaning, 540 ; 
the best pith for cleaning pinions, 540; 
to pivot, 540 ; easiest mode of repair- 
ing broken pivots, 540 ; to tell when 
the lever is of proper length, 540 ; 
how the rule works, 540 ; to change 
depth of lever escapement. 541 ; 
if operating on line watches, 540 ; if 
operating on comjnon watches, 541 ; 
the usual process, 541 ; the different 
modes of procedure, 541 ; compensa- 
tion balance of chronometers, 541 ; 
what the balance is, 541 ; how it is 
made, .541 ; how the rim is made, 541 ; 
difference in the .expansion of brass 
and steel, 541 ; the reason of this dif- 
ference, 541 ; how to equalize it, 541 ; 
how brass and steel are united, .541 ; 
melting and cooling the brass, 541 ; 
the crucible, 541 ; the excess of brass, 
what becomes of it, 541 ; how the arms 
are made, 541 ; tapping the rim, 541 ; 
marine chronometers, 541 ; how the 
springs are made, 541 ; hardening the 
spring, 541 ; difference between the 
balance (or hair spring) of common 
watches, and the best, 541 ; value of 
the soft spring, 541 ; value of ihe 
hardened, .541 ; value of the steel, 541 ; 
the number of balance springs that it 
takes to weigh an ounce, 541 ; process 
of manufacturing the springs of, 541 ; 
of what they are made and how, .541 ; 
how the holes are punched and how 
trimmed, 541 ; binding, heating, and 
hardening the springs, 541 ; grinding 
and jiolishing the, 541 ; elasticity and 
non-elasticity of the spring, 541 ; the 
coloring of the spring, 641 ; how it is 
done, ,541 ; the last process in the 
manufacture of the spring, 542 ; to 



tell when lever pallets are of propel 
size, 542 ; the usual mode of measur- 
ing for new pallets, ,542 ; to lengthen 
levers of anchor escapement, without 
hammering or soldering, 542 ; what to 
do if a piece snaps off wliile bending, 
542 ; to temper " case " and other 
springs of, 542 ; to temper miiin and 
hair springs of, 542 ; to make red 
hands for, 542 ; to tighten a cannon 
pinion on the centre arbor, when too 
loose, 543 ; to put teeth in watch or 
clock wheels without dove-tailing 
or soldering, 543 ; to frost move- 
ments of, 543 ; rules for determining 
the correct* diameter of a pinion, by 
measuring the teeth of the wheel that 
matches into it, 543 ; the term '■ full," 
what it means, 543 ; to polish without 
dying the wheels of, 543 ; magnificent 
finish, 543 ; " S.andoi! " method of pro- 
ducing Isochronism in ll.it and " Bre- 
guet" springs, 543; meaning of the 
word Isochronhm, 543 ; construction of 
spherical or conical springs, 543 ; Pro- 
fessor Phillips' mathematical rules, 

643 ; where the flat spring cannot ex- 
ist, 643 ; the results of several years' 
experience and study, embodied in 
two theorems, 644 ; properties of a 
flat spring, 544 ; the 10th anil 20th coil, 
544 ; freedom of action, 644 ; pinning 
the spring, 544 ; running of, 544 ; a 
general rule, 544 ; its correctness, 544 ; 
a case in point, 544 ; the 14th, 15th and 
loth coil, 544; choice of the artist, 
514 ; the greatest possible changes, 

544 ; g.iining and losing vibrations, 

644 ; the results of short vibrations, 

545 ; what some springs cannot pro- 
duce, 545 ; the reason, 545 ; the reme- 
dy, 545 ; the " Breguet" spring, 545 ; 
how the Isochronism is produced, 646; 
the care necessary in making the 
curve, 645 ; how to make the watch 
gain, 545 ; adjustment to positions, 

546 ; what few watchmakers know, 
646 ; skill required, 546 ; the great 
principle, 546 ; polishing and shorten- 
ing the pivots and jewels of the lever, 
.546 ; poising the lever, 546 ; how the 
balance jewels should be made, 546 ; 
the English method of throwing the 
balance out of poise, 546 ; the cock 
jewel and the collet, 546 ; how the 
hair spring is put in position, 546 ; 
rating the positions of, 546 ; runiiing 
with the cock up or dial up, .546 ; if 
the watch loses with XII up, what to 
do, 646 ; the remedy, 546 ; how it is 
done, 546; if well regulafed vvithXII up 
and loses with III up, what to do,.546 ; 
the effect of the operation, 546 ; the 
tendency of flat end pivots, 546 ; the 
sound of the watch in its different 
positions, 546 ; how to regulate in a 
few minutes, 646 ; practical method 
of putting new hair spring of the 
right size and perfectly regulated, in 
a watcli without running it, .546 ; beats 
per hour, in Swiss, 54C ; beats i)ei 



INDEX. 



695 



In American, 546 ; in English lev- 
ers, 546 ; what to do if in doubt, 
54€ ; examining the clock or reg- 
ulator, 546 ; if well regulated, what 
the niunber of vibrations should 
be in, 546 ; a perfect coincidence, 
546; to pick up a new hair spring, 
516 ; the use of beeswax, 546 ; 
using the tweezers, 546 ; trucing up 
the spring, 547 ; success, if carefully 
performed, 547 ; what a little practice 
will accoinplish, 547 ; compensation, 
547 ; counterbalancing elfects pro- 
duced by dill'eriiit temperatures, 547 ; 
steel and brass: their general propor- 
tions, 547 ; what a strong dilation of 
brass causes, 547 ; how the strength of 
the hairspring is diminished, 547 ; the 
effects of heat, 547 ; the elTects of 
cold, 547 ; what will affect the com- 
pensating powers of the balance, 547 ; 
extreme temperature, 547 ; precau- 
tion to observe in compensating, 547 ; 
process of compensating watches with- 
out having an expansion balance, 547 ; 
how to try the running of watches, 
547 ; the mechanical apparatus used, 
547 ; how made, 547 ; rules for deter- 
mining the correct length of the lever, 
size of the ruby-pin table, size of the 
pallets, and depth of escapement of 
lever watches, 548 ; the lever, how it 
should compare with the ruliy-pin 
table, 548 : how to ascertain the cor- 
rect size of the ruby-pin table (when 
accidentally lost) by the lever, 548 ; 
rule for correct depth of the escape- 
ment, 549 ; to prevent losing time 
from the action of pendulum springs, 
549; management of, 549; on winding, 
'549; danger of injuring the works, by 
using worn key, 549; why main sprijigs 
and chains are so often broken, 549; 
results sooner or later, 549; position 
of, 549 ; setting the hands of a 
pocket chronometer or duplex, 549 ; 
directions of vital importance, 549; 



regulating, 549 ; how to do it 549 ; great 
care required to regulate, 549, to 
put in beat, 549 ; to make keep good 
time when cylinder edges are worn off, 
550; to prevent a chain running off the 
fusee, 550; the remedy, 550; to weaken 
the hair spiing, 550; how it is affected, 
551; how to tighten a ruby pin, 551; 
how to preserve pinions or bearings 
from corrosion and rust, 55:j; to bush, 
553; what requires bushing, 553; the 
most common way of bushing, 553; to 
remedy worn pinions, 553; rolling pin- 
ions. 553; oiling, 553; when and what 
to oil, 55 i; the kind of oil to use, 553; 
cost of oil, 553; table of trains show- 
ing the number of teeth in the wheels, 
leaves in the pinions, beats in a minute 
and time the fourth wheel revolves in, 
554-558: how to make polishing broach- 
es for, 548; how to frost watch plates, 
550; to restore dials, 550; to whiten sil- 
ver dials, 550; polishing the balance, 
550; how to do it, 550; where the bal- 
ance should be the heaviest, 550; to 
temper drills, 551 ; various methods of 
tempering springs, 551; how to produce 
ligurfS on gold and silver dials, 553. 
To drill into hard steel, 542 ; steel, 
548; the German method, 548 ; to case- 
harden iron , 543 ; to polish steel, 548 ; 
crocus powder for polishing, 548; how 
made, 548; to remove rust from iron or 
steel, 548; to m.ake burnishers, 548; to 
prepare a burnisher for polishing, .548; 
to temper brass or to draw its temper, 
551; to temper gravers, 551; to temper 
clicks, ratchets, etc., 551; to temper 
staffs, cylinders or pinions, without 
springing, 551 ; to blue screws even 
ly, 552; to remove blueing from steel 
552; to make diamond broaches, 552 ; 
jewelling, 552; to make diamond flies, 
552 ; to make a diamond mill, 552 ; to 
make diamond dust, 552 ; useful tables 
'of trains, &c.) for watchmakers, 554- 
558. 



JEWELLERS, GOLD AND SILVERSMITHS. 

Pages 559—570. 



Alloys, 559 ; quantity of standard gold 
required to compound an ounce of dif- 
ferent alloys calculated to a quarter 
of a grain, 559 ; gold, 559, 562 ; new 
and beautiful, 560 ; sterling gold, 560 ; 
dry coloring for, 560 ; wet colored, 560 ; 
to wet color 561 ; for watch pinion 
sockets, 562 ; new French patent, for 
silver, 562 ; jewellers', 562 ; propor- 
tions of, in bright gold wire, from 1 oz. 
up to 21 oz., 563. 

Brushes, to cleanse, 570. 

Diamonds, polishing, 570. 

Gilding, spot, 565 ; metal, 565. 

Gilt Metal, to recover gold from, 564. 

Glass, to cut round or oval without a 
diamond, 570. 

Gold, 563 ; to find the number of carats 
in an object, 563 ; dust, to fuse, 564 ; to 
refine, 564 ; to recover the gold lost in 
coloring, 564 ; to take from the surface 
of silver, 564 ; to recover from gilt 
metal, 564 ; tarnished in soldering, to 



cleanse, 564 ; to remove soft solder 
from, 564 ; jewellers' gold composi- 
tions, 564 ; artificial, 565 ; colored, 565 ; 
a bright gold tinge, 565 ; French plate, 

565 ; to hard solder, 565 ; to soft solder, 

566 ; to refine sweepings containing, 
556 ; to separate from lace, 5(»8 ; polish- 
ing powder for, 568 ; to test, 569 ; i^^lor- 
ing for, 569. 

Jewellery, old, reviver for, 570; coloring 
for, 560 ; to clean, 569. 

Lapidaries' cutting plates, arrangement 
of, 570. 

Pearls, artificial, 570. 

Silver, to take gold from the surface of, 
564; to hard solder, 565 ; to soft solder, 
566 ; English standard for, 5r.6 ; ster- 
ling, 566 ; to refine, 566 ; solder for, 
566, 567 ; to extract from waste pro- 
ducts, 566 ; tarnished in soldering, to 
clean, 566 ; to wash, 566 ; ornamental 
designs on, .567; dead white on, .567 ; 
polished, to frost, 567 ; shells, to silver, 



696 



INDEX. 



5GT ; liquid toil for glass globes, 567 ; 
hooks and eyes, to silver, 567 ; pickle 
for frosting and whitening, 567 ; clock 
faces, to silver, 567 ; plating solution, 
to make and apply. 508 ; jjlatiug pow- 
der, to make and apply, 508 ; plating 
fluid, 568 ; metals, cold silvering of, 
568 ; silvering solution for electrotype 
plates, 568 ; silvering by hent, 568 ; 
mixture for, 568; to separate from 
copper, 568 ; to write in, 5C8 ; silver- 
ing powder, 508 ; sweepings contain- 



ing, to refine, 568; to separate from 
lace, 568 ; polishing powder for, 568 ; 
to clean, 569. 

Solder, jewellers', 562 ; soft, to remove 
from gold, 564; gold, silver, copper, 
brass, iron, steel and platina, to hard- 
solder, 565 ; to soft solder articles, 566 ; 
silver, 567; tortoise shell, to solder, 570. 

Soldering, to clean gold tarnished in, 
561 ; to'clean silver tarnished in, 566. 

S])ectacle glasses, to determine exact 
focal distances of, 570. 



MACHINISTS, METAL WORKERS, ARTIZANS, &c. 

Pasres 571— G72. 



Engineers, instructions to, 571 ; getting 
up steam, 571 ; the hrst thing to do 
before lighting the tire, 571 : what to 
do with the safety valve. 571 ; how to 
remedy tlie safety valve if it leak, 
671 ; the safest valves to use, 571 ; how 
to guard against loss by leakage and 
evaporation, 571 .; what to do with the 
furnace and ash pit, 571 ; how to make 
the lire, 571 ; putting coal on the 
grate bars, 571 ; starting the fire, 571 ; 
how to keep the tire ever the grate 
bars, 571 ; kind of coal to use, 571 ; the 
proportion of coal to use, 571 ; exces- 
sive lireing. 571 ; how to obtain the 
best results, 571 ; flreing at intervals, 
571 ; in getting up steam from cold 
water, 571 ; how to raise the fire, 571 ; 
how to avoid damaging the boiler, 
571 ; unequal expansion of iron, 571 ; 
when to keep and not keep the lamp- 
er and furnace door ORen, 571 ; the 
effect of extreme draft, 571 ; how to 
avoid a damaging contraction of the 
boiler plates, 571 ; the velocity with 
which a current of air enters the ash 
pit, 571 ; number of cubic feet requir- 
ed for the combustion of 100 lbs. of 
coal, 571 ; what the area of grate sur- 
face should be for wood and coal, 571; 
the difference, 571; what the volume 
of furnace should be for coal burning, 
571 ; the use of tpe pyrometer and 
the facts established by it, 572 ; 
the effect of admitting a certain quan- 
tity of air behind the bridge, 572 ; 
vvhat smoke in some cases is a sure 
sign of, 572 ; increase in heating 
powers of a regular and continuous 
supply of air, 572 ; how the supply of 
air may enter, 572 ; what will vary the 
supply of air, 572 ; different kinds of 
coal and their requirements, 572 ; the 
reason, 572 ; wliat is necessary for per- 
fect combustion, 572 ; how to keep the 
fuel from caking, 572 ; removing clink- 
ers, 572 ; how to regulate the supply 
of air, 572 ; valuable assistant in con- 
suming the smoke and intensifying 
the heat, 572 ; what to do if steani be- 
gins to blow off at the safety valve 
while the engine is at work, 572 ; what 
to do- if the water gets very low and 
the boiler dangerously hot, 572 ; what 
to do if the fire should be verv hot 
and the supply of water temporarily 
cut off, 572 ; when boilers should be 
blown off and how often, 572 ; the rea- 
son for so doing, 572 ; elfect of hlling 
a hot boiler with cold w.iter, 572; 



highest pressure of steam at which a 
boiler should be blown off, 572 ; the 
reason, 572 ; what to do previous to 
tilling a boiler with water, 572 ; pre- 
caution against using foul water, 
572 ; what it induces, 572 ; effect of 
insufhciency of steam room, 572 ; the 
"knocking" out of cylinder heads, 
what is often the reason, 572 ; column 
of mercury that steam from pure 
water (at 212° Fahr.) will support, 

572 ; what steam (at the same temper- 
ature), from impure or sea water, 
will support, 572 ; the best water for 
steam purposes, 572 ; water from 
wells and springs in limestone dis- 
tricts, of what composed, 572 ; cause of 
incrustation in boilers, 572 ; a greater 
amount of fuel required when 
the boiler is incrusted, 572 ; the red 
scale in boilers, 572 ; the cure 

573 ; how to avert the evil, 573 ; tubu 
lar boilers, how to manage them, 
573 ; watching for leaks, 573 ; blis-* 
ters, 573 ; what to do in case of foam- 
ing, 573 ; what will generally stop 
the trouble, 573 ; a safe rule when 
muddy water is used, 573 ; i\e- 
cessity of great watchfulness when 
steam is raised. 573 ; rapid and dan- 
gerous absorption of heat, 573 ; the 
great temperature sometimes ob- 
tained, 573 ; the wonderfully brief time 
in which the latent is converted into 
sensible heat, 573 ; how boilers burst 
and what bursts them, 573 ; when the 
destruction comes, 573 ; the reason, 
573 ; the height at which steam has 
been known to rise in the short space 
of seven minutes, 573 ; what should 
quicken the vigilance of every engi- 
neer, 573; the explosive energy in each 
and every cubic foot of wafer in the 
boiler at 60 lbs. pressure, as compared 
with gunpowder, 573 ; avaricious mo- 
tives in declining to employ compe- 
tent and careful engineers, 573 ; why 
the incompetent are em{)loyed, .573;the 
kind, that should be employed, 573; tho 
risk of life, limb, &c., .573 ; a Turkish 
mode of doing business with English 
engines, 573 ; the employment of 
green hands and how it operated, 573 ; 
the " chief " they installed, 573 ; how 
he lifted the crank and pulled the 
lever, 573 ; how he espied the bright 
brass cock, and how he " twisted '" it, 
573 ; the results of Turkish cheap 
labor in the case, 573. 



INDEX. 



697 



Engine when under steam. Duties to 
the, 573 ; what to do before starting, 

573 ; how to warm the cylinder, 573 ; 
when to leave the drip cocks open, 
and why, 573 ; the extra protection 
required in cold weather, 573 ; what 
the minimum speed of the piston 
should be per minute, 573; what 
the maximum speed should be, 

574 ; the most economical steam pres. 
sure, 574 ; how to attain it, 574 ; the 
loss arising from the irregularity of 
steam pipes and steam ports, by im- 
proper packing, &c., 574 ; effect of 
lowness of steam pressure per square 
inch on the piston, 574 ; tightening 
the screws, 574 ; how spring packing 
in the cylinder should be adjuste<l, 
574 ; losing power, the cause, 574 ; ef- 
fect if set too loose or too tight, 574 ; 
effect of sand, grit and dust in the 
cylinder and rod, 574 ; what to do be- 
fore inserting new packing, 574 ; the 
governor, 574 ; how to use it, 574 ; 
oils, 574 ; how gum and dirt are gen- 
erated, 574 ; when to lubricate the 
cylinder, 574 ; simple plan to separate 
a rust joint, or crank from a shaft in 
which it has been shrunk, 574 ; irresis- 
tible force with which iron expands, 
574 ; wonderful effects of the heat of 
the sun on a warm day, on iron rails, 
574 ; effects from laying them too 
closely, 574 ; why spaces are left be- 
tween the rails on railroad tracks, 
574 ; the contraction of iron by cold, 
and its astonishing power, 574 ; use- 
ful purposes to which the expansion 
and contraction of iron have been 
put, 574 ; the operation, 574 ; the use 
of a leaden mallet, 574 ; how to drive 
the kegs on the crank pin, 574 ; what 
to do if a steel hammer is used, 574 ; 
when the piston should be removed, 
574 ; what should be done with it, 

574 ; causes of " knocking " in the 
engine, 574 ; how to remedy it, 574 ; 
watching the journals of the crank 
and cross head, 575 ; effects if they are 
too loose or too tight, 575 ; the steam 
guage, .'575 ; what it should accur- 
ately tell, 575. 

Packing steam, 575 ; its varieties. 
57ri ; an excellent, 575 ; how to apply 
with the best effects, 575. 

Steam, to work expansively, 575 ; vol- 
ume of steam at 15 lbs. pressure, 575 ; 
effects when confined underpressure, 

575 ; how to save fuel in cutting oft' the 
supply of, 575 ; the most available 
points to cut off steam, 575 ; tabie of 
the average pressure on the cylinder, 
when steam is cut off, 576 ; how to 
realize the best results from, 576 ; dif- 
ferent materials used for non-con- 
conductors, 576 ; how to cover pipes, 

576 ; how to cover boilers, 576 ; pro^ 
tection of cylinders, 576 ; how to pre- 
vent loss of heat, 576. 

Engine, to set the valve of an, 576 ; 
where to place the crank, 576 ; 
what to do with the preponderance if 
any exists, 576 ; great care required 
in adjusting the nuts and attaching 
the valve to the rod, 576; how to adjust 
the slide valve, 576. 



Valve, to find the stroke of the, 576 ; 
where to place the crank, 576 ; what 
constitutes tlie stroke of the, 577 ; how 
to increase the stroke of the, 577 ;how 
to lessen the stroke of the, 577 ; to find 
the throw of the eccentric, 577 ; lead 
on the " slide," 577 ; what the " lead " 
of a valve is, 577 ; the outside and in- 
side lead, 577 ; the proportion between 
the outside and inside lead, 577 ; care 
in liberating the " exhaust," 577 ; 
what will curtail the power of the 
engine, 577 ; how to ascertain whether 
the exhaust opens at the right time 
or not, 577 ; why lead is given to a, 

577 ; the clearance, what it is, 577 ; 
the effect of too much cushion, 577 ; 
the amount of lead sufficient for an 
ordinary freight locomotive, 577 ; the 
amount necessary for a pnssenger lo- 
comotive, 577 ; lap on the " slide," 

578 ; the use of the steam lap, 578. 
Boilers, Giftard's injector for, 579 ; 

its reliability, 579 ; economizing heat, 
579 ; table showing the maximum 
temperature of the feed water 
adniissable during different pres- 
sures of steam, 579 ; to prevent in- 
crustation in, 579 ; the great affin- 
ity of charcoal, 579; the best kind, 

579 ; amount required for the pro- 
tection of a thirty horse power for 
three weeks, 579 ; the use of bark in 
connection witli the inciustation in, 
579 ; amount of bark required, 579 ; 
muriate of ammonia, 579 ; its effects, 

579 ; potatoes an effectual preventative 
of incrustation, 579 ; saw dust a 
valuable preventative, 579 ; Cows' feet 
as a preventative, 579 ; the diameter 
of the fly wheel, 580 ; how to ob- 
tain oil cheap for lubricating pur- 
poses, 579 ; a variety of different pre- 
ventatives of incrustation, 579 ; zinc, 
a valuable preventative, 579. 

Engines, average proportion of var- 
ious parts of, 580 ; what should be the 
diameter of the steam pipe, 580 ; the 
variations, 580 ; size of the exhaust 
pipe, 580 ; size of the piston rod, 580 ; 
the laest piston rods for high speeils, 
5h0 ; steam ports, their variation, 580 ; 
area of safety valves, 580 ; how safety 
valves should be constructed, 580; 
rule for size of cylinder, 580 ; how to 
find the nominal horse-power of any 
sized cylinder, 580 ; stroke of engines 

580 ; the variations, 580 : the general 
rule, 580 ; the dinmeter of the fly wheel, 
580 ; what the riin should weigh, 
580 ; rule to find the horse-power of 
stationary engine, 580 ; horse-power 
required for blast furnaces, 580 ; for 
refining, 580 ; for puddling rolls, 580 ; 
for railway rolling train, 580 ; for 
small bar train, 580 ; double rail saw, 
580 ; balance wheels, 580 ; speed at 
which they should be lun, 580 ; what 
makes the engine run steadily, 580 ; 
tlie saving of metal in the balance 
wheel, 581 ; what will make engines 
run more steadily, 581 ; to reverse 
an engine, 581 ; marking the eccen- 
tric and shaft, 581 ; unscrewing the 
eccentric, 581 ; rule to find the weight 
necessary to put on a lever, when tha 



30 



698 



INDEX. 



area of valve, lever, &c., are known, 
581. 
Engines, (marine), 581 ; duties to ma- 
chinery when in harbor, before get- 
ting under steam, 581 ; the engineer, 
581 ; to where liis first attention should 
be directed, 581 ; the source of power 
and the source of danger, 531 ; what 
requires special atteniion, 581 ; the 
thickness of the plates, 581 ; the state 
of the stays, 581 ; the position of the 
guajjes, 581 ; a general plan of ascer- 
taining the thickness of the plates, 581 ; 
dangerous practice of placing the 
guage-cocks, 582 ; duties to machinery 
when getting up steam, 582 ; height at 
which the water in the boiler should 
be when the fire is lighted, ••82 ; how 
the fire should be kept, 582 ; the most 
eft'ective fire in getting under way, 582; 
smearing the polished parts of the, 
682 ; how to prevent rust on the rods, 
etc., 582 ; starting the engine, 582 ; 
when to open a discharge valve, 582 ; 
the causes of some accidents, 582 ; in- 
spection of the safety valves, 582 ; 
freeing the safety valve, 582 ; a 
good plan, 582 ; saving of steam, 582 ; 
starting the, 582 ; how steamships are 
now fitted, 582 ; " Stephenson's link 
motion," 582 ; working the slide 
valves, 582 ; where the handles by 
which the steam is turned on and oft ' 
are placed, 582 ; what some large ships 
have, 582 ; the steam starting gear, 
582 ; the hand gear, 582 ; cases 
of emergency, 582 ; when to open a 
common condenser for injection, 582 ; 
what requires attention in starting an 
engine that is fitted with surface con- 
densers, 582 ; duties when under steam 

582 ; watching the water level, 582 ; 
what some boilers require, 582 ; what 
practice determines, 5k3 ; a safe rule, 

583 ; blowing out marine boilers, 583 ; 
a good rule, 583 ; consideration the 
fires require, 583 ; how the fire should 
appear in the furnace, 583 ; where to 
place the fresh' fuel, 583; how often 

- the fire should be cleaned out, 583 ; 
trouble caused by the " slag," 583 ; 
what requires principal attention 
when under steam, 583 ; what is used 
for cooling the bearings, 583 ; the 
packing of the gland at the stern tube, 
583 ; watching the coals in the bun- 
kers, 583 ; spontaneous combustion, 

583 ; the use of castor oil, 583 ; duties 
to machinery when the ship has ar- 
rived in port, 5.S3 ; slide valves, to 
find the lap on the, 581 ; slides, to set 
the, 584. 

Engineers' bell signals in use on steam- 
ers, 584. 

Engines, steam fire, 584 ; how they 
should be constructed, 584 ; the great 
power and elegance of some, 584 ; the 
principle of, 584. 

Engines, portable, their construction, 

584 ; purposes for which they are 
used, 584. 

Engineers and firemen on locomotives, 
instructions to, 584 ; how the fire 
should be kept, 584 ; the use of large 
and small coals, 584 ; what prevents 
the di'aught from producing proper 



results, 585 ; what should be the 
amount of fuel on the grate, 585 ; 
the dampers that regulate the draught, 
where they are placed, 585 ; careful 
attention they require, 585 ; the 
pressure of the current of air, 585 ; 
cubic feet of air required for the com- 
bustion of a ton of bituminous coal, 

585 ; cubic feet of air required for the 
combustion of a ton of anthracite 
coal, 5N5 ; what insufficient air causes, 
585 ; the heating power of coke as 
compared with coal, 585 ; the temper- 
ature produced by wood, 585 ; what is 

required forthe combustion of coal, 585; 
the prevention of smoke, 585 ; where 
to throw fresh coal, 585 ; how to avert 
danger from intense heat, 585 ; inces- 
sant watchfulness, 586 ; the double 
eccentriCj link, and valve motion 

586 ; position of the valve when at 
half stroke, 58J ; position when fully 
open, 587. 

Engines, the power of, 587 ; horse power, 
what it means, 588. 

Boilers, locomotive, proportion of, 588, 

Locomotives, 589 ; average proportion 
of the various parts of, 589 ; rule to 
find the horse power of, 589. 

Railway train, table of speed, 589. 

Engines, blowing, for smelting, 590 ; 
amount of coal required, 590 ; the 
pressure required, 590 ; the capacity 
of the reservoir, 590 ; the area of the 
pipes, 590 ; cubic feet of air required 
for the reduction of a ton of pig iron, 

590 ; non-condensing engines, 590. 
Saw-mills, 590; to get the most lumber 

from saw-logs, 590 ; the circular saw 
and mulay saw compared, 590 ; which 
is the best, 590 ; arrangement of the 
saws, 591 ; how the head blocks are 
moved, 591 ; velocity of movements, 

591 ; the enterprising Dutchman, 591; 
the old method of manufacturing 
lumber, 591 ; care in handling the 
saw, 591 ; advantages of the insorted 
tooth saws, 591 ; filing the saws, 591 ; 
forming the points of the teeth, 591 ; 
an experience of twenty years, 591 ; 
the loss resulting from saw-dust, 591 ; 
securing the logs with the dogs, 592 ; 
dangerous results from being improp- 
erly secured, 592 ; unceasing watch- 
fulness necessary, 592 ; the power re- 
quired, 592 ; the attendance required, 

592 ; oiling the parts, 592 ; calculations 
regarding the velocity of saws, 592 ; a 
reliable table of speed for circular 
saws, 592 ; speed of shingle-machine 
saws, 592 ; the complex machinery re- 
quired in connection with the manu- 
facture of shingles, 592 ; continual 
vigilance required, 592 ; the great 
danger, 592 ; more simplicity and less 
mechanism, 592. 

Woodworking machinery, velocities of, 

593. 
Saws, filing, 593 ; the great secret of, 

593 ; what part of the teeth does the 
cutting, 593 ; uniformity required, 
593; elVect if teeth are not uniform, 
593 ; cross-cut saws, 593 ; how to dress 
the points, 593 ; mechanical skill nec- 
essary to put in prime order, 593 ; 
what to do if the teeth are uneven at 



INDEX. 



699 



the points, 593 ; how to file hand-saws, 
593 ; how to tile circular saws, 593 ; 
how to tile, for cutting large logs into 
lumber, 593 ; passable form ot teeth 
in, 594 ; their great weakness, 594 ; 
look out for breakers, 594 ; great waste 
of power in, 594 ; how to ascertain 
the proper angle of tiling, 594 ; what 
many good autliorities contend, 595 ; 
opinion of dillerent manufacturers, 
695 ; to repair fractured circular, 595; 
to mend broken cross-cut, 596 ; the 
"modus operandi" 596; "what one 
blacksmith sa\ s, 596 ; formula for 
mending broken saws, 596. 

Lumbering, quantity and cost of sup- 
plies for horses and crews in the 
woods when engaged in lumbering, 
596 ; valuable calculations obtained 
after a long experience in, 596 ; quan- 
tity of oats and hay required for each 
span of horses per day, 596 ; quantity 
of flour, pork, beef, beans, tisli, 
onions, and potatoes required for each 
man per day, 596 ; quantity of tea 
used per month, 596 ; value of mess 
and prime pork required, calculated 
from actual consumption, 596. 

Millstone, titting a new back on an old, 
the whole operation in detail, 597 ; 
balancing a, 598 ; how it sliould be 
done, 598 ; composition to keep clean, 
598 ; holes and how to close them, 598. 

Dams (rock), 598 ; the best in use, 598 ; 
material for building, 598 ; how to 
operate, 598 ; digging a trench, 598 ; 
how to build the wall, 598 ; how to se- 
cure the water at the ends, 598 ; the 
kind of cement used and how made, 
598 ; efficacy of a rock dam when well 
built, 598 ; effect of leaving crevice or 
hole open, 51)8 ; dividing the waste- 
way, 598 ; the sections, 598 ; projec- 
tion of the rock, 598 ; how the last 
layer of rocks should be laid, 598. 

Dams, frame, 599 ; how to commence, 
599 ; the kind of timbers that will 
last, 599 ; what to tlo with the soft 
formation, 599 ; framing the sills, 599; 
bracing the posts, 599 ; angle at whicli 
braces should be set, 599 ; capping the 
posts, 599; leaning the posts, 599; 
what is necessary if the stream is 
wide and large, 599 ; sectional abut- 
ments, 599 ; how to till in the dirt af- 
ter the dam is built, 599 ; the best 
kind of dirt to use, 599 ; where to 
place the gates, 599 ; when the gates 
are to be raised, 599 ; how to strength- 
en the dam, 599 ; brush or log dams, 
■where they are often used, 599 ; how 
they are constructed, 599 ; depth to 
■which they should be sunk, 600 ; 
what to do in case of a break in the, 
600; the flume of the, 600 ; the 
strength and durability in the con- 
struction of the flume, 600 ; suitable 
places for building dams, 600 ; ruinous 
consequences ot unsafe, 600. 
Iron, to improve poor, 601 ; good horse 
nails from common, 601 ; case harden- 
ing for, 602 ; Moxon's case-hardening 
process, 602 ; the use of cow's horns 
or hoofs in case-hardening, 002 ; case- 
hardening process for malleable iron, 
602 ; another process for wrought 



iron, 602 ; to give a bright po Jsh like 
steel to, 602 ; ihe large sums that 
have been paid for this last recipe, 
602 ; to weld cast iron, 602 ; to soften 
malleable iron, 602 ; the manufacture 
of iron, 602 ; what is required to pro- 
duce one ton of pig, 602 ; to galvanize 
grey castings, 602 ; to soften cast for 
turning, 6ii3 ; ornaments of cast, 603; 
how to finish them, 603 ; scaling cast, 
603 ; formula for scaling cast, 603 ; 
cast, formula to cliill, very hard, 603 ; 
another fornuila to harden cast, 603 ; 
Kussiasheet iron, G03 ; how it is made, 
603 ; to mend vessels of cast, 6 '3 ; to 
soften, 604 ; to turn chilled, 609 ; 
drilling holes in cast, 609 ; to pre- 
vent rusting, 611 ; to coat with emery, 
611 ; squaring or facing up cast iron 
surfaces, 611. 

Castings, Japanning, 603 ; burning to- 
gether iron castings, 603 ; composi- 
tion to All holes in castings, 609. 

Screw cutting, gearing a lathe for, 605 ; 
how to find the proper gears, 605; how 
to cut a screw in an engine lathe, 605; 
how to cut square thread screws, 
605 ; mongrel threads, 60'i ; for what 
they are made, 606; the depth to 
which they should be cut, 606 ; the 
point of the thread and the bottom of 
the groove, what is meant by, 606 ; 
making dies for, 610. 

Metals, planing, 606 ; to harden, 609 ; 
lining boxes with Babbit metal, 609 ; 
how to soften metal, 610 ; for bear- 
ings to sustain gi-eat weight, 610 ; for 
hard bearings for machinery, 610 ; 
metals of various kinds, 610. 

Planing perpendicularly, 607. 

Gear cutting, i.07 ; depth of teeth, 607 ; 
proportion, 607 ; measuring to find 
the number of teeth, 607. 

Gears (bevel), how they are made, 607. 

Vulcanite emery wheels, of what they 
are made, 608 ; how they are made, 608. 

Rust, to remove, 608. 

Diamond chill, burglar and drill proof, 
608. 

Files, to re-sharpen old, 608. 

Borax, substitute for, 608. 

Dipping tools when hardening, 608. 

Draw tiling and finishing, 0(i9. 

MoukUng sand, for casting brass or iron, 
609 ; the various kinds, 609 ; what it 
contains, 609 

To file a square hole, 609. 

Hardening wood for pvilleys, 609. 

To solder ferules for tool handles, 609. 

To dip a fluted reamer properly, 610. 

Alloy, the best for journal b<'>xes, 610 ; 
of whiit it is composed, 610 ; formula 
for m.aking it, 610. 

Liquid black lead polish, 610. 

Copperas dip for cast iron, 610. 

To enamel cast iron and hollow ware (4 
different compositions), 610. 

To enamel copper vessels, 611. 

Steel axles, to weld, 611. 

India-Kubber buffer, compression of an. 
611. ' 

Metals, writing inscriptions on, 611. 

Etching fluids, for copper and for steel. 
611. 

Border wax for engravers, 611. 

Cement for engravers, 611. 



'00 



INDEX. 



Moulds and dies, 611 ; how to get a per- 
fect and beautiful im|jressioii, 611. 

Polishing i owder for specula, 611. 

To engrave on copijer, new method, 612. 

Steel, weldiug(?ast,60y-60 ; respirator for 
protection against particles of iion or 
steel, 6(»H; annealing steel, C03; to drill 
hardened steel, 603; German powder 
for welding, 604; Damascus steel, 604; 
working sieel, for tools, 604; care re- 
quired, 604; heating, 604; the reason 
for heating so hot, fi04; to soften, 604; 
composition for welding, 604; anneal- 
ing by water 604 ; Belgian welding 
powder for, 604; composition used in 
Welding cast, 604; to restore burnt and ' 
improve poor, 604 ; comijositiou to 
toughen, 605. 

Cast engravings, £12. 

Brass for machinery, good, 612; seven 
dilterent compositions of all qualities 
and varietieSj 612. 

Brass, yellow, tor casting, nine different 
compositions of all qualities and va- 
rieties, 612. 

Brass, yellow, for turning (common arti- 
cle) twenty-four dill'erent compositions 
of all qualities and varieties, 612. 

Brass, red, for gilt articles, eight differ- 
ent compositions of all qualities and 
varieties, 612. 

Bell metal, superior, nine different com- 
positions of all qualities and varieties, 
612. 

Bronze, ten different compositions of all 
qualities and varieties, 612- 

Bronzing compo^ition, thirty-two kinds 
of all qualities and varieties, 617. 

Bronzing liquid. Graham's quick, twelve 
different comjiositions of all qualities 
and varieties, 61«. 

Britannia metal, good, nineteen different 
compohiiions of all qualities and va- 
rieties, 613. 

German silver, first quality, for casting, 
tifteen different compositions of all 
qualities and varieties, 613. 

Sundry compcisitions, sixty-eight differ- 
ent kinds of all qualities and varieties, 
for various purposes, 613, 614, 615. 
malgam I'or • mirrois, fdur different 
compositions of all qualities and va- 
rieties. 615. 

Ketlector metal, six dift"erent composi- 
tions of all qualities and varieties, 615. 

Metal for gilt wares, four different de- 
scriptions of all qualities and varieties, 
615. 

Metal, type, nine different kinds, of all 
qnalitiis and varieties, 615. 

Jlctal, antifriction, seventeen different 
comjio itions of all qualities and vari- 
eties, 610; the latest improvement, 610. 

Amalgam for electrical machines, 615. 

Flour mill machinery, 600; requirements 
for each pair of four feet stones with 
all the necessary dressing machinery 
etc., 600. 

Velocity of wheels, pulleys, drums, &c., 
600. 

Locomotives, table showing the propor- 
tion of the various parts from the best 
authority, 606, 607. 

Firp cement, 5WI. 

Burns and scalds, application for, 590. 

Cotton yarn or warps, size for dressing, 



Linen, beautiful sizing for, 601. 

Saw, to braze a band-saw, Whitney's 
method, 608; the tools required, 608; 
the use of the clamp, 608. 

Hardening and tilling for fireproof safes, 
618-619. 

Ironworks, Dowlais (England), descrip- 
tion of machinery, etc., 015. 

Saws, the manufacture of, how to make 
them hard, 619; why they lose their 
elasticity, 619; how to restore the elas- 
ticity, 619; the straw color, 619; how to 
remove the tint, 619. 

Springs, the manufacture of 619 ; the 
size ;ind weight of bow springs for 
vehicles and railway use, 619; the 
principle upon which they work, 619; 
how to harden, 619; how to temper, 
619, 624; the thickness of steel, 619 ; to 
harden properly, 619. 

Keys into locks, how to fit, 619. 

Putting machines together, 619. 

Bells, cracked to repair, 620; the cause 
of discordant tones in, 620; the best 
remedv, 620; how to restore the origi- 
nal toiie, 620. 

To break up an old cannon or any mas- 
sive casting, 620. 

Fi ing, different styles of, 620. 

Driving belts, to remedy the slip of, 620. 

Electro plate, tarnish on, how to re- 
move, 620. 

Jewellei-y, tarnished, 620 ; how to 
remedy, 620. 

Solution' for dipping steel articles pre- 
Aious to electro plating, 620. 

Coating iron castings with gold or silver, 
620. 

Brunswick black for grates, etc., 620. 

Bronze paint for iron, 620. 

Tinning iron, 621. 

Tinning, 621. 

To recover the tin from old Britannia, 
621. 

Metal for tinning Kustitien's, 621. 

Rust, to prevent, 621. 

Zinc, to purify, 621- 

Transparent blue for iron or steel, 621. 

Lead shot, 621; how they are made, 621. 

Paint for sheet iron smoke p pe, 621. 

To copi>er the surface of iron, steel, or 
iron wire, 621. 

Lead pipes, 621; how it is made, 621. 

To join broken lead pipe during pres- 
sure of water, 621 ; to repair small 
leaks in, 621; to prevent corrosion in, 
621 ; to join, 622. 

Copper or brass tubes, to bend, 622. 

Lead plates, to join, 622. 

Lead, to prevent exploding, 622. 

Soldering, tabular view of the process 
of, 622; the kinds most conmionly 
used, 622; when and how they are 
used. 622; economv in using, 622. 

Solders, thirty-two kinds, 623; how they 
are made, 623; for what they are used, 
623; how to use them, 623. 

Soldering fluid, 623. 

Tempering, 626 ; how to do it properly, 
626 ; tempering liquids, seven ditfer- 
ent kinds, 623 ; how they are made, 
C23 ; for what they are used, 623 ; how 
to use them, 624 ; mill picks, 624 ; what 
to do and what not to do, 624 ; to temper 
a drill very hard, 624 ; composition 
for, 624 ; saws, 024 ; spiral springs, 
624; steel springs, 624 ; swords and 



INDEX. 



701 



cutlasses, 625 ; tools, G25 ; how to tem- 
per plane irons, drawing knives, &c., 
625; cold chisels, stone drills, &c., 625; 
to temper taps or reamers, 625; to hard- 
en and temper cast steel, 625 ; to tem- 
per small springs in large quantities, 
625; razors, saws, cutleiy, &c., 626 ; 
a practice to be deprecated, 626 ; heat- 
ing o£ the blades, 626 ; how razors are 
tempered, 626 ; how they are cooled, 
626 ; tempering pen blades, 626 ; edge 
tools, 626 ; the use of oil or resinous 
mixtures in tempering, 626 ; how gun 
lock springs are treated, 626. 

Case-hardening compound, 625. 

Turning and boring, 626; the proper 
speed for turning, 626; tlie best speed 
for boring cast iron, 627; the best 
speed for drilling, 627; boring a hole 
with a boring tool, 627; boring holes 
with boring arbor, 627; to drill a hole 
without a reamer, 627; to make a bor- 
ing arbor and tool that will not chat- 
ter, 628; to straighten shafting. 627; 
turning shafting, 627; to forge a twiet 
drill, 627; to compute the number of 
teeth required in a train of wheels to 
produce a given velocity, 628; to com- 
pute the diameter of a wheel, 628; pa- 
per friction pulleys, 628; on belting 
and friction, 628; "wheel gearing. 629; 
galvanized iron, 630; to form perfect 
squares, 630. 

Wood, to protect from the influences of 
air or water, 630 ; to remove stains 
from, 631; to stain, 631; action of water 
on lead, 632; to remove rust from 
steel, 632; to preserve metals from 
rust, 632; to remove or keep rust from 
cutlery, 633; to prevent iron or steel 
from rusting, 633 ; steel, prevention 
from rust, 633; springs, 633; shrinkage 
of castings, 633 ; effects of heat on va- 
rious bodies. 634 ; water pipes, to pre- 
vent freezing, 634 ; refining fluxes for 
metals, 634; flux for welding copper, 
634 ; Cornish reducing flux, 6.34; paste 
for cleaning metals, 634; zincing, 634; 
to cloud metal work, 634; tinning acid 
for brass or zinc, 634; tinning cast iron, 
634; bronze paint for iron or brass, 
635; to bronze iron castings, 635 ; re- 
moving zinc and iron from plumber's 
solder, 635 ; solution of copper or zinc, 
635; bronze to remove stains from, 635; 
to reduce oxide of zinc, 635; bronzing 
liquids for tin castings, 635 ; to tin cop- 
per and brass, 635 ; to separate tin 
from lead, 635 ; to clean and polish 
brass, 635; brass solution, 635 ; brassing 
iron, 635 ; to re tine copper, 635. 

The steam engine, diagram of condens- 
ing steam engine with references to 
names of the various parts. 636 ; works 
recommended for careful study in re- 
ference to. bv those desiring to be 
fully posted, 636. 

Iron lustre, how it is obtained, 636. 

Fancy colors on metals, how to produce, 
636. 

To cast brass solid, instruction how, 636. 

Mechanical movements, for inventors, 
model makers, &c., consisting of one 
hundred and forty diiferent forms of 



motion, ft^jy Klusti-ated and ex- 
plained, 637, 638, 639, J40, 641, 642,643. 

Tabular statement of alloys, their melt- 
ing heat, and fluxes, 644. 

Bottle glass, fourteen formulas for, 6i4. 

Best window glass, nine formulas for ,644. 

Glass staining, the process of applying 
colors, and burning them in, 645 ; 
eleven formulas to produce as many- 
various colors, 645. 

Soluble glass, three distinct fonuulas 
for making, 646. 

To cut glass, 646. 

Stained glass pigments, six separate and 
distinct colors, 646. 

Neat's foot oil, how to produce, 646, 647. 

Economic lubricators, five desscriptiona 
for various purposes, 647. 

Patent liibricating oil, 647. 

Watchmaker's oil, 647. 

Glue, to manufacture; 647 ; how to 
strengthen, 647. 

Cement, for joints of iron pipes or holes 
in castings, 649 ; bee^t for aquaria, two 
kinds, 649 ; strong for steam joints, 
649 ; air and water tight, for caska and 
cisterns, 649 ; for gastitters, 649 ; for 
plumbers, 649 ; tor coppersmiths, 649 ; 
for external use, 649 ; to re-^ist red 
heat, and boiling water, 649 ; to join 
sections of cast iron wheels, &c., 649 ; 
for mending stone and earthenware, 
649 ; for mending china, 619 ; Vicat's 
hydraulic, 650 ; jewellers, 650; for 
alabaster, 650 ; for ironware, 650 ; 
transparent for glass, 650 ; for pe- 
troleum lamps, 650 ; for lute, 650 ; 
Koman, 650 ; sealing. 651. 

To cement broken china, 649, 650. 

Asbestos powder as a cement, 650. 

Bust joint, quick setting, two kinds, 650. 

Jewellers Armenian cement, 650. 

Ink, lithographic, 651 ; indelible, for 
marking linen without preparation, 
651 ; black stencil, 651 ; indelible sten- 
cil, 651 ; blue ruling, 651 ; black ruling 
651 ; Prof. Bottgers, portable, 651 ; 
ticketing ink for grocers, 651 ; prem- 
ium black writing, 651 ; superior blue, 

651 ; horticultural, 651 ; formulas for 
sixteen varieties for ditterent pur- 
poses, 651, 652 ; luminous, shines in 
the dark, 652 ; yellow, 652 ; invisible, 

652 ; red ruling, 652 ; marking, 652 ; 
marking, 653 ; sympathetic, 653 ; writ- 
ing, 653. 

Sealing wax, how to make, 653. 
On melting and refinuig, 654. 
Black, having a polish for iron. 654. 
The national coins of the United States, 

how much pure metal they contain, 654. 
How the fineness of gold used for com, 

jewellery, &c., is estimated, 654. 
The standard for gold and silver coins 

of the United States, 654 
To clean light kid gloves, 654. 
Waterproof for porous cloth, 654. 
To restore rusty Italian crapes, 654. 
Potter's invisible waterproofing, 651. 
Knots and how to tie them, fifty-one 

different methods illustrated, 662, 663. 
Billiard balls, different positions of the 

cue, to accomplish certain strokes, 663. 
Measures of length, illustrat'd table, 661, 



OUR POPUI^AR SUBSCRIPTION BOOKS. 

OlfR NEW WAY ROUND THE WORLD! 

By Charles Carleton Coffin- Illustra d with over 100 Engravings and 

Maps. One large 8vo Volume of 550 Pages. 

A volume of Notes and Observations made along the route from New York to 
Egypt, India, Malacca, China, Japan, California, and across the Continent to point 
of departure ; richly interspersed with anecdotes, perscjial experiences, and valu- 
able statistical information, — the whole graphically described in Cakleton's own 
inimitable way. 

" A more delightful book of travels has not in a long time fallen into our hands. There is not a dry 
line in it. He saw only what wae worth seeing. What he says is worth saying, and he says it naturally 
and freshly j one is only sorry to get to the end."— New i'ark Christian Advocate. 

!=• IBICES. 

Ilniidsonic doth Biiidiii;;, extra ... $'j.50 

Library ■.icntker Binding "... :{.5<> 

Half .Tlorocco Bindiug «... 3.00 

JULES VER]\E'S POPUEAR BOOK. 

THE FUR COUNTRY; Or, seventy Degrees North 

Latitude. By Jui.e.s Vehne. Translated by N. D'Anvees. 1 vol. 8vo. 500 
pages. With 100 f uli page Illustrations. 

Handsome Cloth Binding, extra, Black and Cold $3.50 
liibrnry lieRlh<-r Biniling .... 3.50 

Halt' iVlorocco Binding ..... 5.00 

" In this hook a party sent out by the Hudson's Bay Company, build a fort upon what tliey believed 
to be an island, but upon discovering, after a while, that the sun has totally changed its place of rising, 
they find that they are really upon a floating ice-floe and this gradually dwindles in size, frightening the 
voyagers, and bringing into play all their energies and all their ingenuity. This book is, without ques- 
tion, the most readable wonder story in modern literature." — Hearth and Home. 

FROM DAWN TO SUNRISE. a Review, Historical 

and Philosophical, of the Religious Ideas of Mankiiid. By Mrs. J. Gregory 
Smith. 1 vol. 406 pages, extra Cloth, Black and Gold. Price $2.00. 



AIT IMFOBTAliTT WOBK AlTO SUEE TO COMUAITS A EEAD7 SALE. 



JAN 28 I9^B 



It treats of the religions of mankind from the earliest ages. The history 
Is given of the Creation, the Deluge, Confusion of Tongues, Ophiolatry or the Worship 
of the Serpent, once almost universal, Diabolism, Is the Story of Eden a Myth? 
Sabaeism or Star worship, China and its religions, Persian Mazdaism, Brahmanism, 
Buddhism, The Scandinavian Keligion, the Religions of Greece, Rome, and Mahomet. 
A most fascinating book for all those interested in tracing back the religious idea in 
mankind. 

A. -V^LXIJ^BLE BOOK. 

THE RELATIONS OF THE SEXES. By Mrs. 

E. B. DuFFEY. Author of "What Women Should Knoav," "No Sex in 
Education," &c. 

The volume is a novelty in literature, being a work on the relations of the sexes in 
all their phases, both beneficial and harmful, written from the standpoint of a 
thoughtful, earnest woman, whose single idea has been to benefit humanity. 
As the book is certain to have a large sale, the price has been placed within the 
reach of all : S^.OO. 

^^^ Single Copies of any of the above works will be sent by mail 
PoNt-pnid npon receipt of the price. Fnll Descriptive Circniars and 
Terms to Agents will be for'waracd free on application. 

THE EMPIRE STATE PUBLISHING CO., 
P.O. Box 3756. 713 Broadway, New York. 



